x

Logs, Surds and In- 2 Surds

√ √
• logba nx =
x
a
logb n
logb n = x logb n
dices • a + b = c + d ⇔ a = c&b = d
√ √
1
logba n = logb n
√ √
q q
√ a
• a+ b = x+ y ⇔ a− b = x−
√ log n
1 Indices y • logb n =
log b
• a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca √ √
q q
3 √ 3 √
1 • a+ b=x+ y ⇔ a− b=x− y • log n = loge n
(a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2

=
2 • Common logarithms ⇒ b = 10 (base 10)
2 2 2 2
• (a + b + c) = a + b + c + 2(ab + bc + ca) 3 Logs Natural logarithms ⇒ b = e (base e)

• (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b) bp = n
3.3 Useful Results
(a − b)3 = a3 − b3 − 3ab(a − b) p = logb n
Result 1 If b > 1, then
• a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 ) 3.1 Cases:
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
• If n < 0, logb n is imaginary
• a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc
= (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca • If n = 0, logb n doesn’t exist


1
= (a+b+c) (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2


• If n > 0, logb n exists for b > 0 & b 6= 1
2
• an − bn = (a − b) 3.2 Properties:
an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b2 + · · · + bn−1

an + bn = (a + b) • blogb n = n
n−1 n−2 n−2 2 n−2 n−1


a −a b+a b − · · · + ab −b
• alogb n = nlogb a
a c
• If = then, • logb b = 1, logb 1 = 0 Figure 1: Graph for y = logb n, b > 1
b d 1
a2 + c2 2


a c a+c 1
= = = 1 = ··· • logb n = • logb n < 0 ⇒ 0 < n < 1
b d b+d (b2 + d2 ) 2 logn b
loga n • logb n = 0 ⇒ n = 1
• logb n = loga n logb a =
loga b • logb n > 0 ⇒ n > 1
• logb (mn) = logb m + logb n • x > y ⇒ logb x > logb y
m
• logb = logb m − logb n • logb n is an increasing function.
n

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 • n > b ⇒ logb n > 1 4 Componento and Dividendo
p a
• 0 < n < b ⇒ logb n < 1 If = , then:
q b
• n = b ⇒ logb n = 1 p−q a−b p+q a+b
= or, =
p+q a+b p−q a−b
Result 2 If 0 < b < 1, then
q−p b−a q+p b+a
= or, =
q+p b+a q−p b−a

5 Rule of Cross Multiplication

Consider Equations:
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = 0

Figure 2: Graph for y = logb n, 0 < b < 1

Figure 3: Cross Products for x, y and z

• logb n < 0 ⇒ n > 1
x y z
• logb n = 0 ⇒ n = 1 = =
b1 c2 − c1 b2 c1 a2 − a1 c2 a1 b2 − b1 a2

• logb n > 0 ⇒ 0 < n < 1

• x > y ⇒ logb x < logb y

• logb n is an decreasing function.

• 0 < n < b ⇒ logb n > 1

• n = b ⇒ logb n = 1

• n > b ⇒ logb n < 1

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AP, GP, HP Results of sum of AP : Square of first n number :
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6 
• Seq is AP → if sum of n terms form An2 +Bn n(n + 1) 2

Cube of first n number :
1 Arithmetic Progression th 2
• if ratio of sum is given, then ratio of n term
is n(n + 1)(2n + 1)(3n2 + 3n − 1)
1.1 Introduction 4th power of n no :
→ replace n by 2n − 1 30
For starting term a, common difference d, an A.P.
of n terms could be formed as: • if ratio of nth term is given, then ratio of
sum is 2 Geometric Progression
n+1
a, a + d, a + 2d, · · · , a + (n − 1)d → replace n by
2 2.1 Introduction
Properties: For starting term a, common difference r, an G.P.
1.2 Arithmetic Mean (AM)
• General term: an = a + (n − 1)d could be formed as:
Arithmetic mean between a and b be:
(Also called last term l)
a+b a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , · · · , arn−1 , arn , · · ·
• Sum of an A.P.: A=
n 2
Sn = {2a + (n − 1)d} Properties:
2 1
n AM of n terms: [a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an ]
Sn = {a + l} n • General term: an = arn−1
2 n AM between two numbers: (Also called last term l)
• In A.P. of m terms: For a and b, n AMs are:
nth term from end = (m−n+1)th term from • Sum of
a, A1 , A2 , A3 , · · · , An , b  n terms: n 
start a 1 − r , r 6= 1
nth term from end: a + (m − n)d Sn = 1−r
nth term from end: l − (n − 1)d • number of terms: n + 2
na, r=1

