Operational Methods I (GEG 322)
Periodic Functions
Dr. John Ogbemhe
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Learning Objectives
▶ Understand the definition of a periodic function.
▶ Learn the relationship between period, frequency, and angular
frequency.
▶ Calculate the average value of a periodic function.
▶ Recognize the importance of Fourier series representation.
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What is a Periodic Function?
Question: Can you think of any real-world examples of repeating
patterns or signals?
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What is a Periodic Function?
Question: Can you think of any real-world examples of repeating
patterns or signals?
Definition: A function f (x) is periodic with period P if
f (x + nP) = f (x), n = ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .
This means the function repeats its values every P units along the
x-axis.
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Period, Frequency, and Angular Frequency
The period P is the length of one complete cycle.
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Period, Frequency, and Angular Frequency
The period P is the length of one complete cycle.
Frequency and Angular Frequency
1 2π
Frequency f = ⇒ Angular Frequency ω = = 2πf
P P
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Period, Frequency, and Angular Frequency
The period P is the length of one complete cycle.
Frequency and Angular Frequency
1 2π
Frequency f = ⇒ Angular Frequency ω = = 2πf
P P
Interpretation: Frequency is how many cycles occur per unit
length/time, while angular frequency measures the rate of change
in radians.
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Mathematical Expression of Periodicity
f (x + nP) = f (x), n∈Z
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Mathematical Expression of Periodicity
f (x + nP) = f (x), n∈Z
Example: Consider f (x) = sin x. Is this periodic? What is its
period?
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Mathematical Expression of Periodicity
f (x + nP) = f (x), n∈Z
Example: Consider f (x) = sin x. Is this periodic? What is its
period?
Yes! sin(x + 2π) = sin x. Thus, P = 2π.
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Average Value of a Periodic Function
Definition: The average (mean) value of a periodic function f (x)
over one period P is given by
Z P
1
ȳ = f (x) dx
P 0
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Average Value of a Periodic Function
Definition: The average (mean) value of a periodic function f (x)
over one period P is given by
Z P
1
ȳ = f (x) dx
P 0
More generally, over n periods starting at any point a,
Z a+nP
1
ȳ = f (x) dx, n ≥ 1, a∈R
nP a
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Average Value of a Periodic Function
Definition: The average (mean) value of a periodic function f (x)
over one period P is given by
Z P
1
ȳ = f (x) dx
P 0
More generally, over n periods starting at any point a,
Z a+nP
1
ȳ = f (x) dx, n ≥ 1, a∈R
nP a
Why is this important? The average gives insight into the
function’s overall behavior over time, especially in engineering
applications like signal processing.
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Adaptive Exercise 1: Calculate the Average
Calculate the average value of the function f (x) = sin x over one
period.
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Adaptive Exercise 1: Calculate the Average
Calculate the average value of the function f (x) = sin x over one
period.
Z 2π
1
ȳ = sin x dx
2π 0
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Adaptive Exercise 1: Calculate the Average
Calculate the average value of the function f (x) = sin x over one
period.
Z 2π
1
ȳ = sin x dx
2π 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z 2π
sin x dx = [− cos x]2π
0 = − cos(2π) + cos(0) = 0
0
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Adaptive Exercise 1: Calculate the Average
Calculate the average value of the function f (x) = sin x over one
period.
Z 2π
1
ȳ = sin x dx
2π 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z 2π
sin x dx = [− cos x]2π
0 = − cos(2π) + cos(0) = 0
0
Thus,
0
ȳ = =0
2π
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Adaptive Exercise 1: Calculate the Average
Calculate the average value of the function f (x) = sin x over one
period.
Z 2π
1
ȳ = sin x dx
2π 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z 2π
sin x dx = [− cos x]2π
0 = − cos(2π) + cos(0) = 0
0
Thus,
0
ȳ = =0
2π
Interpretation: The sine wave oscillates equally above and below
zero, so its average value over a full cycle is zero.
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Fourier Series Representation
Key Point:
Any periodic function f (x) with period P can be represented:
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Fourier Series Representation
Key Point:
Any periodic function f (x) with period P can be represented:
▶ Exactly by an infinite series of sine and cosine terms (Fourier
series).
▶ Approximately by a finite sum of sine and cosine terms
(harmonic analysis).
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Fourier Series Representation
Key Point:
Any periodic function f (x) with period P can be represented:
▶ Exactly by an infinite series of sine and cosine terms (Fourier
series).
▶ Approximately by a finite sum of sine and cosine terms
(harmonic analysis).
This allows us to analyze complex periodic functions using simpler
trigonometric components.
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Summary and What’s Next
▶ We defined periodic functions and the relationship between
period and frequency.
▶ Learned how to compute average values over periods.
▶ Introduced Fourier series as a powerful tool to represent
periodic functions.
