RELATIONS AND

1 FUNCTIONS
“Mathematicians do not study objects, but relations between objects . . . Content to
them is irrelevant: they are interested in form only” – Henri Poincare

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (also known as von Leibniz)

was a prominent German mathematician, philosopher, physicist
and inventor. He wrote extensively on 26 topics covering wide
range of subjects among which were Geology, Medicine, Biology,
Epidemiology, Paleontology, Psychology, Engineering, Philology,
Sociology, Ethics, History, Politics, Law and Music Theory.
In a manuscript Leibniz used the word “function” to mean
any quantity varying from point to point of a curve. Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(1646 – 1716)
provided thedefoundations
Pierre Fermat of Formal Logic and Boolean Algebra,
which are fundamental for modern day computers. For all his
(1601-1665)
remarkable discoveries and contributions in various fields, Leibniz is hailed as
“The Father of Applied Sciences”.

Learning Outcomes
zz To define and determine cartesian product of sets.
zz To define a relation as a subset of cartesian product of sets.
zz To understand function as a special relation.
zz To represent a function through an arrow diagram, a set of ordered pairs, a
table, a rule or a graph.
zz To classify functions as one-one, many-one, onto, into and bijection.
zz To study combination of functions through composition operation.
zz To understand the graphs of linear, quadratic, cubic and reciprocal functions.

1.1 Introduction
The notion of sets provides the stimulus for learning higher concepts in mathematics.
A set is a collection of well-defined objects. This means that a set is merely a collection of
something which we may recognize. In this chapter, we try to extend the concept of sets
in two forms called Relations and Functions. For doing this, we need to first know about
cartesian products that can be defined between two non-empty sets.
It is quite interesting to note that most of the day-to-day situations can be represented
mathematically either through a relation or a function. For example, the distance travelled
by a vehicle in given time can be represented as a function. The price of a commodity
can be expressed as a function in terms of its demand. The area of polygons and volume
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 of common objects like circle, right circular cone, right circular cylinder, sphere can be
expressed as a function with one or more variables.
In class IX, we had studied the concept of sets. We have also seen how to form new
sets from the given sets by taking union, intersection and complementation.
Now we are about to study a new set called “cartesian product” for the given sets
A and B.
1.2 Ordered Pair
Observe the seating plan in an auditorium (Fig.1.1).
To help orderly occupation of seats, tokens with numbers
such as (1,5), (7,16), (3,4), (10,12) etc. are issued. The
person who gets (4,10) will go to row 4 and occupy the
10th seat. Thus the first number denotes the row and the
second number, the seat. Which seat will the visitor with
token (5,9) occupy? Can he go to 9th row and take the 5th
seat? Do (9,5) and (5,9) refer to the same location? No, Fig. 1.1
certainly! What can you say about the tokens (2,3), (6,3) and (10,3)?
This is one example where a pair of numbers, written in a particular order, precisely
indicates a location. Such a number pair is called an ordered pair of numbers. This notion
is skillfully used to mathematize the concept of a “Relation”.
1.3 Cartesian Product
Illustration 1
Let us consider the following two sets.
A is the set of 3 vegetables and B is the set of 4 fruits. That is,
A = {carrot, brinjal, ladies finger} and B = {apple, orange, grapes, strawberry}
What are the possible ways of choosing a vegetable with a fruit? (Fig.1.2)
Vegetables Fruits
Vegetables (A) Fruits (B)
c a
Carrot (c) Apple (a)
Brinjal (b) Orange (o) o
b
Ladies finger (l) Grapes (g) g
Strawberry (s) l s
Fig. 1.2
We can select them in 12 distinct pairs as given below.
(c, a), (c, o), (c, g), (c, s), (b, a), (b, o), (b, g), (b, s), (l, a), (l, o), (l,g), (l, s)
This collection represents the cartesian product of the set of vegetables and set of
fruits.

Definition
If A and B are two non-empty sets, then the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that
a Î A, b Î B is called the Cartesian Product of A and B, and is denoted by A ´ B .
Thus, A ´ B = {(a, b) |a ∈ A, b ∈ B} (read as A cross B).

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 Note
¾¾ A × B is the set of all possible ordered pairs between the elements of A and B such that
the first coordinate is an element of A and the second coordinate is an element of B.
¾¾ B × A is the set of all possible ordered pairs between the elements of A and B such that
the first coordinate is an element of B and the second coordinate is an element of A.
¾¾ In general (a, b) ≠ (b, a), in particular, if a = b, then (a, b) = (b, a).
¾¾ The “cartesian product” is also referred as “cross product”.
Illustration 2
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Write A ´ B and B ´ A ?
A ´ B = {1,2,3}×{a,b} = {(1, a ),(1, b),(2, a ),(2, b),(3, a ),(3, b)} (as shown in Fig.1.3)
B ´ A = {a,b} × {1,2,3} = {(a,1), (a,2), (a,3),(b,1), (b,2), (b,3)} (as shown in Fig.1.3)

A×B B×A Thinking Corner

3 (a,3) (b,3) When will A ´ B be equal to B ´ A ?
(1,b) (2,b) (3,b)
b 2 (a,2) (b,2) Note
B A
a 1 (a,1)
(1,a) (2,a) (3,a) (b,1) ¾¾ In general A × B ≠ B × A , but
n(A × B ) = n(B × A)
0 1 2 3 0 a b ¾¾ A×B= f if and only if A = f or B = f
A B
¾¾ If n(A) = p and n(B ) = q then
Fig. 1.3
n(A × B ) = pq
Recall of standard infinite sets
Natural Numbers  = {1, 2, 3, 4 …} ; Whole Numbers W = {0,1,2,3, ...};
 p 
Integers  ={..., –2,–1,0,1,2, ...} ; Rational Numbers  =  | p, q ∈ , q ≠ 0 ;
 q 
Real Numbers  =  ∪  ′ , where  ¢ is the set of all irrational numbers.
Y
Illustration 3 4

For example, let A be the set of numbers in the interval B 3

2
[3, 5] and B be the set of numbers in the interval [2,3]. Then the
1
Cartesian product A ´ B corresponds to the rectangular region
O
shown in the Fig. 1.4. It consists of all points (x, y) within the region. X′ 1 2 3 4
A
5 6 X
Y¢
Fig. 1.4
Progress Check

1. For any two non-empty sets A and B, A ´ B is called as _____.

2. If n(A × B ) = 20 and n(A) = 5 then n(B ) is _____.
3. If A = {−1,1} and B = {−1, 1} then geometrically describe the set of points of
A´B .
4. If A, B are the line segments given by the intervals (–4, 3) and (–2, 3) respectively,
represent the cartesian product of A and B.

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 Note
The set of all points in the cartesian plane can be viewed as the set of all ordered pairs
(x, y) where x, y are real numbers. In fact, ℝ×ℝ is the set of all points which we call as the
cartesian plane.

Activity 1
Let A = {x | x ∈ , x ≤ 4} , B = {y | y ∈ , y < 3}
Represent A ´ B and B ´ A in a graph sheet. Can you see the difference between
A ´ B and B ´ A ?
Example 1.1 If A = {1,3,5} and B = {2,3} then (i) find A ´ B and B ´ A.
(ii) Is A × B = B × A ? If not why? (iii) Show that n(A×B) = n(B×A) = n(A)× n(B)
Solution Given that A = {1,3,5} and B = {2,3}
(i) A×B = {1,3,5} × {2,3} = {(1,2), (1,3), (3,2), (3,3), (5,2), (5,3)} ...(1)
B ´ A = {2,3} × {1,3,5} = {(2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5)} ...(2)
(ii) From (1) and (2) we conclude that A × B ≠ B × A as (1, 2) ¹ (2, 1) and (1, 3) ¹)(3, 1) , etc.
(iii) n(A)=3; n (B) = 2.
From (1) and (2) we observe that, n (A×B) = n (B×A) = 6;
we see that, n (A) ×n (B) = 3 × 2 = 6 and n (B) × n (A) = 2×3 = 6
Hence, n (A×B) =n (B×A) = n(A) × n (B) = 6.
Thus, n (A×B) =n (B×A) = n(A) × n (B).

