A

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT ON

“Study and Design of Partial Replacement of Traditional Materials used

in Concrete with Rice Husk Ash and Coconut shells.’’

Major project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Award of
the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING (2021-2025)

SUBMITTED BY :

K. SAMBASHIVA RAO 21VD1A0142

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr. G. SRIKANTH (Assistant Professor)

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING MANTHANI
Centenary colony, pannur (Vil), Kamanpur (Mdl), Peddapally-505212, Telangana(India).

i
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MANTHANI

Centenary Colony, Pannur (Vil), Ramagiri (Mdl), Peddapally-505212, Telangana.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “Study and Design of Partial Replacement
of Traditional Materials used in Concrete with Rice Husk Ash and Coconut shells” That is
being submitted in by K.SAMBASHIVA RAO (21VD1A0142), in partial fulfilment for
the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University is a record of
Bonafide work carried out by him/her under my guidance and supervision. The results
embodied in the project report have not been submitted to any other University or Institute
for the award of any degree or diploma.

INTERNAL GUIDE EXTERNAL GUIDE

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL

ii
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MANTHANI

Centenary colony, pannur (Vil), Ramagiri (Mdl), peddapally-505212, Telangana.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the dissertation “Study and
Design of Partial Replacement of Traditional Materials used in Concrete with Rice Husk
Ash and Coconut Shells” Submitted towards the partial fulfilment of the requirement for
the award of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in CIVIL ENGINEERING,
JNTUH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING MANTHANI, PEDDAPALLY is
an authentic record of our own work carried out, under the supervision of Mr. G. Srikanth
(Assistant Professor).

K. SAMBASHIVA RAO 21VD1A0142

iii
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MANTHANI

Centenary colony, pannur (Vil), Ramagiri (Mdl), Peddapally-505212, Telangana.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The project work is a teamwork and the satisfaction that accompanies the successful
completion of this task would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made
it possible.
We express our sincere gratitude to Dr. B. VISHNU VARDHAN, Principal, JNTUH
College of Engineering Manthani for encouraging and giving permission to
accomplish our project successfully.
We express our sincere gratitude to Mr. M. UDAY KUMAR, Vice-Principal,
JNTUH College of Engineering Manthani for his encouragement in our project.
We express our profound gratitude to our project guide Mr. G. SRIKANTH,
(Assistant Professor) for her constant help, personal supervision, expert guidance and
consistent encouragement throughout this project, which enabled us to complete our
project successfully in time. We also take this opportunity to thank other faculty
members of Civil Department for their kind co-operation.
Finally, yet importantly, we would like to thank our parents for reposing so much
faith and care in us, giving us the financial and mental support to strive through and
complete the thesis.
We also convey our thanks to one and all those who have extended their
helping hands directly and indirectly in completion of our project.

iv
 ABSTRACT
Infrastructure Development across the world has created the demand for construction
materials. Concrete is the premier in civil engineering construction material. Concrete
manufacturing includes the consumption of ingredients Such as cement, Sand, aggregates,
water and admixtures. Among all these ingredients cement and aggregates form the major
part. In the other hand, we use alternative waste materials in place of coarse aggregates
and cement in concrete production which can make concrete as environment friendly
material. Examples of such materials for Coarse Aggregates are Coconut shells, Scrap tires,
plastic waste, Recycled aggregates, and for Cement are rice husk ash, fly ash etc. If these
materials are used in construction industry, the pollution and disposal problems may be
partly reduced. Concrete is basically made of aggregates, cementitious materials paste,
which includes cementitious materials and water. Major problems to the local authority to
identify the potential and recycling of waste products.

v
 LIST OF CONTENTS
TOPICS PAGE NO.

Title page i

Certificate ii

Declaration iii

Acknowledgement iv

Abstract v

List of contents vi

List of Figures viii

List of tables ix

List of Graphs x

Abbreviations xi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General 01

1.2 Problem statement 02

1.3 Objective of Study 02

1.4 Research Methodology 02

1.5 Scope of Study 03

1.6 Significance of Study 04

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 05

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY & MATERIALS

3.1 Steps involved 07

3.2 Cement 08

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3.3 Aggregate 08

3.4 Rice Husk Ash 09

3.5 Coarse Aggregate 10

3.6 Coconut Shells 11

3.7 Tests on Cement 12

3.8 Tests on fine Aggregate 16

3.9 Tests on Coarse Aggregate 20

3.10 Tests on Coconut Shells 24

3.11 Tests on Rice Husk Ash 25

CHAPTER 4: CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS

4.1 Mix Design 27

4.2 Preparation of concrete cube specimen 35

4.3 Compressive strength 40

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 48

REFERENCES 49

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure name Page No.

1.Rice Husk Ash and Coconut shell 01

3.1 Aggregates 09

3.2 Rice Husk Ash 10

3.3 Coarse aggregate 11

3.4 Coconut shell 11

3.5 Fineness Test (90π sieve) 13

3.6 Specific Gravity apparatus for cement 15

3.7 Specific gravity test 15

3.8 Specific gravity test of fine aggregate 17

3.9 Set of IS sieves 18

3.10 Water absorption test of Coarse aggregate 21

4.1 Mixing 36

4.2 Steps involved in workability test 37

4.3 Slump 37

4.4 Types of slumps 38

4.5 Moulding of cubes 39

4.6 Curing of specimens 39

4.7 Graph of compressive strength of concrete vs w/c ratio 40

4.8 Ingredients of concrete 42

4.9 Compressive strength testing of cube specimen 43

4.10 Size of the cube 44

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

3.1 Sieve analysis of fine aggregate 19
3.2 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate 23
4.1 Cement 27
4.2 Site conditions 28
4.3 Aggregates 28
4.4 Partial Replacement Materials 28
4.5: Mass and Volumes of CS & C.A. after partial replacement 35

4.6: Mix calculations for CS15 35

4.7: Mix calculations for CS20 35

4.8: Mix calculations for CS25 36
4.9: Strength of concrete at various days 45
4.10: Comparison of compressive strength of cubes with 46
conventional concrete

ix
 LIST OF GRAPHS

Graph No. Description Page No.

1. 4.1 Compressive strength of conventional concrete with bar graph 46

2. 4.2 compressive strength sustainable concrete with bar graph 46

3 4.3 compressive strength comparison with bar graph 47

4 4.4 comparison of compressive strength with line graph 47

x
 ABBREVIATIONS

1. 𝑓𝑐𝑘 = Characteristic compressive strength (N/mm2)

2. S = Standard deviation
3. SSD = Saturated Surface Dry Condition
4. C.A.= Coarse Aggregate
5. F.A.= Fine Aggregate
6. CS=Coconut Shell
7. RHA=Rice Husk Ash
8. Sp.gravity = Specific Gravity
9. Vol.= Volume
10. CS15= Coconut Shell 15% replacement

xi
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

We'll explore the innovative use of waste materials in concrete, highlighting their
environmental benefits and potential to revolutionize the industry. The use of alternative
materials has gained significant attention in the construction industry due to the growing
demand for sustainable practices and the need to reduce environmental impacts. The
materials are being explored as partial replacements for traditional components of
concrete, such as cement with rice husk ash, fine aggregate (sand), and coarse aggregate
with coconut shells.