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Example: Piecewise Function f (x)
Define (
x 2, 0<x <1
f (x) =
2 − x, 1 < x < 2
Sketch f (x) on the interval 0 < x < 2.
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Base Function f (x) on 0 < x < 2
f (x)
2
1.5
1
0.5 f (x) = 2 − x
f (x) = x 2 x
0.5 1 1.5 2
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Periodic Extension: f (x) period 2
Sketch f (x) assuming period 2 for −6 < x < 6:
f (x) Period = 2
2
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
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Even Function Extension, period 4
If f (x) is even and periodic with period 4:
f (−x) = f (x), f (x + 4) = f (x)
Sketch for −6 < x < 6:
f (x) Even, period = 4
2
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
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Odd Function Extension, period 4
If f (x) is odd and periodic with period 4:
f (−x) = −f (x), f (x + 4) = f (x)
Sketch for −6 < x < 6:
2 f (x) Odd, period = 4
1
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−1
−2
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Exercise 1: Even Function Proof
Given:
f (x) = 4x − 4x 2 , 0<x <1
with f (x) periodic of period 1.
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Exercise 1: Even Function Proof
Given:
f (x) = 4x − 4x 2 , 0<x <1
with f (x) periodic of period 1.
Show that f (x) is an even function.
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Exercise 1: Even Function Proof
Given:
f (x) = 4x − 4x 2 , 0<x <1
with f (x) periodic of period 1.
Show that f (x) is an even function.
Proof:
Using periodicity,
f (−x) = f (1 − x) = 4(1 − x) − 4(1 − x)2
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Exercise 1: Even Function Proof
Given:
f (x) = 4x − 4x 2 , 0<x <1
with f (x) periodic of period 1.
Show that f (x) is an even function.
Proof:
Using periodicity,
f (−x) = f (1 − x) = 4(1 − x) − 4(1 − x)2
Expanding,
4 − 4x − 4(1 − 2x + x 2 ) = 4 − 4x − 4 + 8x − 4x 2 = 4x − 4x 2 = f (x)
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Exercise 1: Even Function Proof
Given:
f (x) = 4x − 4x 2 , 0<x <1
with f (x) periodic of period 1.
Show that f (x) is an even function.
Proof:
Using periodicity,
f (−x) = f (1 − x) = 4(1 − x) − 4(1 − x)2
Expanding,
4 − 4x − 4(1 − 2x + x 2 ) = 4 − 4x − 4 + 8x − 4x 2 = 4x − 4x 2 = f (x)
Therefore,
f (−x) = f (x)
so f is even.
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Exercise 2: Odd Periodic Function Definition
Given: (
x, 0 < x < π4
f (x) =
sin x, π4 < x < π
with period π, and f is odd.
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Exercise 2: Odd Periodic Function Definition
Given: (
x, 0 < x < π4
f (x) =
sin x, π4 < x < π
with period π, and f is odd.
Sketch f (x) over −2π < x < 2π.
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Example: Average Power and RMS Current
Given:
i = A1 cos ωt + C1 sin ωt + A3 cos 3ωt + C3 sin 3ωt
and
e = B1 cos ωt + D1 sin ωt + B3 cos 3ωt + D3 sin 3ωt
Find the average power over one complete cycle and the RMS
value of the current i.
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Average of Periodic Functions: Introduction
Most periodic functions can be expressed as sums of sine and
cosine terms, such as mechanical vibrations or electromotive forces
(emf).
Understanding the average and RMS values of these terms — sine,
cosine, and their products — over their respective periods is
essential in engineering.
Why? It helps analyze signal power, vibrations, and electrical
circuits effectively.
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Rule 1: Average of Sine or Cosine over One Period
Statement:
If ω > 0 and p = 2π, then the average value of
cos(ωx + ϕ) or sin(ωx + ϕ)
over the interval (0, p) is zero.
Mathematically,
1 p p
Z Z
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = 0, sin(ωx + ϕ) dx = 0
p 0 p 0
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Rule 1: Average of Sine or Cosine over One Period
Statement:
If ω > 0 and p = 2π, then the average value of
cos(ωx + ϕ) or sin(ωx + ϕ)
over the interval (0, p) is zero.
Mathematically,
1 p p
Z Z
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = 0, sin(ωx + ϕ) dx = 0
p 0 p 0
Interpretation: Since sine and cosine oscillate symmetrically
above and below zero over one full period, their average is zero.
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Rule 2: Average of Product of Different Frequencies
If ω1 ̸= ω2 and p is a common multiple of their wavelengths, then
the average of the product of sine or cosine terms with these
frequencies over (0, p) is zero.