b−a a − lr lr − a
• If a, b, c are in A.P.: • common difference: Sn = =
n+1 1−r r−1
2b = a + c
a1 + an = a2 + an−1 = · · · • nth term of n AM: a + nd • Sum of∞ terms:
2an = an+k + an−k  a |r| < 1
1.3 Sum of some Sequence S∞ = 1 − r
• Middle term of A.P.: ∞ |r| > 1
n+1 n(n + 1)
ODD ⇒ , CD → d First n natural number :
2 2 • In G.P. of m terms:
n n
EVEN ⇒ or + 1, CD → 2d nth term from end: an = arm−n
2 2 First n odd number : n2
1 n−1

th
First n even number : n(n + 1) n term from end: an = l
r

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 • If a, b, c are in G.P.: 3 Harmonic Progression • number of terms: n + 2
b2 = ac a−b
a1 an = a2 an−1 = · · · = ak an−k+1 3.1 Introduction • common difference:
(n + 1)ab
• GP divided/multiplied by constant, stays A series H1 = 1a1 , 1a2 , a3 , · ·1· , an is said to be in 1
GP H.P., iff , , , ··· , is in an arithmetic • nth term of n HM: + (n + 1)D
a1 a2 a3 an a
progression.
• reciprocal of GP, is GP
4 Relation between AP, GP and
• if a1 , a2 . . . an ⇒ GP HP
Example: 2, 3, 6 ⇐ H.P.
log a1 , log a2 . . . log an ⇒ AP and vice-versa 1 1 1
, , ⇐ A.P. • A,G and H between 2 numbers(a and
2 3 6
2.2 Geometric Mean (GM) b):
Geometric mean between a and b be: Properties: a+b √ 2ab
A= G= AB H=
√ 2 a+b
G = ab 1 1
• Common difference: d = −
1
a2 a1 • A≥G≥H
GM of n terms: (a1 · a2 · a3 · · · an ) n
• General term:
n GM between two numbers: • quadratic equation having a and b as its
If a and d are two terms of A.P.: hn =
For a and b, n GMs are: 1 roots
a + (n − 1)d x2 − 2Ax + G2 = 0
a, G1 , G2 , G3 , · · · , Gn , b If a and d are two terms of H.P.: hn = p
1 • the two numbers (a,b) are A ± A2 − G2
• number of terms: n + 2 1 1 1


a + (n − 1) b − a • if A and G are in the ratio m : n, then the
  1
b n+1 number(a,b) are in ratio
• common difference: r = 3.2 Harmonic Mean
a p p
Harmonic mean between a and b be: m + m2 − n2 : m − m2 − n2
• nth term of n GM: arn
2ab • A,G and H between 3 numbers (a, b, c):
H=
a+b
a+b+c √ 1 1
+ 1
+ 1
n A= G=
3
abc = a b c
HM of n terms: 1 1 1 1 3 H 3
a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an
n HM between two numbers:
• cubic equation where a,b,c are the roots
For a and b, n HMs are:
3G3
a, H1 , H2 , H3 , · · · , Hn , b x3 − 3Ax2 + x − G3 = 0
H

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 • Example: for 1 and 9 Tips and Tricks
9 (black space for tips,tricks and important ques-
A=5 G=3 H= tion)
5
9 Finding sum of AGP through diference
G2 = AH ⇒ 9 = 5 ·
5 method

5 Arithmetico-geometric Pro- 1. multiply r in the series

gression (AGP) 2. subtract new series from old series Sn − rSn

a, (a + d)r, (a + 2d)r2 , · · · , (a + nd)rn is a AGP se- 3. Now you are left with an AP, find sum as of
quence an AP