Finding new alternative materials for sustainable development to substantially decrease

the consumption of natural resources became imperative to safeguard the interests of future
generations. High consumption of natural resources led to greater number of industrial
wastes and environmental degradation. Such factors have driven researchers to come up
with solutions leading to much needed sustainable development.

This study explores the partial replacement of Cement with Rice Husk Ash (RHA) and
Coarse Aggregates with Coconut Shells (CS) in concrete mix design. Rice Husk, a by-
product of the rice milling industry, is rich in silica and exhibits pozzolanic properties,
making it a suitable supplementary cementitious material. On the other hand, Coconut
Shells, a waste product from coconut processing, offer a lightweight and eco-friendly
alternative to conventional coarse aggregates.

Fig 1: Rice Husk Ash and Coconut Shell

1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Cement production is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions,

particularly carbon dioxide (CO2). The process of heating limestone and other raw
materials to create clinker, the main component of cement, releases CO2. Additionally,
fossil fuels used to generate heat further contribute to emissions.

Cement production requires vast quantities of raw materials, including limestone,

clay, and gypsum. The extraction of these resources can lead to habitat destruction, loss
of biodiversity, and landscape alteration. Cement manufacturing processes require
significant amounts of water, both for processing raw materials and for cooling
purposes. In water-stressed regions, this can strain local water supplies and exacerbate
environmental challenges.

Cement production releases various pollutants into the atmosphere, including

particulate matter, sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). These pollutants can contribute to air quality degradation and
have adverse effects on human health and ecosystems.

Coarse Aggregate is a fundamental and essential component of concrete. The

environmental burden associated with its extraction and processing causing air
pollution and noise pollution, as well as the unsustainability of relying solely on finite
natural resources.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

• To carefully study the properties of chosen materials.

• To study the effect of rice husk ash on workability of concrete.
• To investigate compressive strength properties of concrete.
• Assess the environmental benefits of using waste materials.
• Optimize the propositions of waste material replacements.
• Promote the sustainable construction practices.
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In order to conduct this study successfully, the methodology of this study is summarized
as shown below;

2
 To determine the suitability of rice husk ash as a partial replacement of cement
and coconut shell as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate in concrete production.
There are tests that needed to determine the suitability of rice husk ash and coconut
shell as alternative in concrete production that is compressive strength test.

The flexural strength test is indeed a common method used to assess the strength
and performance of concrete or mortar mixes, especially when alternative materials
like rice husk ash (as a partial cement replacement) and coconut shells (as a partial
coarse aggregate replacement) are used. When using rice husk ash as a partial
replacement for cement and coconut shell as a partial replacement for coarse aggregate
in concrete mixes, it's important to evaluate how these substitutions affect the overall
strength and durability of the concrete.

The tests that will be conducted to overcome this objective are compressive
strength test, flexural strength test, water absorption test and water penetration test.
Both conventional concrete and control concrete will be tested to compare which
concrete will have higher performance during each test.
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY

This project focuses on the design, preparation, and testing of concrete mixes in
which:
• Rice Husk Ash (RHA) partially replaces cement, and
• Coconut Shells (CS) partially replace coarse aggregates.
The scope includes:
• Studying the physical and chemical properties of RHA and CS.
• Determining the optimum replacement percentages for cement and coarse
aggregates.
• Evaluating the effects of replacements on the workability, compressive strength,
tensile strength, and durability of concrete.
• Comparing the performance of modified concrete with conventional concrete.
• Assessing the economic and environmental benefits of using RHA and CS in
concrete production.

3
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE STUDY

The significance of this study lies in its contribution to sustainable construction by

exploring the partial replacement of traditional concrete materials—cement and coarse
aggregate—with rice husk ash (RHA) and coconut shells, respectively. With the
construction industry being a major consumer of natural resources and a significant
contributor to carbon emissions, this study addresses the urgent need for eco-friendly
alternatives. Rice husk ash, an agricultural by-product rich in amorphous silica, offers
pozzolanic properties that can enhance concrete strength and durability when used in
appropriate proportions. Similarly, coconut shells, which are lightweight and readily
available waste materials, can effectively replace a portion of coarse aggregates, leading
to the development of lightweight concrete. This not only helps reduce the dependency on
non-renewable resources like cement and natural aggregates but also offers an effective
method of managing agricultural waste, thereby minimizing environmental pollution.
Additionally, the use of such materials can lower construction costs, making concrete more
affordable, especially in rural and low-income housing projects.

4
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The literature review provides insights into previous research studies, highlighting the
potential and challenges of using rice husk ash as a cement substitute and coconut shells
as a coarse aggregate replacement in concrete. This background helps identify gaps in
knowledge, validate the relevance of the study, and support its scientific foundation.
The literature review was a preliminary and primary survey to view related overall study.
The literature review is made to understand and to obtain background of the research
topics beginning of the subject title. There are various studies that have been conducted
on concrete diversifying the sources of materials.

1. Zaidatul Syahida Adnan [PERFORMANCE OF RICE HUSK ASH AS A

MATERIAL FOR PARTIAL CEMENT REPLACEMENT IN CONCRETE, 2022]

This paper attempts at reviewing the performance of rice husk ash as partial cement
replacement. It could be observed from the literature that concrete with 5% up to 15% of
rice husk ash showed an equivalent performance to ordinary concrete in compressive,
flexural, and tensile strength. Thus, rice husk ash can be used as a material replacement in
concrete and reduces pollution that originates from cement production and open burning
of rice husk.

2. M Sanchaya [ EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON RICE HUSK ASH AND

COCONUT SHELL USED IN BUILDIND MATERIALS,2022]

The coconut shells were taken on 10 % with replacement of coarse aggregate and rice husk
ash were taken on 5 %, 10 %, 15 %, 20 % & 25 % with partial replacement of cement. It
is found that compressive strength and tensile strength of concrete is increased. The volume
of concrete also increased as replacement increased total cost of concrete is reduced by
replacement coarse aggregate by coconut shells and cement by rice husk ash. The
compressive strength of the replacement concrete is 30.45 N/mm2. The compressive
strength is increased by 9.3 % when compared to the conventional concrete. The Split
Tensile Strength of the replacement concrete is 2.55 N/mm2. The Split Tensile strength is
increased by 11.8 % when compared to the conventional concrete and the flexural strength
of the replacement concrete is 8.45 N/mm2. The flexural strength is increased by 3 % when
compared to the conventional concrete. Its utilization is cost effective and eco-friendly.