Example 1.2 If A×B = {(3,2), (3,4), (5,2), (5,4)} then find A and B.
Solution A×B ={(3,2), (3,4), (5,2), (5,4)}
We have A = {set of all first coordinates of elements of A ´ B }. ∴ A = {3,5}
B = {set of all second coordinates of elements of A ´ B }. ∴ B = {2,4}
Thus A = {3,5} and B = {2,4}.
Example 1.3 Let A = {x ∈  | 1 < x < 4} , B = {x ∈ W | 0 ≤ x < 2} and C = {x ∈  | x < 3} .
Then verify that
(i) A # (B , C) = (A # B) , (A # C) (ii) A # (B + C) = (A # B) + (A # C)

Solution A = {x ∈  | 1 < x < 4} = {2, 3} , B = {x ∈ W | 0 ≤ x < 2} = {0, 1} ,

C = {x ∈  | x < 3} ={1,2}
(i) A × (B ∪ C ) = (A # B) , (A # C)
B ÈC = {0, 1} ∪ {1, 2} = {0, 1, 2}
A × (B ∪ C ) =={2, 3} # {0, 1, 2} = {(2, 0), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 1), (3, 2)} ...(1)
A ´ B = {2, 3} # {0, 1} = {(2,0),(2,1),(3,0),(3,1)}
A ´C = {2, 3} # {1, 2} = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 2)}
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 (A × B ) ∪ (A ×C ) = {(2, 0),(2, 1),(3, 0),(3, 1)} , {(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 1),(3, 2)}
= {(2, 0),(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 0),(3, 1),(3, 2)} ...(2)
From (1) and (2), A × (B ∪ C ) = (A × B ) ∪ (A ×C ) is verified.
(ii) A × (B ∩ C ) = (A × B ) ∩ (A ×C )
B ÇC = {0, 1} ∩ {1, 2} = {1}
A × (B ∩ C ) = =
{2{, 23,}3×
}×{1}{1=
}={({(
2, 12),(
, 1),( , 1)}
3, 13)} ... (3)
A ´ B = {2, 3} × {0, 1} = {(2, 0),(2, 1),(3, 0),(3, 1)}
A ´C = {2, 3} × {1, 2} = {(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 1),(3, 2)}

(A × B ) ∩ (A ×C ) = {(2, 0),(2, 1),(3, 0),(3, 1)} ∩ {(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 1),(3, 2)}
= {(2, 1),(3, 1)} ... (4)
From (3) and (4), A × (B ∩ C ) = (A × B ) ∩ (A ×C ) is verified.

Note
The above two verified properties are called distributive property of cartesian product
over union and intersection respectively. In fact, for any three sets A, B, C we have
(i) A × (B ∪ C ) = (A × B ) ∪ (A ×C ) (ii) A × (B ∩ C ) = (A× B) ∩ (A×C ) .
1.3.1 Cartesian Product of three Sets
If A, B, C are three non-empty sets then the cartesian product of three sets is the set
of all possible ordered triplets given by
A × B ×C = {(a, b, c) for all a Î A, b Î B, c Î C }
Illustration for Geometrical understanding of cartesian product of two and three sets
Y
Let A = {0, 1}, B = {0, 1}, C = {0, 1}
(0,1) (1,1)
� B = {0, 1} ´ {0, 1} = {(0, 0),(0, 1),(1, 0),(1, 1)}
A´

Representing A´
� B in the XY - plane we get a picture shown in Fig. 1.5.
(0,0) (1,0)
(A ´ B ) ´C = {(0, 0),(0, 1),(1, 0),(1, 1)} ×{0,1} X
Fig. 1.5
= {(0, 0, 0),(0, 0, 1),(0, 1, 0),(0, 1, 1),(1, 0, 0),(1, 0, 1)(1, 1, 0),(1, 1, 1)}

Representing A ´ B ´C in the XYZ - space we get a picture as shown in Fig. 1.6.

Z
Thus, A ´ B represent vertices of a square in two dimensions (0,0,1) (1,0,1)
and A ´ B ´C represent vertices of a cube in three dimensions.
(0,1,1) (1,1,1)
Note X

In general, cartesian product of two non-empty sets provides (0,0,0) (1,0,0)

a shape in two dimensions and cartesian product of three (0,1,0)
(1,1,0)
non-empty sets provide an object in three dimensions. Y
Fig. 1.6
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 Exercise 1.1

1. Find A ´ B , A ´ A and B ´ A

(i) A= {2, −2, 3} and B = {1, −4} (ii) A = B ={p , q } (iii) A ={m , n} ; B =f
2. Let A = {1,2,3} and B = { x | x is a prime number less than 10}. Find A ´ B and B ´ A .

3. If B ×A = {(−2, 3),(−2, 4),(0, 3),(0, 4),(3, 3),(3, 4)} find A and B.

4. If A = {5, 6} , B = {4, 5, 6} , C = {5, 6, 7} , Show that A ×A = (B ×B ) ∩ (C ×C ) .

5. Given A={1,2,3}, B = {2,3,5}, C = {3,4} and D = {1,3,5}, check if

(A ∩ C ) × (B ∩ D ) = (A ×B ) ∩ (C × D ) is true?

6. Let A = {x ∈ W | x < 2} , B = {x ∈  | 1 < x ≤ 4} and C = {3, 5} . Verify that

(i) A × (B ∪ C ) = (A × B ) ∪ (A ×C ) (ii) A × (B ∩ C ) = (A × B ) ∩ (A ×C )
(iii) (A ∪ B ) ×C = (A ×C ) ∪ (B ×C )

7. Let A = The set of all natural numbers less than 8, B = The set of all prime numbers
less than 8, C = The set of even prime number. Verify that
(i) (A ∩ B ) ×C = (A ×C ) ∩ (B ×C ) (ii) A × (B − C ) = (A × B ) − (A ×C )

1.4 Relations

Many day-to-day occurrences involve two objects that are connected with each other
by some rule of correspondence. We say that the two objects are related under the specified
rule. How shall we represent it? Here are some examples,

Relationship Expressing using the Representation as

symbol R ordered pair
New Delhi is the capital of India New Delhi R India (New Delhi, India)
Line AB is perpendicular to line XY line AB R line XY (line AB, line XY)
–1 is greater than –5 –1 R –5 (–1, –5)
ℓ is a line of symmetry for DPQR ℓR DPQR (ℓ, DPQR )

How are New Delhi and India related? We may expect the response, “New Delhi
is the capital of India”. But there are several ways in which ‘New Delhi’ and ‘India’ are
related. Here are some possible answers.
� New Delhi is the capital of India.
� New Delhi is in the northern part of India.
� New Delhi is one of the largest cities of India etc.,
So, when we wish to specify a particular relation, providing only one ordered pair
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 (New Delhi, India) it may not be practically helpful. If we ask the relation in the following
set of ordered pairs,
{(New Delhi, India), (Washington, USA), (Beijing, China), (London, U.K.), (Kathmandu, Nepal)}
then specifying the relation is easy.

Progress Check

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}.

1. Which of the following are 2. Which of the following are
relations from A to B? relations from B to A?
(i) { (1, b), (1, c), (3, a), (4, b) } (i) { (c, a), (c, b), (c, 1) }
(ii) { (1, a), (b, 4), ( c, 3) } (ii) { (c, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3), (c, 4) }
(iii) { (1, a), (a, 1), (2, b), (b, 2) } (iii) { (a, 4), (b, 3), (c, 2) }

Illustration 4
Students in a classS1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Heights (in feet) 4.5 5.2 5 4.5 5 5.1 5.2 5 4.7 4.9 Students
Heights S1
Let us define a relation between heights of corresponding 4.5 S2
S3
students. (Fig.1.7) 4.7
S4
4.9 S5
R = {(heights, students)} S6
5
R = {(4.5, S1 ), (4.5, S 4 ), (4.7, S 9 ), (4.9, S10 ), (5, S 3 ), (5, S 5 ), (5, S 8 ), 5.1
S7
S8
(5.1, S 6 ), (5.2, S 2 ), (5.2, S 7 )} 5.2 S9
Fig. 1.7 S10

Definition
Let A and B be any two non-empty sets. A ‘relation’ R from A to B is a subset of
A ´ B satisfying some specified conditions. If x Î A is related to y Î B through R , then
we write it as x Ry. x Ry if and only if (x , y ) Î R .
The domain of the relation R = {x Î A | x R y, for some y Î B}
The co-domain of the relation R is B
The range of the relation R = {y Î B | x Ry, for some x Î A}
From these definitions, we note that domain of R Í A , co-domain
of R = B and range of R Í B .
Illustration 5 A R B
Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {Mathi, Arul, John} 1
2 Mathi
A relation R between the above sets A and B can be
represented by an arrow diagram (Fig. 1.8). 3 Arul
Then, domain of R = {1,2,3,4} 4 John
range of R= {Mathi, Arul, John} = co-domain of R . 5
Fig. 1.8
Note that domain of R is a proper subset of A.
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 Activity 2
Let A and B be the set of lines in xy-plane such that A consists of lines parallel to
X-axis. For x Î A , y Î B , let R be a relation from A to B defined by x Ry if x is
perpendicular to y. Find the elements of B using a graph sheet.