nth term: an = {a + (n − 1)d}.rn−1

Sum of ∞ term:
 a + d.r , |r| < 1


S∞ = 1 − r (1 − r)2
∞, |r| > 1


Sum of n terms:
dr(1 − rn−1 ) a − [a + (n − 1)d]rn
Sn = −
(1 − r)2 1−r

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Quadratic Equations 1.3 Discrete Rule of Signs −b
α+β+γ =
a
• Maximum number of +ve real roots: c
αβ + βγ + αγ =
Number of changes o sign from +ve a
−d
1 Introduction to -ve and -ve to +ve in f (x).
3 2
E.g. αβγ =
a
f (x) = x +6x +11x −6 = 0
1.1 Definition + + + - 2.2 Formation of equation
hence equation has at-most one +ve real
For Coefficients: a0 , a1 , a2 · · · an , an equation in root. Quadratic: If α, β are the roots of an equation
the form: f (n) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn is then equation is:
called a polynomial of n degree. • Maximum number of -ve real roots:
Number of changes of sign from +ve
• Real Polynomial: Where all coefficients to -ve and -ve to +ve in f (−x). E.g. x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0
are real numbers. f (x) = x 3
−6x 2
+11x +6 = 0
• Complex Polynomial: Where all coeffi- f (−x) = −x 3
+6x 2
−11x −6 = 0 Cubic: If α, β, γ are the roots of an equation then
- + - - equation is:
cients are complex numbers.
Hence the equation has at-most two -ve real x3 − (α + β + γ)x2 + (αβ + βγ + αγ)x − (αβγ) = 0
• Polynomial Roots: The Value satisfying roots.
the polynomial f (n) = 0 is called a root of
• If all the terms of an Equation are Positive 3 Roots of an Equation
the Equation.
and the equation involves no odd powers of
• Quadratic Polynomial: A Equation of de- x, then all its roots are complex. 3.1 Roots of quadratic Equation
gree 2. For an Equation: ax2 + bx + c = 0
• Cubic Polynomial: A Equation of degree 2 Relation between roots and Its Discriminant(D) is: b2 − 4ac
√
3. Coefficients −b ± D
Its Roots:
2a√
2.1 Formation of roots −b ± b2 − 4ac
1.2 Position of Roots or,
2a
i Every Equation of odd degree must have one Quadratic: If α, β are the roots of equation Nature of Roots
2
real root. ax + bx + c = 0, then:
i D > 0 ⇒ Real and distinct roots.
ii Complex roots always lie in pairs. −b c ii D = 0 ⇒ Real and equal roots.
α+β = , αβ =
iii Every even degree equation whose last term a a
iii D < 0 ⇒ complex roots.
is negative and coefficient of first term is pos- Cubic: If α, β, γ are the roots of equation
itive has two real roots, one is +ve and one ax + bx2 + cx + d = 0, then:
3
iv D is a perfect square (and a, b, c is a perfect
is -ve. square)⇒ Roots are rational

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 v a = 1 & b, c ∈ Z and then roots are rational • An Equation whose roots are cubes of the
⇒ roots are integers roots of a given
√ equation is obtained y re-
placing x by 3 x in the given equation.
vi Surd roots
√ of an equation
√ always lie in pairs:
e.g. 2 + 3 & 2 − 3 4.2 Maximum and Minimum value of
however, if coefficients are irrational, this rational expression
may not be true.
To find the value attained by a rational expression
of the form:
3.2 Common Roots
a1 x2 + b1 x + c1
2 for real values of x,
let two quadratic equations be: f1 (x) = a1 x + a2 x2 + b2 x + c2
b1 x + c1 and f2 (x) = a2 x2 + b2 x + c2 and let α be
we may use the following algorithm:
the common root, then:
α 2 α 1
= = I Equate the given equation to ”y”
b1 c2 − b2 c1 c1 a2 − a2 c1 a1 b2 − a2 b1
II Obtain a quadratic equation in x by simpli-
Hence common root α is given by: fying the expression in Step I.
c1 a2 − a2 c1 b1 c2 − b2 c1 III Obtain the discriminant in Step II
α= or α =
a1 b2 − a2 b1 c1 a2 − a2 c1
IV Put discriminant from Step III to ≥ 0 and
solve the in-equation for y. The values of y
4 Miscellaneous so obtained determine the set of values at-
tained by the given rational expression.
4.1 Transformation of Equation
• An Equation hose roots are reciprocal of the
roots of a given equation is obtained y re-
1
placing x by in the given equation.
x
• An Equation whose roots are negative of the
roots of a given equation is obtained y re-
placing x by −x in the given equation.

• An Equation whose roots are squares of the

roots of a given
√ equation is obtained y re-
placing x by x in the given equation.