5
3. Ranjitha B Tangadagi [STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCRETE
USING COCONUT SHELL AS A COARSE AGGREGATE,2021]

The investigation exhibits that, Coconut shell can be replaced up to 20% by weight of
Coarse aggregate, without compromising the strength characteristics and rheological
properties of concrete. Use of coconut shell as a coarse aggregate in concrete production
not only contributes to performance and strength of concrete but also solves the solid waste
disposal problem and helps in conserving natural resources.

4. Arvind Kumar [REPLACEMENT OF CEMENT IN CONCRETE WITH RICE

HUSK ASH,2016]

The investigation taken to study the properties of concrete made with Rice husk ash. the
replacement is done partially in the proportion of 0%, 20% and its effect on workability of
concrete made with rice husk ash were investigated for the 20% rice husk ash replacement,
the hardened properties such as compressive strength observed were good as compare to
0% RHA. The compressive strength test was conducted at 0% and 20% rice husk ash
replacement and the highest compressive strength at 20% RHA replacement as compared
to 0% RHA replacement at 14, 21 and 28 days.

5. Parag S Kambli [COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BY USING

COCONUT SHELL,2014]

In this study, three different concrete mixes namely M20, M35 & M50 grade with different
combination of natural material CS content in the proportion 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%
will be replaced. Six sample specimen will be prepared for each concrete mixes. The
parameters will be tested are compressive strength behaviour of cube specimens for 7 &
28 days. The main objective is to encourage the use of these seemingly waste products as
construction materials in low cost housing. It is also expected to serve the purpose of
encouraging housing developers in investing these materials in house construction.

6
 CHAPTER 3
METHODLOGY & MATERIALS

3.1 Steps involved

7
3.2 CEMENT
Cement is a material that has a cohesive and adhesion properties that enable binding
chunks of rock into one cohesive body. There are dissimilar cases of cement made at factory
for specific purposes and to conform to the specific demands. When the void between the
aggregates is minimized, then the need for cement to fill the empty space can be reduced
to maintain the workability and the strength of concrete. And so, the optimal mixing ratio
of aggregates will produce a concrete with minimal quantity of cement contain. Therefore,
the lower water and cement quantity of water and cement ratio (w/c) constant, would result
a more durable concrete.

Even though cement is only contributed 10% of the concrete volumes in mixing, it is an
active substance and a material that can be controlled scientifically. Cement consists of a
mixture of silicate and aluminate compounds of calcium metal in a certain proportion. The
ratio of chemical substances in each type of cement influences the properties of the cement.

The types of cement that are often used in this project

1) OPC 53 grade, Ordinary Portland cement

3.3 AGGREGATES
Aggregates play an important role in concrete as aggregate is one of the materials instead
of water, cement and other additive in concrete production due to aggregate compose 75%
of production of concrete. It likewise means that concrete production, largely depending
on aggregate properties. The properties of aggregates are compressive and bond strength,
shape and surface, size, permeability and rarefaction of chemicals. Other than that, the
physical properties of aggregates such as relative density, density loam, porosity and
moisture absorption, soundness and resistance to acid and alkali attack also affect the
strength of aggregate in concrete production. The choice of aggregates for concrete mix
is something very significant due to the properties that will bear upon the strength,
toughness, mixing ratio, and so thus it economical to the concrete producing. In general,
a good aggregate is an aggregate containing details of stability and durability and do not
contain ingredients that will bring adverse effects to the concrete such as dust, mud, salt
and others. With a high demand of aggregate due to increase in the construction industry,
it will make the shortage of aggregate in market to occur.

8
 Fig 3.1 Aggregates

3.3.1 Aggregate Production Process

The size of aggregate that has been use of concrete mixing depends on the function of the
concrete use of. An aggregate has been categories into two types such as coarse aggregate
that have a size more than 5 mm and fine aggregate with a size less than 5 mm.
The aggregate storage in inappropriate places such as beside sand or stack stone will
causes the waste generation occurs at the construction site and aggregate that being mixed
with those materials will cause it left unattended in a storage area (Ibrahim, 2004). The
naturally formed aggregates can be sorted according to the type of rocks. Theusual types
of aggregates that are often used in Malaysia are composed of rocks of granite, limestone,
sandstone and conglomerate.
Among the aggregates that are referred to are as shown in the Table 2.1
3.3.2 Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate comes from an aggregate production process that has been
separated into a specific class. The size of coarse aggregate is usually more than 5 mm or
specifically the coarse aggregate is aggregate that not passing sieve size 4.75 mm. Coarse
aggregate that has been practiced in concrete mixing normally consists of three normal
sizes such as 10 mm, 20 mm, and 40 mm. Furthermore, coarse aggregate consists of
following types such as hard rock or gravel which are crushed by grinding process and
rock that has been derived from natural breakdown.
3.4 RICE HUSK ASH

Rice husk, a by-product of rice production, can be used as a partial replacement for
cement, reducing its consumption and enhancing the concrete's thermal insulation
properties.

9
 • Collection
o Rice husk is collected from rice mills, farms, and other sources. It's crucial
to ensure the husk is clean and free from impurities for optimal use in
concrete.
• Treatment
o The rice husk is heated to get ash under 75degreecelsius to remove organic
matter and improve its compatibility with concrete. This process is like
burning to get ash.
• Integration
o The treated rice husk ash is added to the concrete mix as a partial
replacement for cement. The optimal percentage depends on the specific
project requirements.

Fig 3.2: Rice husk ash

3.5 COARSE AGGREGATES

Coarse aggregates are particles that are larger than 4.75 mm in size. They are typically
obtained from crushed rocks, gravel, or natural stones, and are used to provide bulk,
strength, and stability to concrete.
Common Sizes:
• 10 mm
• 20 mm (most commonly used in concrete)
• 40 mm (used in mass concreting like dams)

10
 Fig 3.3: Coarse aggregate
3.6 COCONUT SHELLS
Concrete is the most widely used construction material. Traditionally, coarse
aggregates like crushed stones are used in concrete, but the extraction of these natural
materials leads to environmental degradation. To promote sustainability, agricultural
waste like coconut shells can be used as a partial replacement for coarse aggregate.
Coconut shell, a natural and abundant material, can be used as a partial replacement for
coarse aggregate, adding strength and sustainability to concrete.

Figure 3.4: Coconut shells

11
 Collection of coconut shells

1. Coconut Collection: The process begins with collection coconuts from coconut
trees, oil mills and temples.

2. Cleaning & Sorting: The collected coconuts are then de husked to remove the
outer fibrous husk and also remove the inner coconut meat.

