Second Quarter

I. Equilibrium
The only constant thing in the universe is change.

Force causes a change in the state of motion of an object. Newton’s second law states
that a net force causes an object to accelerate.

Equilibrium is where two or more outside forces acting on a body, their effects cancel
and there is no change in the state of motion; it is not accelerating.

How is Equilibrium Achieved?

Mechanical Equilibrium is when the net force acting on the body is zero, the
acceleration is also zero.

There are two classifications of Mechanical Equilibrium:

1. Static Equilibrium - if the body is at rest

2. Dynamic equilibrium - if the body is in motion at a constant velocity

Normal force is a contact force that acts perpendicular to the surface that an object
contact, supports the weight of an object resting on it, and prevents the object from
sinking or passing through the surface.

How is the Center of Gravity Located?

The center of gravity (cg) of an object is located at the point from where it can be
suspended without tending to rotate. It is the point from where all the weight of an
object may be considered to be concentrate.

The centers of gravity of objects vary because of their varying shapes, sizes, and
mass:

1. In uniform or regularly shaped objects, the center of gravity is at their

geometric center.
2. In an irregularly shaped objects, the center of gravity can be measured by
suspending the object and drawing vertical line.
How Is the Center of Gravity Related to Equilibrium?
The equilibrium condition is affected by the position of the object's center of gravity.

The three states of equilibrium are:

1. Stable Equilibrium - the center of gravity is at the lowest possible position, and
is above and inside an object's base of support
2. Unstable Equilibrium - comes back to its normal position on slight
displacement; is displaced and the resulting net force pushes the object even
further away from the equilibrium position
3. Neutral equilibrium - occurs when an object remains in its new position after
being displaced

What are the Conditions for Equilibrium?

I. First condition
Transitional equilibrium happens when the vector sum of all forces acting upon a
rigid object is zero. This means that an object has no external force acting on it; it
either remains at rest or moves with constant velocity.

The first condition states that for an object to remain in equilibrium, it must have zero
net force and zero acceleration. We can express the condition as: ΣF = 0, the
mathematical expression of the first condition for equilibrium.

Upward forces are equal to the downward forces, and forces to the left are equal to
the forces to the right. However, objects in translational equilibrium may still rotate.

II. Second Condition

Torque is the quantity that measures how effectively a force (F) causes acceleration.

A torque that tends to produce a counterclockwise rotation is considered positive and

a torque that tends to produce a clockwise rotation is negative.

The second condition states that the sum of all torques acting on an object must be
zero. We can expressed as ΣT = 0.

An object will not achieve equilibrium even though the first condition for equilibrium is
satisfied if it tends to rotate.
There are two conditions for a body to be in a rotational equilibrium:

1. Translational - the sum of all forces acting on it must be zero.

2. Rotational - The sum of all torques about any point must be zero.

II. Solids and Fluids

Fluids are liquids and gases that are capable of flowing.

Solids, Liquids, and Gases have different components because of the behavior of the
microscopic particles that compose them.

How Do Fluids and Solids Differ?

Solids are made up of particles of atoms that are rigidly held together by strong
interatomic forces attraction. Meanwhile, Fluids are substances whose shape can
easily change and are able to flow; they offer little resistance to change in shape when
in pressure.
Molecular Structure

Compressibility
Compressibility is a measure of the change in volume, which results from a change in
pressure.

Solids are harder to compress since they are normally hard and rigid. Gases are easier
to compress than liquids despite both being fluids. It has many free spaces between
particles and has no fixed volume compared to liquids.

Density
Density is the ratio of a substance to its volume (or mass per unit volume). It is
independent of the amount of matter present in a substance.

The SI unit of density is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m^3). The symbol used to
represent density is the Greek letter 🇶, and is defined by the equation:
The difference in density is the reason why some objects float and others do not.

What Are the Effects of Force on Solids and Fluids?

Pressure
Pressure is defined as the physical force exerted on an object. In other words, it is the
force acting on a unit area. In equation form, it can be expressed as P = F/A.