Specifically, for
β1 = ω1 x + ϕ1 , β2 = ω2 x + ϕ2 ,
we have:
1 p 1 p
Z Z
sin β1 sin β2 dx = 0, cos β1 cos β2 dx = 0,
p 0 p 0
1 p 1 p
Z Z
sin β1 cos β2 dx = 0, cos β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0 p 0
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Rule 2: Average of Product of Different Frequencies
If ω1 ̸= ω2 and p is a common multiple of their wavelengths, then
the average of the product of sine or cosine terms with these
frequencies over (0, p) is zero.
Specifically, for
β1 = ω1 x + ϕ1 , β2 = ω2 x + ϕ2 ,
we have:
1 p 1 p
Z Z
sin β1 sin β2 dx = 0, cos β1 cos β2 dx = 0,
p 0 p 0
1 p 1 p
Z Z
sin β1 cos β2 dx = 0, cos β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0 p 0
Where:
2πn1 2πn2
p= = , n1 ̸= n2
ω1 ω2
This condition ensures orthogonality of different frequency
components.
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Examples: Applying Rule 2
Evaluate the following averages over (0, p) where p satisfies the
condition above.
1 p
Z
a. sin β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0
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Examples: Applying Rule 2
Evaluate the following averages over (0, p) where p satisfies the
condition above.
1 p
Z
a. sin β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
b. cos β1 cos β2 dx = 0
p 0
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Examples: Applying Rule 2
Evaluate the following averages over (0, p) where p satisfies the
condition above.
1 p
Z
a. sin β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
b. cos β1 cos β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
c. sin β1 cos β2 dx = 0
p 0
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Examples: Applying Rule 2
Evaluate the following averages over (0, p) where p satisfies the
condition above.
1 p
Z
a. sin β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
b. cos β1 cos β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
c. sin β1 cos β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
d. cos β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0
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Examples: Applying Rule 2
Evaluate the following averages over (0, p) where p satisfies the
condition above.
1 p
Z
a. sin β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
b. cos β1 cos β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
c. sin β1 cos β2 dx = 0
p 0
1 p
Z
d. cos β1 sin β2 dx = 0
p 0
Each integral evaluates to zero due to the orthogonality of sine and
cosine functions with different frequencies.
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Summary: Key Takeaways
▶ The average of sine or cosine over their fundamental period is
zero.
▶ The average of products of sine and/or cosine functions of
different frequencies over a common multiple period is zero.
▶ These properties underpin Fourier analysis and signal
decomposition.
▶ Recognizing orthogonality helps simplify complex periodic
signals in engineering.
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Deriving Rule 1: Average of cos(ωx + ϕ) and sin(ωx + ϕ)
Let w > 0, p = 2π
ω .
Consider the average value over one period:
1 p
Z
¯
f = cos(ωx + ϕ) dx
p 0
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Deriving Rule 1: Average of cos(ωx + ϕ) and sin(ωx + ϕ)
Let w > 0, p = 2πω .
Consider the average value over one period:
1 p
Z
¯
f = cos(ωx + ϕ) dx
p 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z p p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = sin(ωx + ϕ)
0 ω 0
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Deriving Rule 1: Average of cos(ωx + ϕ) and sin(ωx + ϕ)
Let w > 0, p = 2πω .
Consider the average value over one period:
1 p
Z
¯
f = cos(ωx + ϕ) dx
p 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z p p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = sin(ωx + ϕ)
0 ω 0
Substitute limits:
1
= [sin(ωp + ϕ) − sin(ϕ)]
ω
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Deriving Rule 1: Average of cos(ωx + ϕ) and sin(ωx + ϕ)
Let w > 0, p = 2πω .
Consider the average value over one period:
1 p
Z
¯
f = cos(ωx + ϕ) dx
p 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z p p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = sin(ωx + ϕ)
0 ω 0
Substitute limits:
1
= [sin(ωp + ϕ) − sin(ϕ)]
ω
2π
Since p = ω ,
ωp = 2π ⇒ sin(ωp + ϕ) = sin(2π + ϕ) = sin(ϕ)
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Deriving Rule 1: Average of cos(ωx + ϕ) and sin(ωx + ϕ)
Let w > 0, p = 2πω .
Consider the average value over one period:
1 p
Z
¯
f = cos(ωx + ϕ) dx
p 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z p p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = sin(ωx + ϕ)
0 ω 0
Substitute limits:
1
= [sin(ωp + ϕ) − sin(ϕ)]
ω
2π
Since p = ω ,
ωp = 2π ⇒ sin(ωp + ϕ) = sin(2π + ϕ) = sin(ϕ)
Therefore,
Z p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = [sin(ϕ) − sin(ϕ)] = 0
0 ω
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Deriving Rule 1: Average of cos(ωx + ϕ) and sin(ωx + ϕ)
Let w > 0, p = 2πω .