3. Crushing & Sizing: The coconuts are then crushed to required sizes of coconut
shells.

4. Blending: The required coconut shells which were free from fibers, meat and any
other debris mixed with the concrete.

Properties of Coconut Shells:

1. Density: 650–800 kg/m³ (lighter than conventional aggregates)
2. Water Absorption: High, usually around 20–25%
3. Shape: Rough, irregular, good bonding with cement
4. Compressive Strength: Lower than traditional aggregates, but acceptable for low-
to medium-strength application.

3.7 TESTS ON CEMENT

3.7.1 Fineness Test

Importance of Cement Fineness

The fineness of cement affects hydration rate, and in turn, the strength. Increasing
fineness causes an increased rate of hydration, high strength, and high heat generation.

Bleeding can be reduced by increasing fineness. However, increased fineness can also
lead to the requirement of more water for workability, resulting in a higher possibility of
dry shrinkage. The increased surface area-to-volume ratio will ensure a more available
area for water-cement interaction per unit volume.

APPARATUS

• 90µ Sieve

• Balance capable of weighing 10g to the nearest 10mg

• Glass rod

• Stoppered jar

12
 • Pan and Lid
PROCEDURE

• Stir the sample of cement to be tested by shaking for 2 minutes in a stoppered

jar to disperse lumps. Stir the resulting powder gently using a clean dry rod in
order to distribute the fines throughout the cement.
• Attach a pan under the sieve to collect the cement passing the sieve.

• Weigh approximately 100 g of cement to the nearest 0.01 g and place it on the
sieve. Fit the lid over the sieve.
• Shake the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movement until no more fine
material passes through it.
• Remove and weigh the residue. Express its mass as a percentage (R1) of the
quantity first placed in the sieve.
• Repeat the steps 3 to 5 with a fresh sample to obtain R2.

If the results differ by more than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third sieving and
calculate the mean of the three values.

Figure 3.5 fineness test (90 µ sieve)

OBSERVATIONS
Weight of cement sample taken = 100g

Weight of residues
R1 = 5gms
R2 = 6gms
R3 = 4.5gms

13
 CALCULATIONS

Ravg = (R1+R2+R3)/3
Ravg = (5+6+4.5)/3

Ravg = 5.17g
Fineness modulus of cement = 15.5/3 𝑥 100
Fineness modulus of cement = 5.17%

RESULT

Fineness modulus of cement = 5.17%

3.7.2 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Significance of Specific Gravity of Cement

Based on the moisture content present in the cement, the specific gravity can either
increase or decrease. The cement particles have pores or particles that can contain water
within it. A nominal mix is prepared with a cement of specific gravity 3.15. Any change
in this value of specific gravity will affect the mix design. Hence, it is necessary to test
the specific gravity of the cement procured before mixing process. This is the main
reason why we ignore the use of old stock cement. Old stock cement may be affected by
external moisture content. A value of specific gravity of cement greater than 3.19 shows
that the cement was not properly minced into fine powder during its production, or the
cement has more moisture content. The presence of moisture content in cement is easily
identified by the presence of chunks in cement.

Equipment and Apparatus:

• Le Chatelier’s flask

• Weighing balance

• Kerosene (free from water)

• Weighing Balance

Le Chatelier’s flask, is made of thin glass having a bulb at the bottom. The capacity
of the bulb is nearly 250 ml. The bulb is 7.8 cm in mean diameter. The stem is
graduated in millimetres. The zero graduation is at 8.8 cm from the top of the bulb.
At 2 cm from the zero, there is another bulb is of length 3.5cm and capacity of 17

14
ml. At 1 cm from the bulb, the stem is marked with 18 ml and is grated up to 24 ml.
The portion above 24ml mark is in the form of a funnel of diameter 5cm.

Figure 3.6 Specific gravity apparatus for cement

PROCEDURE

• The flask is allowed to dry completely and made free from the liquid and
moisture. The weight of the empty flask is taken asW1.
• The bottle is filled with cement to its half (around 50gm of cement) and closed
with a stopper. The arrangement is weighed with stopper and taken asW2.
• To this kerosene is added to the top of the bottle. The mixture is mixed
thoroughly, and air bubbles are removed. The flask with kerosene, cement
with stopper. The arrangement is weighed with stopper and taken as W3.
• Next, the flask is emptied and filled the kerosene to the top. The arrangement
is weighed and taken as W4.

Figure 3.7 Specific gravity test

15
OBSERVATIONS

Weight of cement sample = 50g

W1 = weight of empty flask = 122g

W2 = weight of flask + cement = 172g

W3= weight of flask+ cement + kerosene =374g

W4 = weight of flask + kerosene = 331g

CALCULATIONS

Specific Gravity of Cement is given by the formula

𝑤2 − 𝑤1 172 − 122
=
[𝑤2 − 𝑤1 ] − [𝑤3 − 𝑤4 ] (172 − 122) − (374 − 331)

= 3.15

RESULT

Specific gravity of cement = 3.15

3.8 TESTS ON FINE AGGREGATE

3.8.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST & WATER ABSORPTION TEST

APPARATUS

• A balance of capacity not less than 3kg, readable and accurate to 0.5 gm and of
such a type as to permit the weighing of the vessel containing the aggregate and
water.

• A well-ventilated oven to maintain a temperature of 100ºC to 110ºC .

• Pycnometer of about 1 litre capacity having a metal conical screw top with a 6mm
hole at its apex. The screw top shall be watertight.

• A means supplying a current warm air.

• A tray of area not less than 32cm².

• An airtight container large enough to take the sample.

• Filter papers and funnel.

16
PROCEDURE

• Take the weight of empty pycnometer W1.

• Take about 1/3rd volume of saturated surface dry sample in the pycnometer
and weight it as W2.
• Pour distilled water into it until it is full.
• Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the pycnometer on its side, the
hole in the apex of the cone being covered with a finger and take the
weight it as W3.
• Transfer the contents of the pycnometer into a tray, care being taken to
ensure that all the aggregate is transferred.
• Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level and weight
it as W4. Drain water from the sample through a filter paper
• Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º
C for 24±0.5 hours, during which period, it is stirred occasionally
to facilitate drying. Cool the sample and weigh it as W5.

Figure 3.8 Specific gravity test of Fine aggregate

OBSERVATIONS

W1 = weight of empty pycnometer = 625g

W2 = weight of pycnometer + sand = 1195g

W3 = weight of pycnometer + sand + water = 1878g

W4 = weight of pycnometer + water = 1510g

W5 = weight of oven dried sample = 559g

17
CALCULATIONS

Specific Gravity of sand is given by the

𝑤2 −𝑤1
= [𝑤
2 −𝑤1 ]−[𝑤3 −𝑤4 ]

1195−625
= [1195−625]−[1878−1510]

= 2.825

Water absorption of sand is given by formula,

(𝑤2 −𝑤1 )−𝑤5

= X 100
𝑤5

(1195−620)−559
= X 100
559

= 1.97%

RESULT

Specific Gravity of sand = 2.825

Water absorption of sand = 1.97%

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS APPARATUS

• Indian standard test sieves.