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Cartesian System For 4 points A,B,C and D : Area of Triangle
point co-ordinate: find AB, BC, CD and DA then if following :
AB = BC = CD = DA x y 1
1 1 1
AC = BD square 4ABC = x2 y2 1
2
AC 6= BD rhombus x3 y3 1
AB = CD and BD = DA collinear ⇒ Area = 0
AC = BD rectangle c2
Area by co-ordinate axes and line is for Equilat-
AC 6= BD parallelogram 2ab
eral 4 √
Note: if both the axis are not ⊥ar , 3 1
then they are called oblique axes area = side2 = √ height2
Application of Cartesian System 4 3

Polar co-ordinate: Area of Quadrilateral

x1 y1 1
 
m1 x2 + m2 x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1
internal division , 1 x2 y2 1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 4ABC =
  2 x3 y3 1
m1 x2 − m2 x1 m1 y2 − m2 y1 x4 y4 1
external division ,
m1 − m2 m1 − m2 collinear ⇒ Area = 0
x = rcosθ y = rsinθ  
Two opp. vertices (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) of rect-
x
 
p x 1 + x 2 y1 + y2
r = x2 + y 2 θ = tan−1 mid point , angle are given
y 2 2
area = (y2 − y1 ) (x2 − x1 )
Distance
q b/w 2 points P (x1 , y2 ) Q(x2 , y2 ) division by line : the line ax + by + c = 0 divides the
−ax1 + by1 + c Area of Triangle using Polar
P Q = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 line PQ in the ratio
ax2 + by2 + c
1
4 = {r1 r2 sin(θ2 − θ1 )+
p
distance from origin : x2 + y 2 co-ordinates of any 
point on the line segment joining 2
r2 r3 sin(θ3 − θ2 )+

x1 + λx2 y1 + λy2
two pointts are ,
q
polar distance : r12 + r22 − 2r1 r2 cos(θ1 − θ2 ) 1+λ 1+λ r3 r1 sin(θ1 − θ3 )}
Area of Triangle with equation of
Application of Cartesian System Division by axes sides
x-axis y-axis
For 3 points ABC: if ar x + br y + cr = 0 is given for r = {1, 2, 3}
−y1 −x1
find AB, BC and CA, then if following :
y2 x2 a1 b1 c1
1
sum of any two equal to third collinear 4= a2 b2 c2
2C1 C2 C2
AB = BC = CA equilateral 4 a3 b3 c3
any two equal isosceles 4 where C1 C2 andC3 are co-factors of c1 c2 andc3
AB 2 + BC 2 = CA2 right angle 4

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Locus Angle Between Two Lines Line Passing Through Intersection
if A and B are fixed, then the LOCUS P is when slope is given of Two Lines
L1 ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 L2 ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2
Circle , if ∠ABC = constant m1 − m2
π tan θ =
Diameter = AB ,if ∠ABC = 1 + m1 m2 Line ⇒ L1 + λL2 = 0
2
Ellipse ,if P A + P B = constant k⇒ m1 = m2 ⊥ar ⇒ m1 m2 = −1
Hyperbola if P A − P B = constant Area of Quadrilateral and Parallel-
ogram
when eq. of line is given c2
Different Form of Eq of St. Line suppose a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 Area of Quadrilateral = 4
2ab
are given
General Equation Ax + By + C = 0 (c1 − c2 )(d1 − d2 )
a2 b1 − a1 b2 Area of parallelogram =
• angle : tan θ = m1 − m2
Slope Intercet form y = mx + c a1 a2 + b1 b2
y = m1 x + c1 , y = m1 x + c2 , y = m2 x + d1 and
m = slope , c= y intercept
a1 b1 y = m2 x + d2 are the eq of sides kgram
• if lines are k, ⇒ =
Point Slope form (y − y1 ) = m(x − x1 ) a2 b2
Transformation of Axes
• if lines are ⊥ar , ⇒ a1 a2 + b1 b2 = 0
(y2 − y1 )
Two Point form (y − y1 ) = (x − x1 ) a1 b1 c1 Parallel transformation
x2 − x1 • if lines coincides ⇒ = =
a2 b2 c2 then the co-ordinates of point
x y P with respect to new axis O‘
Intercept form + =1 Equation of a Line Making Angle
a b will be
with Another Line
Normal or ⊥ar form x cos α + y sin α = p the eq of a line passing through P(x1 , y1 ) and making (x − h, y − k)
an angle α with the line y = mx + c
x − x1 y − y1
Parametric form = =r m ∓ tan α
cos θ sin θ y − y1 = (x − x1 ) Rotational transforma-
1 ± m tan α tion
Position of a Point Relative to a Concurrency of 3 lines New/Old x↓ y↓
Line all the 3 line meet at a point of intersection
x0 → cos θ sin θ
a1 b1 c1 y0 → − sin θ cos θ
• P (x1 , y1 ), Q(x2 , , y2 ) are on same side of line a2 b2 c2 = 0
ax + bx + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by + c a3 b3 c3
have same sign or vice versa
• (x1 , y1 ) is on the origin side of the lineax + bx +
Distance Between Two k lines
c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c andc have same sign or |c1 − c2 |
vice versa d= √
a2 + b2