Illustration 6
Let A = {1,3,5,7} and B = {4,8}. If R is a relation defined by “is less than” from
A to B, then 1R4 ( 1 is less than 4). Similarly, it is observed that 1R8, 3R4, 3R8,
5R8, 7R8
Equivalently R= {(1,4), (1,8), (3,4), (3,8), (5,8), (7,8)}
Note
In the above illustration A×B = {(1,4), (1,8), (3,4), (3,8), (5,4), (5,8), (7,4),(7,8)}
R = {(1,4), (1,8), (3,4), (3,8), (5,8), (7,8)} We see that R is a subset of A ´ B .
Arrow
Illustration 7 diagram
A
B
In a particular area of a town, let us consider ten families
C
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I and J with two children. Among 0 D
these, families B, F, I have two girls; D, G, J have one boy and
1 E
one girl; the remaining have two boys. Let us define a relation F
2
R by xRy, where x denote the number of boys and y denote G
the family with x number of boys. Represent this situation as Number H
of boys
a relation through ordered pairs and arrow diagram. I
Since the domain of the relation R is concerned about J
Fig. 1.9
the number of boys, and we are considering families with two Families
children, the domain of R will consist of three elements given by {0,1,2}, where 0, 1, 2
represent the number of boys say no, one, two boys respectively. We note that families
with two girls are the ones with no boys. Hence the relation R is given by
R = {(0, B ),(0, F ),(0, I ),(1, D ),(1,G ),(1, J ),(2, A),(2,C ),(2, E ),(2, H )}
This relation is shown in an arrow diagram (Fig.1.9).

Example 1.4 Let A = {3,4,7,8} and B = {1,7,10}. Which of the following sets are relations
from A to B?
(i) R 1 ={(3,7), (4,7), (7,10), (8,1)} (ii) R2= {(3,1), (4,12)}
(iii) R3= {(3,7), (4,10), (7,7), (7,8), (8,11), (8,7), (8,10)}

Solution A ´ B = {(3,1), (3,7), (3,10), (4,1), (4,7), (4,10), (7,1), (7,7), (7,10), (8,1), (8,7), (8,10)}

(i) We note that, R1 ⊆ A × B . Thus, R1 is a relation from A to B.

(ii) Here, (4, 12) Î R 2 , but (4, 12) ∉ A × B . So, R2 is not a relation from A to B.
(iii) Here, (7, 8) Î R 3 , but (7, 8) ∉ A × B . So, R3 is not a relation from A to B.

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 Note
¾¾ A relation may be represented algebraically either by the roster method or by the set
builder method.
¾¾ An arrow diagram is a visual representation of a relation.

Example 1.5 The arrow diagram shows (Fig.1.10) a relationship between the sets P and
Q. Write the relation in (i) Set builder form (ii) Roster form (iii) What is the domain and
range of R.
Solution P Q
(i) Set builder form of R = {(x , y ) | y = x − 2, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q} 5 > 3
6 >
(ii) Roster form R = {(5, 3),(6, 4),(7, 5)} 4
7 >
(iii) Domain of R = {5,6,7} and range of R = {3, 4, 5} 8 5
Fig. 1.10
‘Null relation’
Let us consider the following example. Suppose A
= {–3,–2,–1} and B = {1,2,3,4}. A relation from A to B
is defined as a − b = 8 i.e., there is no pair(a,b) such If n(A) = p , n(B ) = q ,
that a − b = 8 . Thus R contain no element and so then the total number of
R =f. relations that exist from A
A relation which contains no element is called a to B is 2pq .
“Null relation”.

Exercise 1.2

1. Let A = {1,2,3,7} and B = {3,0,–1,7}, which of the following are relation from A to B ?
(i) R1 = {(2,1), (7,1)} (ii) R2= {(–1,1)}
(iii) R3 = {(2,–1), (7,7), (1,3)} (iv) R4= {(7,–1), (0,3), (3,3), (0,7)}
2. Let A={1,2,3,4,...,45} and R be the relation defined as “is square of a number” on A.
Write R as a subset of A ´ A . Also, find the domain and range of R.
3. A Relation R is given by the set {(x , y ) / y = x + 3, x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}} . Determine its
domain and range.
4. Represent each of the given relations by (a) an arrow diagram, (b) a graph and (c) a set
in roster form, wherever possible.
(i) {(x,y)|x = 2y, x ∈{2,3,4,5}, y ∈{1,2,3,4}
(ii) {(x,y)|y = x+3, x, y are natural numbers < 10}
5. A company has four categories of employees given by Assistants (A), Clerks (C),
Managers (M) and an Executive Officer (E). The company provide ₹10,000,
₹25,000, ₹50,000 and ₹1,00,000 as salaries to the people who work in the categories

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 A, C, M and E respectively. If A 1, A 2, A 3, A 4 and A 5 were Assistants; C 1, C 2, C 3,
C 4 were Clerks; M 1, M 2, M 3 were managers and E 1, E 2 were Executive officers
and if the relation R is defined by x Ry, where x is the salary given to person y,
express the relation R through an ordered pair and an arrow diagram.
1.5 Functions
Among several relations that exist between two non-empty sets, some special
relations are important for further exploration. Such relations are called “Functions”.
Employees Salary
Illustration 8
E1 `20000
A company has 5 employees in different categories. If E2 `30000
we consider their salary distribution for a month as shown by E3 `45000
arrow diagram in Fig.1.11, we see that there is only one salary
E4 `50000
associated for every employee of the company.
E5 `100000
Fig. 1.11
Here are various real life situations illustrating some special relations:
1. Consider the set A of all of your classmates; corresponding to each student, there
is only one age.
2. You go to a shop to buy a book. If you take out a book, there is only one price
corresponding to it; it does not have two prices corresponding to it. (of course,
many books may have the same price).
3. You are aware of Boyle’s law. Corresponding to a given value of pressure P, there
is only one value of volume V.
4. In Economics, the quantity demanded can be expressed as Q = 360 − 4P , where P
is the price of the commodity. We see that for each value of P, there is only one
value of Q. Thus the quantity demanded Q depend on the price P of the commodity.
We often come across certain relations, in which, for each element of a set A, there is
only one corresponding element of a set B. Such relations are called functions. We
usually use the symbol f to denote a functional relation.
Cartesian
product

Definition Relation

A relation f between two non-empty sets X and Y is called a Function

function from X to Y if, for each x Î X there exists only one y Î Y
such that (x , y ) Î f .
That is, f ={(x,y)| for all x ∈ X, y ∈Y }.
Fig. 1.12(a)
A function f from X to Y is written as f : X ® Y .
Inputs
Comparing the definitions of relation and function, we see that
every function is a relation. Thus, functions are subsets of relations Functio
n Outputs
Machin
and relations are subsets of cartesian product. (Fig.1.12(a)) e

Fig. 1.12(b)
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 A function f can be thought as a mechanism
A function is also called as
(or device) (Fig.1.12(b)), which gives a unique
a mapping or transformation.
output f(x) to every input x.

Note
If f : X ® Y is a function then
¾¾ The set X is called the domain of the function f and the set Y is called its
co-domain.
¾¾ If f (a) = b, then b is called ‘image’ of a under f and a is called a ‘pre-image’ of b.
¾¾ The set of all images of the elements of X under f is called the ‘range’ of f.
¾¾ f : X ® Y is a function only if
(i) every element in the domain of f has an image.
(ii) the image is unique.
¾¾ If A and B are finite sets such that n(A) = p , n(B ) = q then the total number of
functions that exist from A to B is q p .
¾¾ In this chapter we always consider f to be a real valued function.
¾¾ Describing domain of a function
1
(i) Let f (x ) = . If x = –1 then f (–1) is not defined. Hence f is defined for
x +1
all real numbers except at x = −1. So, domain of f is  - {-1} .
1
(ii) Let f (x ) = 2
; If x = 2, 3 then f (2) and f (3) are not defined. Hence f is
x − 5x + 6

defined for all real numbers except at x = 2 and 3. So, domain of f =  − {2, 3}.

Progress Check

1. Relations are subsets of ____. Functions are subsets of ____.

2. True or False: All the elements of a relation should have images.
3. True or False: All the elements of a function should have images.
4. True or False: If R : A ® B is a relation then the domain of R = A .
5. If f :  ®  is defined as f (x ) = x 2 the image of 1 and 2 are ____ and ____.
6. What is the difference between relation and function?
7. Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets. Then which one among the following
two collection is large?
(i) The number of relations between A and B.
(ii) The number of functions between A and B.
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 Illustration 9 - Testing for functions
Representation by Arrow diagram

a p 1 m a x

b q 2 p y

c r 3 n b z
This represents a function. This represents a This is not a function.
Each input corresponds function. One of the input b is
to a single output. Each input corresponds associated with two outputs.
to a single output.
Fig. 1.13(a) Fig. 1.13(b) Fig. 1.13(c)

Functions play very important role in the understanding Note

of higher ideas in mathematics. They are basic tools to convert The range of a function is
from one form to another form. In this sense, functions are a subset of its co-domain.
widely applied in Engineering Sciences.
Example 1.6 Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and R = {(1,2),(2,4),(3,6),(4,8)}.
Show that R is a function and find its domain, co-domain and range? X R Y
1 2
Solution Pictorial representation of R is given in Fig.1.14. From the 4
2
diagram, we see that for each x Î X , there exists only one y Î Y . Thus 6
3 8
all elements in X have only one image in Y. Therefore R is a function.
4 10
Fig. 1.14
Domain X = {1,2,3,4}; Co-domain Y = {2,4,6,8,10}; Range of f = {2,4,6,8}.