• weighing balance.

• sieve shaker etc.

• Size of sieves to be used are 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µ, 300µ, 150µ.

Figure 3.9 Set of IS sieves

18
PROCEDURE
• Take one kg of sand from the laboratory sample.

• Arrange the sieves in order of IS sieves 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600 µ, 300 µ,
150 µ, keeping sieve size 4.75mm at the top and 150 µ at the bottom and cover the
top.

• Keep the sample in the top sieve size 4.75mm.

• Carry out the sieving in the set of sieves for not less than 10 minutes.

• Find the weight of sample retained in each sieve.

• Tabulate the values in given tabular column.

OBSERVATIONS:

Table: 3.1-Sieve analysis of fine aggregate

IS Sieve size Weight of fine Percentage Cumulative Percentage of

aggregate retained percent finer (N)
retained (g) retained

4.75 mm 0 0 0 100

2.36 mm 30 6 6 94

1.18 mm 80 16 22 78

600µ 125 25 47 53

300µ 180 36 83 17

150µ 65 13 96 4

Pan 20 4 100 0

RESULT :

19
 From IS 383: 2016 of Table 9, Clause 6.3

The tested Fine aggregate belongs to Grading Zone II

3.9 TESTS ON COARSE AGGREGATE

3.9.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST & WATER ABSORPTION TEST APPARATUS

• Weighing balance of capacity not less than 5Kg

• Oven

• Glass vessel

• Airtight container

• 10mm IS sieve

• Coarse aggregate

PROCEDURE

• Take approximately 1Kg sample of coarse aggregate in its natural state, the
quantity of sample to be taken depends upon the size of the aggregates.
• Record the readings in the observation sheet.
• Now sieve the sample through 10mm sieve to remove the finer particles.
• Place the sieved sample in the glass vessel.
• Partly fill the vessel with the distilled water.
• Keep the aggregates immersed for 24 hours so that they are completely saturated.
At the end of the soaking period entrapped air is removed by gentle agitation.
• The vessel is then over filled with water. Cover this vessel with plain ground glass
disc to ensure that no air is trapped in the vessel. The vessel is dendrite from the
outside.
• Now take the weight of this assembly, note these readings in the observation sheet.
20
 • The vessel is now emptied, and aggregate allowed to drain out.
• The aggregates are then placed on a dry cloth till it comes in completely surface
dry condition. Refill the vessel with the distilled water. Weigh this entire assembly
and note the readings.
• After the aggregates appear to be in saturated surface dry condition their weight
is taken.
• Now the aggregates are placed in an enamel tray to be kept it oven at a temperature
of 100 degree Celsius for 24 hours.
• After 24 hours the aggregates are taken out from the oven and cooled in an airtight
container.
• Note down the oven dried weight aggregates with the assembly.

Figure 3.10 Water absorption test of Coarse aggregate

OBSERVATIONS

Weight of sample (W1) = 1000g

Weight of vessel + Sample + Water (W2) = 3372g

Weight of vessel + water (W3) = 2754g

Weight of SSD sample (W4) = 992g

Weight of oven dried sample (W5) = 973g

CALCULATIONS
Apparent specific gravity is given by formula,
𝑤5
=
𝑤5 −[𝑤2 −𝑤3 ]
973
=
973−(3372−2754)

= 2.74
21
Water absorption is given by formula,
𝑤5
=
𝑤5 −[𝑤2 −𝑤3 ]

973
=
973−(3372−2754)

=1.01%

RESULT

Specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.7

Water absorption of coarse aggregate = 1.01%

3.9.2 GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

APPARATUS

• Indian Standard Test Sieves,

• Weighing Balance,

• Sieve Shaker Etc.

• Size Of Sieves to be Used 20mm,16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm.

PROCEDURE

• Take one kg of coarse aggregate.

• Arrange the sieves one over the other in relation to their size of opening. (25mm,
20mm,12.5mm, 10mm, 4.75mm).

• Carry out the sieving for the specified time.

• Find the weight of aggregate retained on each sieve taken in order and tabulated
in table.
• Plot the Graph Draw a graph with sieve opening to log scale on the X-axis and %
finer on Y-axis. The curve is called a grading curve.

22
OBSERVATIONS

Table: 3.2 Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate

IS Sieve size Weight of coarse Percentage Cumulative Percentage of

aggregate retained percent finer (N)
retained (g) retained

20 mm 1880 37.6 37.6 62.4

16 mm 1690 33.8 71.4 28.6

12.5 mm 1105 32.1 93.5 6.5

10 mm 215 4.3 97.8 2.2

4.75 mm 110 2.2 100 0

RESULT

From IS 383: 2016 of Table 7, Clause 6.1 and 6.2,

The tested Coarse aggregate belongs to Single sized aggregate of nominal size

23
3.10 TESTS ON COCONUT SHELL

3.10.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST & WATER ABSORPTION TEST

APPARATUS

• A wire basket of not more than 6-3 mm mesh,

• A stout watertight container in which the basket may be freely suspended,

• well-ventilated oven,

• Taping rod,

• An airtight container of capacity similar to the basket, etc.

PROCEDURE

1. A sample of not less than 2000 g of the aggregate shall be thoroughly washed to
remove finer particles and dust, drained and then placed in the wire basket and immersed
in distilled water at a temperature between 22°C to 32°C with a cover of at least 5 cm of
water above the top of the basket.

2. Immediately. after immersion the entrapped air shall be removed from the sample by
lifting the basket containing it 25 mm above the base of the tank and allowing it to drop
25 times at the rate of about one drop per second. The basket and aggregate shall remain
completely immersed during the operation and for a period of 24 ± l/2 hours afterwards.

3. The basket and the sample shall then be jolted and weighed in water at a temperature of
22°C to 32°C (weight A1).

4. The basket and the aggregate shall then be removed from the water and allowed to
drain for a few minutes, after which the, aggregate shall be gently emptied from the
basket on to one of the dry clothes, and the empty basket shall be returned to the water
and weighed in water (weight A2).

5. The aggregate placed on the dry cloth shall be gently surface dried with the cloth,
transferring it to the second dry cloth when the first will remove no further moisture. The
aggregate shall then be weighed weight B).

6. The aggregate shall then be placed in the oven in the shallow tray, at a temperature of
100 to 110°C and maintained at this temperature for 24 ± l/2 hours. It shall then be
removed from the oven, cooled in the airtight container and weighed (weight C).