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General Eq of Second Degree
General Eq. of second degree in x and y is
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0

it represents a straight line, if

a h g
∆= h b f =0
g f c
or, abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0

Eq of Lines Joining the Intersection

Points of a Line and Curves to the
Origin
Let lx + my + n = 0 be the line
and ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 be 2nd
degree curve
 
2 2 lx + my
ax + 2hxy + by + 2gx
−n
lx + my 2
   
lx + my
+ 2f y +c =0
−n −n
×

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Trigonomartric Basics Min/Max Value Length of Segment
−1 6 sin θ/ cos θ 6 1 2πrθ
π r = 180◦ −∞ ≤ tan θ/ cot θ ≤ ∞ + 2r sin(θ/2)
360◦
−1 > sec θ/ csc θ > 1
1 P
sin θ = =
csc θ H 0 6 sin2 θ/ cos2 θ 6 1
1 B Area of parlleogram : ab sin θ
cos θ = =
sec θ H For eq : a sinp
θ + b cos θ
Sum and Difference of Angles
1 P min/ max : ± a2 + b2
tan θ = = sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
cot θ B
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
-ve angles
Identities
sin(−θ) = − sin θ tan A + tan B
tan(A + B) =
2 2 cos(−θ) = cos θ 1 − tan A tan B
sin θ + cos θ = 1
tan(−θ) = − tan θ cot A cot B − 1
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ cot(A + B) =
NOTE : same for reciprocal
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ cot B + cot A

1 Trigonometry in Geometry Double Angle

sec θ + tan θ =
sec θ − tan θ sin(2A) = 2 sin A cos A
1 Area of Triangle
csc θ + cot θ = 2 tan A
csc θ − cot θ =
1 1 + tan2 A
area = bc sin A
Angle 2
for < 360 580 = (580 − 360) = 220 1 cos(2A) = cos2 A + sin2 A
area = ac sin B
Aaja Sanam Teri Cosam(ASTC) 2 = 1 − 2 sin2 A
Allied Angle 1
area = ab sin C = 2 cos2 A − 1
2
180 ± θ 90 ± θ 1 − tan2 A
=
260 ± θ 270 ± θ 1 + tan2 A
Sin Rules
sin → sin sin ↔ cos
a b c 2 tan A
cos → cos tan ↔ cot = = = 2R tan(2A) =
sin A sin B sin C 1 − tan2 A
tan → tan sec ↔ csc
Cos Rules : {Similar for A B C } Triple Angle
+/− depents on original angle
b2 + c2 − a2 sin(3x) = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x
tan and cot 90◦ − θ cos A =
2bc cos(3x) = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
tan θ tan(90 − θ) = 1
3 tan x − tan3 x
cot θ cot(90 − θ) = 1 tan(3A) =
1 − 3 tan2 x

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Value of some angle

0 or 2π π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2

0 30 45 60 90
√
1 1 3
sin θ 0 √ 1
√2 2 2
3 1 1
cos θ 1 √ 0
2 2 2
1 √
tan θ 0 √ 1 3 N.D
3
Sum into Product
x+y x−y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
x−y x+y
sin x − sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
x+y x−y
cos x + cos y = + 2 cos cos
2 2
x+y x−y
cos x − cos y = − 2 sin sin
2 2
sin(x ± y)
tan x ± tan y =
cos x cos y
Product into Sum

2 sin x cos y = sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)

2 cos x sin y = sin(x + y) − sin(x − y)
2 cos x cos y = cos(x + y) + cos(x + y)
2 sin x sin y = cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)