Example 1.7 A relation f :X →Y is defined by f (x ) = x 2 − 2 where, X = {−2, −1, 0, 3} and Y = R.

(i) List the elements of f (ii) Is f a function?
Solution f (x ) = x 2 – 2 where X = {−2, −1, 0, 3}
(i) f (-2) = (−2)2 – 2 = 2 ; f (-1) = (−1)2 – 2 = −1
f (0) = (0)2 – 2 = −2 ; f (3) =(3)2 – 2 =7

∴f = {(−2, 2),(−1, −1),(0, −2),(3, 7)}

(ii) We note that each element in the domain of f has a unique image.
Therefore, f is a function.

Thinking Corner
Is the relation representing the association between planets and their respective moons
a function?

Example 1.8 If X = {–5,1,3,4} and Y = {a,b,c}, then which of the following relations are
functions from X to Y ?

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 (i) R1 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b)} (ii) R2 = {(–5,b), (1,b), (3,a),(4,c)}

(iii) R3 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b),(4,c),(1,b)} X R1 Y

–5
Solution a
1 b
(i) R1 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b)} 3 c
We may represent the relation R1 in an arrow diagram 4
(Fig.1.15(a)). Fig. 1.15(a)
R1 is not a function as 4 Î X does not have an image in Y. X R2 Y
(ii) R2 = {(–5,b), (1,b), (3,a),(4,c)} –5
a
1 b
Arrow diagram of R2 is shown in Fig.1.15(b).
3 c
R2 is a function as each element of X has an unique image in Y. 4
Fig. 1.15(b)
(iii) R3 = {(–5,a), (1,a), (3,b),(4,c),(1,b)} X R3 Y
–5
Representing R3 in an arrow diagram (Fig.1.15(c)). a
1 b
R3 is not a function as 1 Î X has two images a Î Y and b Î Y . 3 c
4
Note that the image of an element should always be unique.
Fig. 1.15(c)
Example 1.9 Given f (x ) = 2x – x , 2

find (i)f (1) (ii) f (x+1) (iii) f (x) + f (1)

Solution (i) x = 1, we get

f (1) = 2(1) – (1)2 = 2 – 1 =1

(ii) x = x+1, we get

f (x+1) = 2(x + 1) – (x + 1)2 =2x + 2 – (x 2 + 2x + 1) = −x 2 + 1

(iii) f (x) + f (1) = (2x – x 2 ) +1=−x 2 + 2x + 1

[Note that f (x ) + f (1) ≠ f (x + 1) . In general f (a + b) is not equal tof(a)+f(b)]

Exercise 1.3

1. Let f = {(x , y ) | x , y ∈ N and y = 2x } be a relation on ℕ. Find the domain, co-domain

and range. Is this relation a function?

2. Let X = {3, 4, 6, 8}. Determine whether the relation R = {(x , f (x )) | x ∈ X , f (x ) = x 2 + 1}

is a function from X to N?

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 3. Given the function f : x → x 2 − 5x + 6 , evaluate
(i) f (-1) (ii) f (2a )
(iii) f (2) (iv) f (x − 1)

4. A graph representing the function f (x) is given in Fig.1.16 10

9
it is clear that f (9) = 2. 8

y=
7

f(x
6
(i) Find the following values of the function

)
5
4
(a) f (0) (b) f (7) (c) f (2) (d) f (10) 3
2
1
(ii) For what value of x is f (x) = 1? o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(iii) Describe the following (i) Domain (ii) Range. Fig. 1.16
(iv) What is the image of 6 under f ?

f (x + 2) − f (2)
5. Let f (x) = 2x+5. If x ¹ 0 then find .
x
6. A function f is defined by f (x ) = 2x – 3
f (0) + f (1)
(i) find .
2
x 24–2x x
(ii) find x such that f (x) = 0.
(iii) find x such that f (x ) = x . x

(iv) find x such that f (x ) = f (1 − x ) . 24–2x

Fig. 1.17
7. An open box is to be made from a square piece of material, 24 cm on a side, by
cutting equal squares from the corners and turning up the sides as shown (Fig.1.17).
Express the volume V of the box as a function of x.

8. A function f is defined by f (x ) = 3 − 2x . Find x such that f (x 2 ) = ( f (x ))2 .

9. A plane is flying at a speed of 500 km per hour. Express the distance ‘d ’ travelled by
the plane as function of time t in hours.

10. The data in the adjacent table depicts the length Length ‘x’ of Height ‘y’
of a person forehand and their corresponding forehand (in cm) (in inches)
height. Based on this data, a student finds a 35 56
relationship between the height (y) and the 45 65
forehand length(x) as y = ax + b , where a, b 50 69.5
55 74
are constants.
(i) Check if this relation is a function.
(ii) Find a and b.
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 (iii) Find the height of a person whose forehand length is 40 cm.
(iv) Find the length of forehand of a person if the height is 53.3 inches.

1.6 Representation of Functions

A function may be represented by
(a) a set of ordered pairs (b) a table form
(c) an arrow diagram (d) a graphical form
Let f : A ® B be a function

(a) Set of ordered pairs

The set f = {(x , y ) | y = f (x ), x ∈ A} of all ordered pairs represent a function.
(b) Table form
The values of x and the values of their respective images under f can be given
in the form of a table.
(c) Arrow diagram
An arrow diagram indicates the elements of the domain of f and their respective
images by means of arrows.
(d) Graph
The ordered pairs in the collection f = {(x , y ) | y = f (x ), x ∈ A} are plotted as
points in the XY- plane. The graph of f is the totality of all such points.
Every function can be represented by a curve in a graph. But not every curve drawn
in a graph will represent a function.

The following test will help us in determining whether a given curve is a function or not.

1.6.1 Vertical line test

A curve drawn in a graph represents a function, if every vertical line intersects the
curve in at most one point.

Example 1.10 Using vertical line test, determine which of the following curves (Fig.1.18(a),
1.18(b), 1.18(c), 1.18(d)) represent a function?

Y Y Y
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
P
1 P 1 1

0 0 0
X′ -3 -2 -1 1 2 3X X′ -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 X X′-4 -3 -2 -1 1X
-1 Q -1 -1
-2 -2 Q -2
P
-3 -3 -3
-4 -4 -4
Y¢ Y¢ Y¢
Fig. 1.18(a) Fig. 1.18(b) Fig. 1.18(c)
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 Solution The curves in Fig.1.18 (a) and Y
4
Fig.1.18 (c) do not represent a function as the 3
vertical lines meet the curves in two points 2

P and Q. 1

0
The curves in Fig.1.18 (b) and Fig.1.18 (d) X′ -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1
-1
2 3 4P 5 6 X

represent a function as the vertical lines meet the -2

curve in at most one point. -3

-4
Y¢
Note Fig. 1.18(d)
Any equation represented in a graph is usually called a curve.

Example 1.11 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 5, 8, 11, 14} be two sets. Let f : A ® B be a
function given by f (x ) = 3x − 1 . Represent this function
(i) by arrow diagram (ii) in a table form
(iii) as a set of ordered pairs (iv) in a graphical form
Solution
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} ; B = {2, 5, 8, 11, 14} ; f (x ) = 3x − 1

f (1) = 3(1) – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2 ; f (2) = 3(2) – 1 = 6 – 1 = 5

f (3) = 3(3) – 1 = 9 – 1 = 8 ; f (4) = 4(3) – 1 = 12 – 1 = 11 A f B

1 2
(i) Arrow diagram 5
2
Let us represent the function f : A ® B by an arrow 8
3 11
diagram (Fig.1.19). 14
4
(ii) Table form Fig. 1.19

The given function f can be represented in a tabular form as given below

x 1 2 3 4
Y
f(x) 2 5 8 11 11 (4, 11)
10
(iii) Set of ordered pairs 9
8 (3, 8)
The function f can be represented as a set of ordered 7
pairs as 6
5 (2, 5)
f = {(1,2),(2,5),(3,8),(4,11)} 4
3
(iv) Graphical form (1, 2)
2

In the adjacent XY -plane the points 1

(1,2), (2,5), (3,8), (4,11) are plotted (Fig.1.20). 0 1

X′ -1 2 3 4 5 X
Y′
Fig. 1.20
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 1.7 Types of Functions
In this section, we will discuss the following types of functions with suitable examples.