OBSERVATIONS

Specific Gravity = C / (A − B)

24
Water Absorption = 100(B − C ) / C

A = Weight of saturated aggregate in water = (A1 - A2 )

B = Weight of the saturated surface – dry aggregate in air

C = Weight of oven dried aggregate in air

RESULT
• The Specific Gravity of a given sample of coarse aggregate = 2.74
• The Water Absorption of a given sample of coarse aggregate = 1%

3.11 TESTS ON RICE HUSK ASH

3.11.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST & WATER ABSORPTION TEST

TEST APPARATUS

• Pycnometer or specific gravity bottle (typically 50 ml or 100 ml).

• Balance (with an accuracy of 0.01g) .
• A tray of area not less than 32m2
• Thermometer (to measure the temperature of the water)
• Distilled water (at specific temperature, usually around 27 degree celcius)
• Drying oven (for drying sample)
• Desiccator (for cooling sample)
• Filter papers and funnel.

PROCEDURE

• Take a clean, dry specific gravity bottle and weigh it (W1).

• Fill the bottle with the dry RHA sample up to a certain mark, typically 1/3rd of its
volume, and weigh again (W2).
• Add distilled water to bottle containing the RHA ensure that there are no air
bubbles trapped. You may use a vacuum pump to remove entrapped air. Fill it
completely and place the stopper.
• Weigh the bottle with the RHA and water (W3)
• Empty the bottle, clean it thoroughly, and then fill it completely with distilled
water.
Weigh the filled bottle (W4).

25
 • Drain water from the sample through a filter paper.
• Place the sample in oven in a tray @ a temperature of 100°C to 110°C for 24±0.5
hours, during which period, it is stirred occasionally to facilitate drying.
• Cool the sample and weigh it as (W5).
OBSERVATIONS:

W1= weight of empty pycnometer = 620g

W2= weight of pycnometer + RHA = 1255g

W3= weight of pycnometer + RHA + water =1890g

W4= weight of pycnometer + water = 1545g

W5= weight of oven dried sample = 585g

CALCULATIONS

Specific gravity of RHA is given by the formula,

𝑤2 −𝑤1
= [𝑤
2 −𝑤1 ]−[𝑤3 −𝑤4 ]

= 2.2

Water absorption of fly ash is given by formula,

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= × 100
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑠ℎ

(𝑤2 −𝑤1 )−𝑤5

=
𝑤5

635−585
= 585
× 100

= 8%
RESULTS

Specific gravity of Rice husk ash = 2.2

Water absorption of Rice husk ash = 8%

26
 CHAPTER 4
CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS

4.1 Mix Design

 Concrete mix design is the process of finding right proportions of cement, sand,
and aggregates to achieve target strength in structures. So, concrete mix design
can be stated as Concrete Mix = Cement: Sand: Aggregates.
 The concrete mix design involves various steps, calculations, and laboratory
testing to find right mix proportions.
 This process is usually adopted for structures which requires higher grades of
concrete such as M25 and above and large construction projects where quantity
of concrete consumption is huge.
 Benefits of concrete mix design is that it provides the right proportions of
materials, thus making the concrete construction economical in achieving
required strength of structural members.
 As, the quantity of concrete required for large constructions are huge, economy
in quantity of materials such as cement makes the project construction
economical.

MIX DSIGN FOR M25 GRADE CONCRETE USING PARTIAL REPLACEMENT

OF COARSE AGGREGATE WITH COCONUT SHELLS AND CEMENT WITH
RICE HUSK ASH IN FOLLOWING DATA

Table 4.1

CEMENT

Type of cement OPC 53 GRADE

Specific gravity 3.15

Max cement content IS 456:2000 clause 8.2.4.2

27
 Table 4.2

SITE CONDITIONS

Exposure Mild

Workability 100mm slump

Method of placing Pumping

Degree of supervision Good

Table 4.3

AGGREGATES

PROPERTY FINE AGGREGATE COARSE AGGREGATE

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.825 2.74

WATER ABSORPTION 1% 2%

MAXIMUM SIZE OF 4.75mm 20mm

AGGRAGATE

Table 4.4

PARTIAL REPLACEMENT
MATERIALS

PROPERTY RICE HUSK ASH COCONUT SHELLS

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.2 1.17

WATER ABSORPTION 8% 11%

28
PROCEDURE FOR MIX DESIGN OF M25 GRADE CONCRETE

1.Target Strength
f'ck = fck + 1.65 S
Target mean compressive strength at 28 days
S-standard deviation IS-10262-2019, Table-2 P.No.3 S = 4.0 N/mm²
f'ck = 25 +1.65 X 4
= 31.6 N/mm²

29
2. Water Cement Ratio

Exposure - Mild

From IS-456-2000, Table-3 & 5, P.No.20

Water cement ratio-0.5

30
31
3. Water Content

The water content as per IS-10262, Table-4, P.No.5, for 20mm aggregate - 186kg (for 50mm
slump)

We need 100mm slump, For every 25mm slump we add 3% water content (IS-10262-
cl.5.3)

The water content is

32
 186 + 6% of 186= 197.16 kg

The water absorption of concrete materials

Coarse Aggregate =1%

Fine Aggregate =2%

Coconut Shell =11%

Rice Husk Ash =8%

The total water absorption

=1+2+11+8=22%

The total water content =197.16+ + 22% of 197.16 =240.53kg

4.Calculation of cement content

Water cement ratio = water content/cement content

Cement content = water content/water cement ratio

= 240.53/0.5= 481.07kg/m³ > 300kg/m³

Here we are replacing 10% of cement content by RHA (Rice Husk Ash), then

Cement content =90% of 481.07=432.963kg/m³

RHA content =10% of 481.07=48.107kg/m³

5.Aggregate proportion between C.A & F.A

From IS-10262, Table-5, P.No.6, Cl.5.5.1

And the aggregate zone is Zone-II

33
So, the coarse aggregate volume ratio is 0.62 and Water and Cement (w/c-0.5)

For pump able concrete C.A can be reduced up to 10% (As per IS-10262,cl.5.5.2)

Volume of coarse aggregate = 0.62-(10% of 0.62) = 0.558

Volume of fine aggregate =1-Volume of coarse aggregate

=1-0.558=0.442

6.Mix Calculation

a) Volume of concrete = 1m³

b) Volume of cement = (Mass/Sp.gravity) × (1/1000)

= 432.963/(3.15×1000)= 0.137m³

c) Volume of water =(Mass/Sp.gravity) × (1/1000)

= 240.53/(1.0×1000)= 0.2405m³

d) Volume of RHA= (Mass/Sp.gravity) × (1/1000)

= 48.107/(2.2×1000) = 0.021m³

e) Volume of all in aggregate

=1-(b+c+d) = 1-(0.137+0.2405+0.021) = 0.6015m³

f) Mass of coarse aggregate

Vol. of all in aggregate × Vol. of CA × Sp.gravity of CA × 1000

0.6015× 0.558× 2.74 ×1000 = 919.645 kg/m³

g) Mass of fine aggregate

Vol. of all in aggregate × Vol. of F.A. × Sp.gravity of F.A. × 1000

0.6015× 0.442× 2.825 ×1000 = 751.0629 kg/m³

h) Mass of coconut shell as partial replacement of C.A.