60◦ Formula
1
sin x sin(60 − x) sin(60 + x) = sin 3x
4

1
cos x cos(60 − x) cos(60 + x) = cos 3x
4

tan x tan(60 − x) tan(60 + x) = tan 3x

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Maxima and Minima 2 In Closed Interval (Local Maxima and Minima)
Let y = f (x) defined on [a, b]. The Algorithm of finding Local Maxima or
Minima is:
1 In Open Interval dy
I Find = f 0 (x)
dx
Let y = f (x). The algorithm of finding maxima or minima is:
II Put f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x = c1 , c2 , c3 · · · cn
dy
I Find = f 0 (x)
dx III Put Values in f (x) and obtain values f (a), f (c1 ), f (c2 ), · · · f (cn ), f (b)
II Put f 0 (x) = 0 and solve for x = c1 , c2 , c3 · · · cn . These are possible IV The maximum and minimum values in the above list are Local max-
points for maxima or minima. ima and minima for the function y = f (x) in the range [a, b] and the
corresponding value a · · · cn · · · b is the point of local maxima or local
III Find f 00 (x) or second derivative. Consider x = c1 .
minima.
• If f 00 (x) < 0 ⇒ Maxima
• If f 00 (x) > 0 ⇒ Minima
• If f 00 (x) = 0 ⇒ Find f 000 (x) or third derivative.

IV If f 000 (x) 6= 0, neither maxima nor minima. Check for x = c2 , c3 · · · cn

V If f 000 (x) = 0, find f iv or fourth derivative.

VI Consider x = c2 .

• If f iv (x) < 0 ⇒ Maxima

• If f iv (x) > 0 ⇒ Minima
• If f iv (x) = 0 ⇒ Find f v (x) or fifth derivative.

VII This process goes on.

Himanshu Mittal : mittal01091997@gmail.com

Tanget and Normal 1.2 Equations
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) where (x1 , y1 ) is the point of tangent and normal.
 
1 Tangent And Normal dy
For Tangent: y − y1 = (x − x1 )
dx P
1.1 Introuction −1
For Normal: y − y1 =   (x − x1 )
Let equation of a curve be y = f (x). dy
dx P
dy d
And its first derevative be = (f (x)).
dx dx
2 Angle between two curves
2.1 Angle of Intersection
let C1 = y = f (x) and C2 = y = (x).

Figure 1: Tangent and Normal

Slope of Tangent:
dy Figure 2: Angle between Curves
• at point P:
dx
P T1 = tangent to C1 and P T2 = tangent to C2 .
dy Then,
• parallel to x-axis: (x1 , y1 ) = 0  
dx dy
m1 = tan ψ1 = slope of tangent of y = f (x) at P =
dy dx C1
• parallel to y-axis: (x1 , y1 ) = ∞
dx
 
dy
m2 = tan ψ2 = slope of tangent of y = g(x) at P =
−1 −dx dx C2
Slope of Normal: at point P = dy
or
dy φ = ψ1 − ψ2
dx

Himanshu Mittal : mittal01091997@gmail.com

 tan ψ1 − tan ψ2 y
or, tan φ = • Length of subtangent (TG) = |y cot ψ| =
1 − tan ψ1 tan ψ2 dy
    dx
dy dy
dx C − dx C dy
or, tan φ =    2
1
• Length of subnormal (NG) = |y tan ψ| = y
1 + dxdy dy dx
C1 dx C2
dy
Note: The other angle between tangents = 180◦ − θ • If PT makes an angle ψ with x-axis, then tan ψ =
dx
• Length of tangent (PT) = |y cosec ψ|
2.2 Orthogonal Curves p
= |y 1 + cot2 ψ|
If angle of Intersection of two curves is a right angle, the curves are orthog- r
π  
dy
2
onal curves. i.e. φ = 1+ dx
2
    = y dy
dy dy dx
∴ m1 m2 = −1 ⇒ · = −1
dx C1 dx C2
• Length of Normal (PN) = |y sec ψ|
3 Subtangent and Subnormal
p
= |y 1 + tan2 ψ|
s
dy  2
Let y = f (x) be a curve. Let = f 0 (x) be the slope. = y 1+
dy
dx dx

Figure 3: Various lengths

Let the tangent and normal touch x-axis at point T and N respectively. If
G is a perpendicular to P, then:

Himanshu Mittal : mittal01091997@gmail.com