(i) one – one (ii) many – one (iii) onto (iv) into

1.7.1 One – one function

Calls Friends
Let us assume that we have a cell phone with proper working A
#1 B
condition. If you make a usual call to your friend then you can make
#2 C
only one call at a time (Fig.1.21). D
#3
E
If we treat making calls as a function, then it will be one - one. Fig. 1.21

A function f : A ® B is called one – one function if distinct elements of A have distinct

images in B.

A one-one function is also called an injection.

Equivalently,

If for all a1, a2 Î A , f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) implies a1 = a2 , then f is called one – one function.

Illustration 10 A f B
A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {a,b,c,d,e} a
1
b
(i) Let f = {(1,a), (2,b), (3,d), (4,c)} 2 c
3 d
In Fig. 1.22, for different elements in A, there are different
e
images in B. 4
Fig. 1.22
Hence f is a one – one function.
g B
A
(ii) Let g = {(1,b), (2,b), (3,c), (4,e)} a
1
b
g is a function from A to B such that g(1) = g(2) = b , 2 c
but 1 ¹ 2. Thus two distinct elements 1 and 2 in the first set 3 d
A have same image b the second set in B (Fig.1.23). Hence, e
4
g is not a one–one function. Fig. 1.23
Persons Films
1.7.2 Many – one function
P1
In a theatre complex three films F1, F2, F3 are shown. Seven P2
persons (P1 to P7) arrive at the theatre and buy tickets as shown F1
P3
(Fig.1.24). P4 F2

If the selection of films is considered as a relation, then this P5 F3

is a function which is many–one, since more than one person may P6
choose to watch the same film. P7
Fig. 1.24

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 A function f : A ® B is called many-one function if two or more elements of A have
same image in B.

In other words, a function f : A ® B is called many-one if f it is not one–one.

Illustration 11

Let A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {a,b,c}, f = {(1,a), (2,a), (3,b), (4,c)}

Then f is a function from A to B in which different elements 1 and 2 of A have the

same image a in B. Hence f is a many – one function.

1.7.3 Onto function Calls Persons

C1
In a mobile phone assume that there are 3 persons in the contact. If P1
C2
every person in the contact receives a call, then the function representing
C3 P2
making calls will be onto. (Fig.1.25)
C4 P3
A function f : A ® B is said to be onto function if the range of f is C5
equal to the co-domain of f. Fig. 1.25

In other words, every element in the co-domain B has a pre-image in the domain A.

An onto function is also called a surjection.

Note
If f : A ® B is an onto function then, the range of f = B .

Illustration 12
A f B
Let A = {x , y, z }, B = {l, m, n} ; x l
Range of f = {l, m, n} = B (Fig.1.26) y m
z n
Hence f is an onto function.
Fig. 1.26
1.7.4 Into function
Customers Products
In a home appliance showroom, the products television, air
conditioner, washing machine and water heater were provided C1 television
with 20% discount as new year sale offer. If the selection of the washing machine
C2
above products by the three customers C1, C2, C3 is considered air conditioner
C3 water heater
as a function then the following diagram (Fig.1.27) will represent
an into function. Fig. 1.27

During winter season customers usually do not prefer buying air conditioner. Here
air conditioner is not chosen by any customer. This is an example of into function.

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 A function f : A ® B is called an into function if there exists atleast one element in B
which is not the image of any element of A.

That is the range of f is a proper subset of the co-domain of f.

In other words, a function f : A ® B is called ‘into’ if it is not ‘onto’.

Illustration 13

Let A = {1,2,3,} and B = {w, x , y, z } , f = {(1, w ),(2, z ),(3,x )}

A f B
Here, range of f = {w, x , z } ⊂ B (Fig.1.28) w
1 x
∴ f is a into function. 2 y
Note that y Î B is not an image of any element in A. 3 z

Fig. 1.28
1.7.5 Bijection

Consider the circle where each letter of the English alphabet

is changed from inner portion to a letter in the outer portion.
Thus A ® D , B ® E , C ® F , … Z ® C . We call this circle as
‘cipher circle’. (Fig.1.29) In this way if we try to change the word
‘HELLO’ then it will become ‘KHOOR’. Now using the same circle
if we substitute for each outer letter the corresponding inner letter Cipher Circle
we will get back the word ‘HELLO’. This process of converting Fig. 1.29

from one form to an other form and receiving back the required information is called
bijection. This process is widely used in the study of secret codes called cryptography.

If a function f : A ® B is both one–one and onto, then f is called a bijection from A to B.

Illustration 14

one to one and onto function (Bijection)

A f B

1 w Distinct elements of A have distinct images

2 x in B and every element in B has a pre-image
3 z in A.
Fig. 1.30

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 Illustration 15
Note
One to One Many to One
A f B A f B A one – one and onto function
1 a 1 is also called a one – one
b a
2 2 correspondence.
c b
3 d 3
e c
4 f 4
Thinking Corner
Fig. 1.31 Fig. 1.32
Can there be a one to
Distinct elements of A Two or more elements of
many function?
have distinct images in B. A have same image in B.

Onto Into
A f B A f B
1 1 a
a b
2 b 2 c
3 3 d
c e
4 4 f
Fig. 1.33 Fig. 1.34

Range of f = co-domain Range of f is a proper subset of co-domain

( Every element in B has a pre-image in A) (There exists at least one element in B which
is not the image of any element of A)

To determine whether the given function is one–one or not the following test may help us.
1.7.6 Horizontal Line Test
Previously we have seen the vertical line test. Now let us see the horizontal line test.
“A function represented in a graph is one–one, if every horizontal line intersects the curve
in at most one point”.

Example 1.12 Using horizontal line test (Fig.1.35 (a), 1.35 (b), 1.35 (c)), determine which
of the following functions are one – one.
Y Y
Y

P P

X′ O X X′ O X
X′ O X P Q

Y¢ Y¢
Y¢
Fig. 1.35(b) Fig. 1.35(c)
Fig. 1.35(a)
Solution The curves in Fig.1.35 (a) and Fig.1.35 (c) represent a one–one function as the
horizontal lines meet the curves in only one point P.
The curve in Fig. 1.35 (b) does not represent a one–one function, since, the horizontal
line intersects the curve at two points P and Q.

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 Example 1.13 Let A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {4, 5, 6, 7} and f = {(1, 4),(2, 5),(3, 6)} be a function
from A to B. Show that f is one – one but not onto function.
A f B
Solution A = {1, 2, 3} , B = {4, 5, 6, 7} ; f = {(1, 4),(2, 5),(3, 6)}
4
Then f is a function from A to B and for different elements in 1 5
A, there are different images in B. Hence f is one–one function. Note 2 6
that the element 7 in the co-domain does not have any pre-image in 3 7
the domain. Hence f is not onto (Fig.1.36). Fig. 1.36
∴ f is one–one but not an onto function.

Example 1.14 If A = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} and f : A ® B is an onto function defined by

f (x ) = x 2 + x + 1 then find B.
Solution Given A = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2} and f (x ) = x 2 + x + 1 .
f (-2) = (−2)2 + (−2) + 1 =3;
f (-1) = (−1)2 + (−1) + 1 =1
f (0) = 02 + 0 + 1 =1;
f (1) = 12 + 1 + 1 = 3
f (2) = 22 + 2 + 1 = 7
∴ B = {1, 3, 7} .

Example 1.15 Let f be a function f :  ®  be defined by f (x ) = 3x + 2, x ∈ 

(i) Find the images of 1, 2, 3 (ii) Find the pre-images of 29, 53
(ii) Identify the type of function
Solution The function f :  ®  is defined by f (x ) = 3x + 2
(i) If x = 1, f (1) = 3(1) + 2 = 5
If x = 2, f (2) = 3(2) + 2 = 8
If x = 3 , f (3) = 3(3) + 2 = 11
The images of 1, 2, 3 are 5, 8, 11 respectively.
(ii) If x is the pre-image of 29, then f (x ) = 29 . Hence 3x + 2 = 29
3x = 27 ⇒ x = 9 .
Similarly, if x is the pre-image of 53, then f (x ) = 53 . Hence 3x + 2 = 53
3x = 51 ⇒ x = 17 .
Thus the pre-images of 29 and 53 are 9 and 17 respectively.
(iii) Since different elements of  have different images in the co-domain, the
function f is one – one function.
The co-domain of f is  .
But the range of f = {5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ...} is a proper subset of  .
∴ f is not an onto function. That is, f is an into function.
Thus f is one – one and into function.
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 Example 1.16 Forensic scientists can determine the height (in cm) of a person based on
the length of the thigh bone. They usually do so using the function h(b) = 2 ⋅ 47b + 54 ⋅ 10
where b is the length of the thigh bone.
(i) Verify the function h is one – one or not.
(ii) Also find the height of a person if the length of his thigh bone is 50 cm.
(iii) Find the length of the thigh bone if the height of a person is 147 × 96 cm.
Solution (i) To check if h is one – one, we assume that h(b1 ) = h(b2 ) .
Then we get, 2 ⋅ 47b1 + 54 ⋅ 10 = 2 ⋅ 47b2 + 54 ⋅ 10
2 × 47b1 = 2 ⋅ 47b2 ⇒ b1 = b2
= 2 ⋅ 47b2 ⇒ b1 = b2
Thus, h(b1 ) = h(b2 ) ⇒ b1 = b2 . So, the function h is one – one.
(ii) If the length of the thigh bone b = 50, then the height is
h(50) = (2 ⋅ 47 × 50) + 54 ⋅ 10 = 177 ⋅ 6 cm.
(iii) If the height of a person is 147 × 96 cm, then h(b) = 147 ⋅ 96 and so the length of
the thigh bone is given by
2 ⋅ 47b + 54 ⋅ 10 = 147 ⋅ 96
Þ 2 ⋅ 47b = 147 ⋅ 96 − 54 ⋅ 10 = 93 ⋅ 86
93 ⋅ 86
b= = 38
2 ⋅ 47
Therefore, the length of the thigh bone is 38 cm.