34
Table 4.5: Mass and Volumes of CS & C.A. after partial replacement of C.A. with CS

The percentage Mass of CS Mass of C.A. Volume of CS Volume of C.A.

of C.A.
=(P×919.645 =(1-P) =(Mass/Sp.G)× =(Mass/Sp.G)×
replacement
kg/m³) ×919.645 kg/m³ (1/1000) m³ (1/1000) m³
with CS (P)
in %

15 137.946 781.698 0.1179 0.285

20 183.929 735.716 0.157 0.268

25 229.911 689.733 0.1965 0.251

Mix Calculation tables;

For 10% RHA and 15% CS Mix Calculation (CS15)
Table 4.6: Mix calculations for CS15
NAME OF MATERIALS FOR 1M³
Mass (kg/m³) Volume (m³)
Cement 432.963 0.137
Rice husk ash 48.107 0.021
Fine Aggregate 751.069 0.265
Coarse Aggregate 781.698 0.2859
Coconut shell 137.946 0.1179
Water 240.53 0.2405

For 10% RHA and 20% CS Mix Calculation (CS20)

Table 4.7: Mix calculations for CS20
NAME OF FOR 1M³
MATERIALS Mass (kg/m³) Volume (m³)
Cement 432.963 0.137
Rice husk ash 48.107 0.021
Fine Aggregate 751.069 0.265
Coarse Aggregate 735.716 0.268
Coconut shell 183.929 00.157
Water 240.53 0.2405
35
For 10% RHA and 25% CS Mix Calculations (CS25)

Table 4.8: Mix calculations for CS25

NAME OF MATERIALS FOR 1M³
Mass (kg/m³) Volume (m³)
Cement 432.963 0.137
Rice husk ash 48.107 0.021
Fine Aggregate 751.069 0.265
Coarse Aggregate 689.733 0.251
Coconut shell 229.911 0.1965
Water 240.53 0.2405

4.2 PREPARATION OF CONCRETE CUBE SPECIMENS

For the cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15 cm X 15 cm X 15
cm or 10 cm X 10 cm X 10 cm depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For the
most of the works cubical moulds of size 15 cm X 15 cm X 15 cm are commonly used .

CONCRETE PREPARATION PROCESS

The main concrete manufacturing process is as follows

Batching, Mixing, Placing, Compacting, Curing.
1) Batching

It is the main thing in the concrete manufacturing process. The measurement of materials
like aggregate, cement, water necessary for preparing different grades of concrete is
called Batching. It is by two process; One is volume and other is weight batching .The
volume batching is by mixing materials with its volume. And weight batching is by the
self- weight ratio of materials. It has ratios according to the standard codes . Some of
the different grades of concrete are M10, M20, M25, M30.

36
2) Mixing

Mixing is to produce uniform, high- quality concrete. The mixing equipment is capable
of effective concrete material. Separate pate mix shows the mixing of cement and water
into a paste before combines with aggregates. This increases the compressive strength
of concrete. This paste mix in high-speed, shear-type mixer at a water-cement ratio of
0.35 to 0.50 by Mass. The premix paste blends with aggregates. The remaining batch
water and final mix complete in a rotating concrete mixing equipment.

Figure 4.1: Mixing

WORKABILITY TEST

Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency of
concrete mix prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of
the work. Concrete slump test is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform
quality of concrete during construction.

Equipment required for concrete slump test

• Mould for slump test i.e., slump cone (the mould for the test is in the form of the
frustrum of cone having height 30 cm , bottom diameter 20 cm , and top diameter
10 cm).
• Non porous plate
• Measuring scale
• Tamping rod ( 16 mm diameter and 60 cm long and rounded at one end )

37
Procedure for Concrete Slump Cone Test

• Clean the initial surface of the mould and apply oil.

• Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non-porous base plate.
• Fill the mould with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.
• Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a uniform
manner Over the cross section of the mould. For the subsequent layers, the tamping
should penetrate the underlying layer.

Figure 4.2 Steps involved in workability test

• Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel. Clean away the
mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the base plate.
• Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical direction.
• Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould and that of
height point of the specimen being tested.

Results of Slump Cone Test on Concrete

Figure 4.3 Slump

38
Slump for the given sample = 20mm

When the slump test is carried out, following are the shape of the concrete slump that
can be observed:

Figure 4.4 Types of Slumps

3) Placing
Concrete to place in a good manner. It places without segregation to reach maximum
efficiency. this concrete is poured in the mould and the specimen must be cast in 3 layers
and appropriately tampered so as not to have ant voids.

4) Compaction

In compacting through tamping bars 35 strokes must be done in all parts of cubes for
proper compacting. this tampering bar has the dimensions of diameter 16 mm and length
0.6 m.

39
 Fig 4.5 Moulding of Cubes

5) Curing

Curing is to provide best strength and hardness to concrete. It is the next step after
placing of concrete. Curing helps concrete to gain strength early. The concrete requires
a moist and wet environment to gain full strength. Proper curing of concrete leads to
increase the strength of concrete. And prevent cracking at surface dries. Avoid freezing
and overheating of concrete to gain its full strength.

The test provides are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the specimens
are marked and removed from moulds and kept submerged in clean fresh water until taken
prior to the test. The water for curing should be tested every 7 days and temperature of
the water must be at 27±2 ° C.

Fig 4.6 Curing of Specimens

40
4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The compressive strength of the concrete cube test provides an idea about all the
characteristics of concrete. By this test one can judge that whether concreting has been
done properly or not. Concrete compressive strength for general construction has been
properly or not. Concrete compressive strength for general construction varies from 15
Mpa (2200 psi) to 30 Mpa (4400 psi) and higher in commercial and industrial structures.

Compressive strength of concrete depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio,

Cement strength, quality of concrete material, quality control during the production of
Concrete, etc…

Test for compressive strength is carried out either on a cube or cylinder. Various standard
Codes recommend a concrete cylinder or concrete cube as the standard specimen.

FACTORS AFFTECTING COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE Water /

cement ratio

The ratio of the weight to the weight of cement is called water/cement ratio. it is the
most important factor for gaining the strength of concrete. The lower w/c ratio leads the
higher strength of concrete. Generally, the water/cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.60 is used.
Too much water leads to segregation and voids in concrete. Water /cement ratio is
inversely proportional to the strength of concrete.