Consider the average value over one period:
1 p
Z
¯
f = cos(ωx + ϕ) dx
p 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z p p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = sin(ωx + ϕ)
0 ω 0
Substitute limits:
1
= [sin(ωp + ϕ) − sin(ϕ)]
ω
2π
Since p = ω ,
ωp = 2π ⇒ sin(ωp + ϕ) = sin(2π + ϕ) = sin(ϕ)
Therefore,
Z p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = [sin(ϕ) − sin(ϕ)] = 0
0 ω
Hence,
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Deriving Rule 1: Average of cos(ωx + ϕ) and sin(ωx + ϕ)
Let w > 0, p = 2πω .
Consider the average value over one period:
1 p
Z
¯
f = cos(ωx + ϕ) dx
p 0
Evaluate the integral:
Z p p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = sin(ωx + ϕ)
0 ω 0
Substitute limits:
1
= [sin(ωp + ϕ) − sin(ϕ)]
ω
2π
Since p = ω ,
ωp = 2π ⇒ sin(ωp + ϕ) = sin(2π + ϕ) = sin(ϕ)
Therefore,
Z p
1
cos(ωx + ϕ) dx = [sin(ϕ) − sin(ϕ)] = 0
0 ω
Hence,
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Deriving Rule 2: Average of Products with Different
Frequencies
Let β1 = ω1 x + ϕ1 and β2 = ω2 x + ϕ2 with ω1 ̸= ω2 .
Consider the average of the product over a period p common to
both frequencies:
1 p
Z
ḡ = sin β1 sin β2 dx
p 0
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Deriving Rule 2: Average of Products with Different
Frequencies
Let β1 = ω1 x + ϕ1 and β2 = ω2 x + ϕ2 with ω1 ̸= ω2 .
Consider the average of the product over a period p common to
both frequencies:
1 p
Z
ḡ = sin β1 sin β2 dx
p 0
Use the product-to-sum identity:
1
sin A sin B = [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
2
So, Z p
1
ḡ = [cos(β1 − β2 ) − cos(β1 + β2 )] dx
2p 0
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Deriving Rule 2: Average of Products with Different
Frequencies
Let β1 = ω1 x + ϕ1 and β2 = ω2 x + ϕ2 with ω1 ̸= ω2 .
Consider the average of the product over a period p common to
both frequencies:
1 p
Z
ḡ = sin β1 sin β2 dx
p 0
Use the product-to-sum identity:
1
sin A sin B = [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
2
So, Z p
1
ḡ = [cos(β1 − β2 ) − cos(β1 + β2 )] dx
2p 0
Each integral is of the form:
Z p
cos(kx + α) dx
0
where k = ω1 ± ω2 ̸= 0.
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Deriving Rule 2: Average of Products with Different
Frequencies
Let β1 = ω1 x + ϕ1 and β2 = ω2 x + ϕ2 with ω1 ̸= ω2 .
Consider the average of the product over a period p common to
both frequencies:
1 p
Z
ḡ = sin β1 sin β2 dx
p 0
Use the product-to-sum identity:
1
sin A sin B = [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
2
So, Z p
1
ḡ = [cos(β1 − β2 ) − cos(β1 + β2 )] dx
2p 0
Each integral is of the form:
Z p
cos(kx + α) dx
0
where k = ω1 ± ω2 ̸= 0.
25 shown earlier, for k ̸= 0,
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Deriving Rule 2: Average of Products with Different
Frequencies
Let β1 = ω1 x + ϕ1 and β2 = ω2 x + ϕ2 with ω1 ̸= ω2 .
Consider the average of the product over a period p common to
both frequencies:
1 p
Z
ḡ = sin β1 sin β2 dx
p 0
Use the product-to-sum identity:
1
sin A sin B = [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
2
So, Z p
1
ḡ = [cos(β1 − β2 ) − cos(β1 + β2 )] dx
2p 0
Each integral is of the form:
Z p
cos(kx + α) dx
0
where k = ω1 ± ω2 ̸= 0.
25 shown earlier, for k ̸= 0,
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Deriving Rule 2: Average of Products with Different
Frequencies
Let β1 = ω1 x + ϕ1 and β2 = ω2 x + ϕ2 with ω1 ̸= ω2 .
Consider the average of the product over a period p common to
both frequencies:
1 p
Z
ḡ = sin β1 sin β2 dx
p 0
Use the product-to-sum identity:
1
sin A sin B = [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
2
So, Z p
1
ḡ = [cos(β1 − β2 ) − cos(β1 + β2 )] dx
2p 0
Each integral is of the form:
Z p
cos(kx + α) dx
0
where k = ω1 ± ω2 ̸= 0.
25 shown earlier, for k ̸= 0,
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Summary of Derivations
▶ The average of sin or cos over one full period is zero because
the integral over one period cancels out.
▶ The average of the product of two sine or cosine functions
with distinct frequencies over a common multiple period is
zero by the product-to-sum identities.
▶ These properties are fundamental in signal decomposition and
Fourier analysis.
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