Activity 3
Check whether the following curves represent a function. In the case of a function,
check whether it is one-one? (Hint: Use the vertical and the horizontal line tests)
Y
(i) Y
(ii) (iii) Y

X′ X X′ X
X′ X
O O O

Y¢ Y¢ Y¢

Y Y Y
(iv) (v) (vi)

X′ X X′ X X′ X
O O O

Y¢ Y¢ Y¢

1.8 Special Cases of Functions

There are some special cases of a function which will be very useful. We discuss
some of them below
(i) Constant function (ii) Identity function (iii) Real – valued function
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 (i) Constant function
A function f : A ® B is called a constant function if the range of f contains only one
element. That is, f (x ) = c , for all x Î A and for some fixed c Î B . A f B
a
Illustration 16 1
b
From Fig.1.37, A = {a, b, c, d } , B = {1, 2, 3} and 2
c
f = {(a, 3), (b, 3), (c, 3), (d, 3)} . f (x ) = 3 ∀ x Î A , 3
d
Range of f = {3} , f is a constant function. Fig. 1.37
A f B
(ii) Identity function
x x
Let A be a non–empty set. Then the function f : A ® A defined by y y
z z
f (x ) = x for all x Î A is called an identity function on A and is denoted
by IA. Fig. 1.38

Illustration 17

If A = {a, b, c } then f =I A = {(a, a ),(b, b),(c, c)} is an Thinking Corner

identity function on A. Is an identity function
one to one function?
(iii) Real valued function
A function f : A ® B is called a real valued function if the range of f is a subset of
the set of all real numbers  . That is, f (a ) ⊆ , ∀ a ∈ A .

Progress Check

State True or False.

1. All one – one functions are onto functions.
2. There will be no one – one function from A to B when n(A) = 4 , n(B ) = 3 .
3. All onto functions are one – one functions.
4. There will be no onto function from A to B when n(A) = 4 , n(B ) = 5 .
5. If f is a bijection from A to B, then n(A) = n(B ) .
6. If n(A) = n(B ) , then f is a bijection from A to B.
7. All constant functions are bijections.

Example 1.17 Let f be a function from  to  defined by f (x ) = 3x − 5 . Find the values

of a and b given that (a, 4) and (1, b) belong to f.
Solution f (x ) = 3x – 5 can be written as f = {(x , 3x – 5) | x ∈ R}
(a, 4) means the image of a is 4. i.e., f (a ) = 4
3a – 5 = 4 ⇒ a = 3
(1, b) means the image of 1 is b. i.e., f (1) = b
3(1) – 5 = b ⇒ b = –2
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 2x + 7; x < −2

Example 1.18 If the function ff  :: 
R ® 
R is defined by f (x ) = x − 2; − 2 ≤ x < 3 ,
2

then find the values of 3x − 2; x ≥3

f (1) - 3 f (4)
(i) f (4) (ii) f (-2) (iii) f (4) + 2 f (1) (iv)
f (-3)
Solution I II III
)[ )[
X′ -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6X
The function f is defined by three values in
f(x) = 2x+7 f(x) = x2–2 f(x) = 3x–2
intervals I, II, III as shown by the side Fig. 1.39

For a given value of x = a , find out the interval at which the point a is located, there
after find f (a ) using the particular value defined in that interval.
(i) First, we see that, x = 4 lie in the third interval.

∴ f (x ) = 3x − 2 ; f (4) = 3(4) – 2 = 10

(ii) x = −2 lies in the second interval.

∴ f (x ) = x 2 – 2 ; f (−2) = (−2)2 – 2 = 2

(iii) From (i), f (4) = 10 .

To find f (1), first we see that x = 1 lies in the second interval.

∴ f (x ) = x 2 – 2 ⇒ f (1) = 12 – 2 = −1

f (4) + 2 f (1) = 10 + 2(−1) = 8

(iv) We know that f (1) = −1 and f (4) = 10 .

For finding f (-3) , we see that x = −3 , lies in the first interval.
∴ f (x ) = 2x + 7 ; thus, f (−3) = 2(−3) + 7 = 1
f (1) - 3 f (4) −1 − 3(10)
Hence, = = −31
f (-3) 1

Exercise 1.4

1. Determine whether the graph given below represent functions. Give reason for your
answers concerning each graph.

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Y Y
Y Y

O O O X′
O X
X′ X X′ X X′ X

Y¢ Y¢ Y¢ Y¢

24 10th Standard Mathematics

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 x
2. Let f : A ® B be a function defined by f (x ) = − 1, where A = {2, 4, 6, 10, 12} ,
2
B = {0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 9} . Represent f by
(i) set of ordered pairs (ii) a table (iii) an arrow diagram (iv) a graph

3. Represent the function f = {(1, 2)(

, 2, 2)(
, 3, 2)( , 5, 4)} through
, 4, 3)(

(i) an arrow diagram (ii) a table form (iii) a graph

4. Show that the function f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = 2x – 1 is one-one but not onto.

5. Show that the function f :  ®  defined by f (m ) = m 2 + m + 3 is one-one function.

6. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B =  . Let f : A ® B be defined by f (x ) = x 3 then,

(i) find the range of f (ii) identify the type of function

7. In each of the following cases state whether the function is bijective or not. Justify
your answer.
(i) f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = 2x + 1 (ii) f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = 3 – 4x 2

8. Let A = {−1, 1} and B = {0, 2} . If the function f : A ® B defined by f (x ) = ax + b is

an onto function? Find a and b.
x + 2; x> 1


9. If the function f is defined by f (x ) = 2; − 1 ≤ x ≤1 find the values of

x – 1; − 3 < x < −1

(i) f (3) (ii) f (0) (iii) f (−1 ⋅ 5) (iv) f (2) + f (−2)
10. A function f : [−5, 9] →  is defined as follows:
6x + 1; − 5 ≤ x < 2

f (x ) = 5x 2 − 1; 2≤x <6

3x – 4; 6≤x ≤9

2 f (−2) − f (6)
Find (i) f (−3) + f (2) (ii) f (7) - f (1) (iii) 2 f (4) + f (8) (iv)
f (4) + f (−2)
11. The distance S an object travels under the influence of gravity in time t seconds is
1
given by S (t ) = gt 2 + at + b where, (g is the acceleration due to gravity), a, b are
2
constants. Verify wheather the function S (t ) is one-one or not.