Figure 4.7 graph showing compressive strength of concrete vs w/c ratio

41
Ingredients of concrete

The main ingredients of concrete are cement, sand, aggregate and water. Quality of each
material affects the strength of the concrete. all materials, therefore, should fulfil the
standard criteria for use in concrete like,

a) Type and quantity of cement

The quantity of cement affects concrete strength. The higher cement ratio increases
the tendency of shrinkage cracks when the concrete is getting cured and hardened.
Types of cement also have great impact on the properties of hardened concrete.
According to IS 456: 2000, the minimum cement content specified ranges from 300
to 360 kg per cubic meter of concrete for various exposure conditions and various
grade of Concrete. Maximum cement content in concrete is also limited to 450 kg
per cubic meter per cubic meter of concrete. The grade of cement – i.e. 33grade, 43
grade, 53grade will also affect the strength of concrete. The higher the grade, the
higher strength particularly high early strength.

b) Types and quantity of aggregate

The strength of concrete depends upon the strength of aggregates. Low quality of
aggregate reduces the strength of concrete. The quantity of aggregate also affects the
properties of hardened concrete. At constant cement content, reduces the concrete
strength. The shape and grading of aggregate play a major role as far as strength of
concrete is concern.

c) Quality of water

Quality of water plays a significant role in the setting and hardening process of
concrete. Acidic, oily, silty, and seawater should not be used in concrete mix.
Impurities of water give an adverse effect on the strength of concrete. Therefore,
potable water is always used in concrete mix. Particularly the impure water may lead
to corrosion, carbonation or acidic attack, therefore, reduces the life of concrete.

42
 Figure 4.8 : Ingredients of concrete
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEFINITION

Compressive strength refers to the ability of a certain material or structural element to

withstand loads that reduce the size of that material, or structural element, when applied.
A force is applied to the top and bottom of a test sample, until the sample fractures or is
deformed.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FORMULA

Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of failure
to the cross- section area of the face on which load was applied.

Compression strength = load/cross sectional area

APPARATUS FOR CONCRETE CUBE TEST

• Compression test machine

• Concrete cubes

PROCEDURE FOR CONCRETE CUBE TEST

• Remove the specimen from the water after specified curing time and wipe out
excess water from surface.
• Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.22m.
• Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine.
• Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied
to the
• opposite sides of the cube cast.
• Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of machine.
• Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.
43
 • Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140
kg/cm2/minute
• Till the specimen fails.

Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

NOTE:

Minimum three specimen should be tested at each selected age. If the strength of any
specimen varies by more than 15% of average strength, the result of each specimen
should be rejected. The average of three specimens gives the crushing strength of
concrete. They are the strength requirements of the concrete.

Figure 4.9 Compressive strength testing of cube specimen

OBSERVATIONS OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Size of the cube = 15 cm X 15 cm X 15 cm

Area of specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen) = 225 cm2

44
Maximum load applied = 2000kN

Fig 4.10 Size of the cube

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT VARIOUS AGES
The strength of concrete increases with the age. The table shows the strength of concrete
at different ages in compression with the strength at 28 days after casting.

Age in days Strength percent

1 16

3 40

7 65

14 90

28 99

Table 4.9: Strength of concrete at various days

From above table, we see that concrete gains 16% strength in one day, 40 % in 3 days,
65% in 7 days, 90% in 14 days and 99% in 28 days. Thus, concrete gains strength rapidly
in the initial days after casting i.e., 90% in 14 days only. When its strength has reached

45
99% in 28 days, still concrete continue to gain strength after that period but the rate of
gain in compressive strength is very less compared to that in 28 days.

After 14 days of casting concrete, concrete gains only 9% in next 14 days. So rate of
gain of strength decreases. We have no clear idea up to when the concrete gains the
strength, 1 year or 2 years, but it is assumed that concrete may gain its final strength
after 1 year. So since, the concrete strength is 99% at 28 days, its almost close to its fine
strength. Thus, we relay upon the results of compressive strength test after 28 days and
zuse this strength as the base for our designed evaluation.

COMPARISON OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CUBES WITH

CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE

Conventional RHA- 10% RHA-10% RHA-10%

concrete CS-15% CS-20% CS-25%

7 days 16.25 8.8 14.2 8

14 days 22.5 16.4 20 14.6
28 days 24.75 17.6 24.04 16.4

Table 4.10: Comparison of compressive strength of cubes with conventional concrete

Note: all are in N/mm2

46
 Compressive strength of conventional concrete
30

24.75
25
22.5

20
16.25
15

10

0
7 DAYS 14 DAYS 28 DAYS

CS0

Graph 4.1 Compressive strength of conventional concrete with bar graph

Compressive strength of sustainable conccrete

30

25 24.04

20
20 17.6
16.4 16.4
14.2 14.6
15

10 8.8
8

0
7 DAYS 14 DAYS 28 DAYS

CS15 CS20 CS25

Graph 4.2 Compressive strength sustainable concrete with bar graph

47
 Compressive strength comparison graph
30

24.75 24.04
25
22.5
20
20 17.6
16.25 16.4 16.4
14.2 14.6
15

10 8.8
8

0
7 DAYS 14 DAYS 28 DAYS

CS0 CS15 CS20 CS25

Graph 4.3 compressive strength comparison with bar graph

Line Graph
30

24.75
25
22.5
24.04
20
20 16.4 17.6
16.25
15 16.4
14.6
14.2
10 8.8

8
5

0
7 Days 14 Days 28 Days

CS0 CS15 CS20 CS25

Graph. 4.4 comparison of compressive strength with line graph

48
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

1. The compaction factor decreased as the percentage of coconut shell and rice husk
ash increases and increased in comparison with the conventional concrete.
2. The compressive strength of the blended concrete containing 10% rice husk ash
and 15% coconut shell was found to be 55% of conventional concrete after 7
days, 73% after 14 days, and 80% after 28 days.
3. The compressive strength of the blended concrete containing 10% rice husk ash
and 20% coconut shell was found to be 88% of conventional concrete after 7
days, 89% after 14 days, and 97% after 28 days.
4. The compressive strength of the blended concrete containing 10% rice husk ash
and 25% coconut shell was found to be 49% of conventional concrete after 7
days, 65% after 14 days, and 66% after 28 days.
5. From the above results we can say that coarse aggregate partially replaced with
coconut shell and cement partially replaced with rice husk ash only up to a
specific proportion of blending can be carried out to achieve strength, with the
maximum strength obtained in conventional concrete.
6. When percentage of rice husk ash and coconut shell is increased comparatively
then the compressive strength of the blended concrete is decreased with respect
to conventional concrete strength.
7. When alternative sources are introduced in concrete production for developing
the same property as conventional concrete, it not only saves renewable sources
but also results in ecofriendly nature. It is economical. All I can say is BEST
FROM WASTE. “All changes or practices should lead to a sustainable
development.”

REFERENCES

1. A textbook on Concrete Technology by Ms. Shetty

2. A text book on properties of concrete by M. Neville (4th edition)
3. IS 10262: 2019 – concrete mix proportion guidelines
4. IS 456: 2000- plain and reinforced concrete code of practice
5. Is 383:2016- coarse and fine aggregate for concrete specification
49