Liquid pressure is directly proportional to the height or depth and the density of
liquids. This means that the higher the column of the liquid, the greater its pressure;
and the more dense the liquid, the greater the pressure, too.

The first accurate measurement of atmospheric pressure was made by an Italian

Physicist, Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647).

Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Princple explains that additional pressure in a confined liquid is transmitted
undiminished to all points in the confined liquid. Pressure is in N/m^2 or pascal (Pa).
This is introduced by the French scientist Blaise Pascal in 1653.

It can be expressed as F = P x A, which means the force exerted on the entire surface
area is equal to the product of pressure and area

Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ Principle states that any object completely or partially submerged in a
fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displace dby the body.

The upward force is called the buoyant force. It can be expressed as:

Buoyant force = object’s loss of weight in a fluid

= weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
When there’s no other forced acting on the submerged object:

Net force on the object = weight of the object - buoyant force

There are three possibilities in buoyancy:

● If the buoyant force is less than the weight of the submerged object, the object
will sink.
● If the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the submerged object, the object
will float.
● If the buoyant force is greater than the weight of the object, the object will rise.

Bernoulli’s principle
Bernoulli’s principle states that as the velocity of a gas or liquid increases, the
pressure it exerts decreases. Although Bernoulli deduced the law, it was Leonhard
Euler who derived Bernoulli’s equation in its usual form in the year 1752.

The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as follows:

P + ½pv^2 + pgh = constant

Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that for small displacement or deformations of an object, the
displacement or deformation is directly proportional to the applied force or load.

When an external force acts on a solid and the solid returns to its original size and
shape, the solid is said to be elastic. Elasticity can be measured in terms of stress and
strain. They are proportional, which defines Hooke’s Law.

Stress refers to the distorting force applied per unit area. It can be expressed as:
Strain refers to the change sin dimension that an object undergoes. It can be
expressed as:

If the strain is a change in volume divided by the original volume, the ratio of stress to
strain is called Bulk Modulus. It can be represented as:

III. Electromagnetic Waves

Light is just a small part of a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

What Are the Regions of the Electromagnetic Waves?

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of different types of waves called
electromagnetic waves or radiations.

The electromagnetic waves (EM) have common properties:

● They carry energy from one place to another
● They do not refuse a medium to travel
● They can travel in a vacuum at a speed of 3x 10^8 m/s
● They obey the wave equation v = fλ. They show reflection, refraction,
absorption, and interference
● They are transverse waves
The waves in the various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum share similar
properties but differ in wavelength, frequency, and method of production. (See Page
36 for fire 17.1 - The electromagnetic waves.)

Frequency is the number of occurrences of repeating event per unit of time

wavelength.

What Are the Uses and Effects of the Different Regions of

the Electromagnetic Waves?
III. Light
Light travels in straight lines.

The light that strikes most ojects travels in many directions.

How are Images Formed by the Different Types of
Mirros and Lenses?
Mirrors are smooth reflective surfaces, usually made oup of polished metal or glass
that has been coated with some metallic substance.

A mirror with a flat surface is called a plane mirror. The image yo usee that is upright
and appears to be behind the mirror is unknown as a virtual image.

The position and size of the virtual image formed by a plane mirror can be located by
using ray diagrams. The ratio of a plane mirror’s size of the image to the size of the
object is called lateral magnification:

Two mirrors give more images due to multiple reflections.

Reflections on Curved Mirrors

Spherical mirrors are either concave or convex.
A convex mirror has a side that bends outwards to reflect light. A concave mirror has
a side that bends inwards as a reflecting surface.

A curved mirror has a vertex (V), a center of curvature (C), and a principal focus or
focal point (F). The distance from the vertex to the curvature is the radius of
curvature. The line passing through the curved mirror’s center of curvature is called the
principal axis.

Refraction in Lenses
A lens is a transparent material made of plastic or glass. A lens forms images by
refraction Lenses are divided into two types: convex (converging) and concave
(diverging).
A convex lens is thicker at the center than at the edges, while a concave lens is thinner
at the center than at the edges.

A lens has both two surfaces, two focal points, and two center of curvatures. The focal
points are at the same distance from the lens’ midpoint (O).