12. The function ‘t’ which maps temperature in Celsius (C) into temperature in
9
Fahrenheit (F) is defined by t(C ) = F where F = C + 32 . Find,
5
(i) t(0) (ii) t(28) (iii) t(-10)
(iv) the value of C when t(C ) = 212
(v) the temperature when the Celsius value is equal to the Farenheit value.
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 1.9 Composition of Functions
When a car driver depresses the accelerator pedal, A B C
it controls the flow of fuel which in turn influences
f g
the speed of the car. Likewise, the composition of
two functions is a kind of ‘chain reaction’, where the x
f (x)
functions act upon one after another (Fig.1.40). g(f (x))

We can explain this further with the concept that a

function is a ‘process’. If f and g are two functions then the gf
composition g( f (x )) (Fig.1.41) is formed in two steps. Fig. 1.40

(i) Feed an input (say x) to f ;

(ii) Feed the output f(x) to g to get g( f (x )) and call it gf(x).
Illustration A B C
Consider the set A of all students, who appeared in f g
class X of Board Examination. Each student appearing f (a) = b
c = g (b)
Student g (f (a))
in the Board Examination is assigned a roll number. Roll
Code
Numbers
Numbers
In order to have confidentiality, the Board arranges to
deface the roll number of each student and assigns a
code number to each roll number. gf
Fig. 1.41
Let A be the set of all students appearing for the
board exam. B Í  be the set all roll numbers and C Í  be the set of all code numbers
(Fig.1.41). This gives rise to two functions f : A ® B and g : B ® C given by b = f (a ) be
the roll number assigned to student a, c = g(b) be the code number assigned to roll
number b, where a Î A , b Î B and c Î C .
We can write c = g(b) = g(f (a )) .
Thus, by the combination of these two functions, each student is eventually attached
a code number. This idea leads to the following definition. A B C

Definition f g

Let f : A ® B and g : B ® C be two functions

x f(x) g(f(x))
(Fig.1.42). Then the composition of f and g denoted
by g  f is defined as the function g  f (x ) = g( f (x ))
>
∀ x Î A.
gf
Fig. 1.42
Example 1.19 Find f  g and g  f when f (x ) = 2x + 1
and g(x ) = x 2 − 2 Thinking Corner
Solution f (x ) = 2x + 1 , g(x) = x2 – 2 If f (x ) = x m and
f  g(x ) = f (g(x )) = f (x 2 − 2) = 2(x 2 − 2) + 1 = 2x 2 − 3 g(x ) = x n does
f g =g  f ?
g  f (x ) = g( f (x )) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2 − 2 = 4x 2 + 4x − 1
Thus f  g = 2x 2 − 3, g  f = 4x 2 + 4x − 1 . From the above, we see that f  g ¹ g  f .
26 10th Standard Mathematics

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 Note
Generally, f  g ¹ g  f for any two functions f and g. So, composition of functions is not
commutative.

Example 1.20 Represent the function f (x )= 2x 2 − 5x + 3 as a composition of two functions.

Solution f2 (x )= 2x 2 − 5x + 3 and f1(x )= x

f (x ) = 2x 2 − 5x + 3 = f2 (x )
= f1  f2 (x ) = f1 f2 (x )

Example 1.21 If f (x ) = 3x − 2 , g(x ) = 2x + k and if f  g = g  f , then find the value of k.

Solution f (x ) = 3x − 2 , g(x ) = 2x + k
f  g(x ) = f (g(x )) = f (2x + k ) = 3(2x + k ) − 2 = 6x + 3k − 2
f  g(x ) = 6x + 3k − 2 .
g  f (x ) = g(3x − 2) = 2(3x − 2) + k
g  f (x ) = 6x − 4 + k . The Composition
g  f (x ) exists only
Given that f  g = g  f
when range of f is a
∴ 6x + 3k − 2 = 6x − 4 + k subset of domain of g.
6x − 6x + 3k − k = −4 + 2 ⇒ k = −1

Example 1.22 Find k if f  f (k ) = 5 where f (k ) = 2k − 1 .

Solution f  f (k ) = f (f (k ))
= 2(2k − 1) − 1 = 4k − 3 .
f  f (k ) = 4k − 3
But, f  f (k ) = 5
∴ 4k - 3 = 5 ⇒ k = 2 .
(hg)f=h(gf)
1.9.1 Composition of three functions
gf
Let A, B, C, D be four sets and let
f :A ® B , g :B ®C and h : C ® D be A f B g C h D
three functions (Fig.1.43). Using composite
functions f  g and g  h , we get two new
hg
functions like ( f  g )  h and f  (g  h ) . Fig. 1.43
We observed that the composition of functions is not commutative. The natural
question is about the associativity of the operation.
Note
Composition of three functions is always associative. That is, f  (g  h ) = ( f  g )  h

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 Example 1.23 If f (x ) = 2x + 3, g(x ) = 1 − 2x and h(x ) = 3x . Prove that f  (g  h ) = (f  g )  h
Solution f (x ) = 2x + 3 , g(x ) = 1 − 2x , h(x ) = 3x
Now, ( f  g )(x ) = f (g(x )) = f (1 − 2x ) = 2(1 − 2x ) + 3 = 5 − 4x

Then, ( f  g )  h(x ) = ( f  g )(h(x )) = ( f  g )(3x ) = 5 − 4(3x ) = 5 − 12x ....(1)

(g  h )(x ) = g(h(x )) = g(3x ) = 1 − 2(3x ) = 1 − 6x
⇒ f  (g  h )(x ) = f (1 − 6x ) = 2(1 − 6x ) + 3 = 5 − 12x ....(2)
From (1) and (2), we get ( f  g )  h = f  (g  h )

Example 1.24 Find x if gff(x) = fgg(x), given f (x ) = 3x + 1 and g(x ) = x + 3 .

Solution gff(x) = g [f {f (x)}] (This means “g of f of f of x”)

= g [ f (3x +1)] = g [ 3(3x +1)+1] = g (9x + 4)

g (9x + 4) = [ (9x + 4) + 3] = 9x + 7
fgg(x) = f [g {g (x)}] (This means “f of g of g of x”)
= f [ g (x + 3)] = f [ (x + 3) + 3] = f (x + 6)
f (x + 6) = [ 3(x + 6) + 1 ] = 3x + 19
These two quantities being equal, we get 9x + 7 = 3x + 19. Solving this equation we
obtain x = 2.

Progress Check

State your answer for the following questions by selecting the correct option.
1. Composition of functions is commutative
(a) Always true (b) Never true (c) Sometimes true
2. Composition of functions is associative
(a) Always true (b) Never true (c) Sometimes true

Activity 4
Given that h(x ) = f  g(x ) , fill in the table for h(x )
How to find h(1) ?
x f(x) x g(x) x h(x)

h(x ) = f  g(x )
1 2 1 2 1 3
2 3 2 4 2 -
h(1) = f  g(1)
3 1 3 3 3 -

= f (2) = 3
4 4 4 1 4 -
∴ h(1) = 3

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 1.10 Identifying the Graphs of Linear, Quadratic, Cubic and Reciprocal Functions
Graphs provide visualization of curves and functions. Hence, graphs help a lot in
understanding the concepts in a much efficient way.
In this section, we will be discussing about the identification of some of the functions
through their graphs. In particular, we discuss graphs of Linear, Quadratic, Cubic and
Reciprocal functions.

1.10.1 Linear Function

A function f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = mx + c , m ¹ 0 is called a linear function.
Geometrically this represents a straight line in the graph.
Some Specific Linear Functions and their graphs are given below.

No. Function Domain and Definition Graph

1 The identity f :  ®  defined by 4
Y

function f (x ) = x 3
2
1

0
X′ -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 X
-1
-2 f (x ) = x

-3
-4
Y¢
Fig. 1.44
2 Additive inverse f :  ®  defined by 4
Y

function f (x ) = −x 3
2
1

0
X′ -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 X
-1
-2
-3
-4 f (x ) = −x
Y¢
Fig. 1.45
Y
1.10.2 Modulus or Absolute valued Function 5
y =| x |
4
f :  → [0, ∞) defined by f (x ) =| x | 3
2
x ; x ≥ 0 –x x
=  1
−x ; x < 0
 0
X′ -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4X
-1
-2
-3
Y¢
Fig. 1.46
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 Note
¾¾ Modulus function is not a linear function but it is composed of two linear functions x
and –x.
¾¾ Linear functions are always one-one functions and has applications in Cryptography as
well as in several branches of Science and Technology.

1.10.3 Quadratic Function

A function f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c, (a ¹ 0) is called a quadratic
function.
Some specific quadratic functions and their graphs
Function, Domain, Range and Definition Graph
Y
f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = x 2 , x ∈ . f (x ) ∈ [0, ∞)

X′ O X
Y′
Fig. 1.47(a)
Y
f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = −x 2 , x ∈ . O
X′ X
f (x ) ∈ (−∞, 0]

Y′

Fig. 1.47(b)

The equations of motion of a particle travelling under the influence of gravity is a

quadratic function of time. These functions are not one – one. (Why?) Y

1.10.4 Cubic Function

X′
A function f :  ®  defined by X

f (x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d,(a ≠ 0) is called a cubic function.

The graph of f (x ) = x 3 is shown in Fig.1.48. Fig. 1.48
Y

1.10.5 Reciprocal Function

1
A function f :  − {0} →  defined by f (x ) = X′ O X
x
is called a reciprocal function (Fig.1.49).
Y′
Fig. 1.49

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 1.10.6 Constant Function Y
C f (x ) = c

A function f :  ®  defined by f (x ) = c, ∀ x Î 
is called a constant function (Fig.1.50). O
x1 x2 X

Fig. 1.50

Progress Check

1. Is a constant function a linear function?

2. Is quadratic function a one – one function?

3. Is cubic function a one – one function?

4. Is the reciprocal function a bijection?

5. If f : A ® B is a constant function, then the range of f will have ____ elements.

Exercise 1.5

1. Using the functions f and g given below, find f  g and g  f . Check whether
f g =g  f .
2
(i) f (x ) = x − 6, g(x ) = x 2 (ii) f (x ) = , g(x ) = 2x 2 − 1
x
x +6
(iii) f (x ) = , g(x ) = 3 − x (iv) f (x ) = 3 + x , g(x ) = x − 4
3
(v) f (x ) = 4x 2 − 1, g(x ) = 1 + x

2. Find the value of k, such that f  g = g  f

(i) f (x ) = 3x + 2, g(x ) = 6x − k (ii) f (x ) = 2x − k, g(x ) = 4x + 5
x +1
3. If f (x ) = 2x − 1, g(x ) = , show that f  g = g  f = x
2
4. If f (x ) = x 2 − 1, g(x ) = x − 2 find a, if g  f (a ) = 1 .

5. Let A, B,C Í  and a function f : A ® B be defined by f (x ) = 2x + 1 and g : B ® C

be defined by g(x ) = x 2 . Find the range of f  g and g  f .

6. Let f (x ) = x 2 − 1 . Find (i) f  f (ii) f  f  f

7. If f :  ®  and g :  ®  are defined by f (x ) = x 5 and g (x ) = x 4 then check if f, g

are one-one and f  g is one-one?

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 8. Consider the functions f (x ), g(x ), h(x ) as given below. Show that
( f  g )  h = f  (g  h ) in each case.

(i) f (x ) = x − 1, g(x ) = 3x + 1 and h(x ) = x 2

(ii) f (x ) = x 2 , g(x ) = 2x and h(x ) = x + 4
(iii) f (x ) = x − 4, g(x ) = x 2 and h(x ) = 3x − 5

9. Let f = {(−1, 3), (0, −1), (2, −9)} be a linear function from  into  . Find f (x).

10. In electrical circuit theory, a circuit C(t) is called a linear circuit if it satisfies the
superposition principle given by C (at1 + bt2 ) = aC (t1 ) + bC (t2 ) , where a, b are
constants. Show that the circuit C (t ) = 3t is linear.

Exercise 1.6

Multiple choice questions

1. If n(A × B ) = 6 and A = {1, 3} then n(B ) is
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 6

2. A = {a, b, p}, B = {2, 3}, C = {p, q, r, s} then n[(A ∪ C ) × B ] is

(A) 8 (B) 20 (C) 12 (D) 16
3. If A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, C = {5, 6} and D = {5, 6, 7, 8} then state which of the
following statement is true.
(A) (A ×C ) ⊂ (B × D ) (B) (B × D ) ⊂ (A ×C )
(C) (A × B ) ⊂ (A × D ) (D) (D × A) ⊂ (B × A)
4. If there are 1024 relations from a set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} to a set B, then the number of
elements in B is
(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 4 (D) 8
5. The range of the relation R = {(x , x 2 ) | x is a prime number less than 13} is
(A) {2,3,5,7} (B) {2,3,5,7,11}
(C) {4,9,25,49,121} (D) {1,4,9,25,49,121}

6. If the ordered pairs (a + 2, 4) and (5, 2a + b) are equal then (a, b) is

(A) (2, –2) (B) (5,1) (C) (2,3) (D) (3, –2)
7. Let n(A) = m and n(B) = n then the total number of non-empty relations that can
be defined from A to B is
(A) m n (B) n m (C) 2mn - 1 (D) 2mn
8. If {(a, 8),(6, b)} represents an identity function, then the value of a and b are respectively
(A) (8,6) (B) (8,8) (C) (6,8) (D) (6,6)
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 9. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 8, 9, 10}. A function f : A ® B given by
f = {(1, 4),(2, 8),(3, 9),(4, 10)} is a

(A) Many-one function (B) Identity function

(C) One-to-one function (D) Into function
1
10. If f (x ) = 2x 2 and g(x ) = , then f  g is
3x
3 2 2 1
(A) (B) 2 (C) 2 (D)
2x 2 3x 9x 6x 2
11. If f : A ® B is a bijective function and if n(B ) = 7 , then n(A) is equal to
(A) 7 (B) 49 (C) 1 (D) 14
12. Let f and g be two functions given by
f = {(0, 1),(2, 0),(3, −4),(4, 2),(5, 7)}

g = {(0, 2),(1, 0),(2, 4),(−4, 2),(7, 0)} then the range of f  g is

(A) {0,2,3,4,5} (B) {–4,1,0,2,7} (C) {1,2,3,4,5} (D) {0,1,2}

13. Let f (x ) = 1 + x 2 then

(A) f (xy ) = f (x ).f (y ) (B) f (xy ) ³ f (x ).f (y )
(C) f (xy ) £ f (x ).f (y ) (D) None of these

14. If g = {(1, 1),(2, 3),(3, 5),(4, 7)} is a function given by g(x ) = αx + β then the values of
a and b are
(A) (–1,2) (B)(2, –1) (C) (–1, –2) (D) (1,2)

15. f (x ) = (x + 1)3 − (x − 1)3 represents a function which is

(A) linear (B) cubic (C) reciprocal (D) quadratic

Unit Exercise - 1

1. If the ordered pairs (x 2 − 3x , y 2 + 4y ) and (-2, 5) are equal, then find x and y.

2. The cartesian product A×A has 9 elements among which (–1, 0) and (0, 1) are found.
Find the set A and the remaining elements of A×A.
 x − 1 x ≥ 1
3. Given that f (x ) =  . Find
 4 x < 1
 
(i) f (0) (ii) f (3) (iii) f (a + 1) in terms of a.(Given that a ³ 0 )

4. Let A = {9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17} and let f : A ® N be defined by f (n ) = the highest
prime factor of n Î A . Write f as a set of ordered pairs and find the range of f.
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 5. Find the domain of the function f (x ) = 1 + 1 − 1 − x 2

6. If f (x ) = x 2 , g(x ) = 3x and h(x ) = x − 2 , Prove that ( f  g )  h = f  (g  h ) .

7. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} , C = {5, 6} and D = {5, 6, 7, 8} . Verify whether A×C
is a subset of B×D?
x −1 1
8. If f (x ) = , x ≠ −1 show that f ( f (x )) = − , provided x ¹ 0 .
x +1 x
x −2
9. The functions f and g are defined by f (x ) = 6x + 8; g(x ) =
3
 1 

(i) Calculate the value of gg  
 2 
(ii) Write an expression for gf (x ) in its simplest form.

10. Write the domain of the following real functions

2x + 1 −5
(i) f (x ) = (ii) p(x ) = 2 (iii) g(x ) = x − 2 (iv) h(x ) = x + 6
x −9 4x + 1

Points to Remember
zz The Cartesian Product of A with B is defined as A × B = {(a, b) | for all a Î A,
b Î B}
zz A relation R from A to B is always a subset of A ´ B . That is R ⊆ A × B
zz A relation R from X to Y is a function if for every x Î X there exists only one y Î Y .
zz A function can be represented by

(i) an arrow diagram

(ii) a tabular form
(iii) a set of ordered pairs
(iv) a graphical form
zz Some types of functions

(i) One-one function

(ii) Onto function
(iii) Many-one function
(iv) Into function
zz Identity function f (x ) = x
1
zz Reciprocal function f (x ) =
x

34 10th Standard Mathematics

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 zz Constant function f (x ) = c

zz Linear function f (x ) = ax + b , a ¹ 0

zz Quadratic function f (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c , a ¹ 0

zz Cubic function f (x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d , a ¹ 0

zz For three non-empty sets A, B and C, if f :A®B and g : B ® C are two

functions, then the composition of f and g is a function g  f : A ® C will be defined
as g  f (x ) = g( f (x )) for all x Î A .
zz If f and g are any two functions, then in general, f  g ¹ g  f
zz If f, g and h are any three functions, then f  (g  h ) = ( f  g )  h

ICT CORNER
ICT 1.1
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work
book named “Relations and Functions–X” will open. In the left side of the work book there are many
activity related to Relations and Functions chapter. Select the work sheet “Functions Identification”
Step 2: In the given worksheet click on the check boxes corresponding to each function on left hand
side. You can see the graph of respective function on Right hand side. Analyse each graph and then
click “New Functions” and continue till you understand.
Step 1 Step 2 Expected results

ICT 1.2
Step 1: Open the Browser type the URL Link given below (or) Scan the QR Code. GeoGebra work
book named “Relations and Functions–X” will open. In the left side of the work book there are many
activity related to Relations and Functions chapter. Select the work sheet “Composition of Functions”
Step 2: In the given worksheet click on the check boxes corresponding to each function on left hand
side. You can see the graph of respective function on Right hand side. Analyse each graph and then
click “New Functions” and continue till you understand.
Step 1 Step 2 Expected results

You can repeat the same steps for other activities

https://www.geogebra.org/m/jfr2zzgy#chapter/356191
or Scan the QR Code.

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