1.

Describe Indexed File and Indexed Sequential File Organization

1. Introduction to File Organization
File organization refers to the method of arranging data records in a file so that data can be
accessed and manipulated efficiently. Different file organizations are suitable for different
types of applications.
Two such file organizations are:

• Indexed File Organization

• Indexed Sequential File Organization

Both of these use indexing to make access to data faster and more efficient, especially when
dealing with large files.

2. Indexed File Organization

Definition:
Indexed file organization uses an index table to store the address of each record in a file.
Each entry in the index contains a key field and a pointer to the actual location of the record
in memory or disk.

This allows direct access to the records without searching the entire file sequentially.

Working:

• An index is created using a primary key (like student ID, product code, etc.).
• The index contains key values and their corresponding addresses in the file.

• When a record is to be accessed, the index is searched first.

• Once the address is found, the record is accessed directly.

Structure:

Index Table Example:

Key Address

1001 Block A

1002 Block B

1003 Block C

Data File:
• Block A → Record 1001

• Block B → Record 1002

• Block C → Record 1003
Accessing a record:
To get record 1002, search the index → get Block B → retrieve data directly.

Advantages:

1. Faster Access: You don’t have to scan the entire file. Access is direct via index.
2. Efficient for Searching: Especially helpful for large files where linear search would be
slow.
3. Saves Time: Especially when data is accessed frequently using a key.
4. Random Access Supported: You can retrieve any record without scanning from the
beginning.

Disadvantages:

1. Extra Storage: Additional space is needed to store the index.

2. Insert/Delete Overhead: Index must be updated every time a record is added or
deleted.
3. Index Maintenance: If the index grows large, it may need to be multi-level, adding
complexity.

3. Indexed Sequential File Organization

Definition:
Indexed Sequential File Organization combines sequential file organization and
indexing.
Records are stored in sorted order (usually based on a key), and an index is
maintained to allow direct access to records.

Working:
• Records are kept in sorted order in the data file.

• A separate index holds the key values and pointers to blocks of records.

• When a record is requested:

1. The index is searched to find the correct block.
 2. A sequential search is done within that block to locate the exact record.

Structure:

Index Table Example:

Key (Start of Block) Address

1000 Block A

1010 Block B

1020 Block C

Data File:

• Block A → 1000, 1001, 1002

• Block B → 1010, 1011, 1012

• Block C → 1020, 1021

To find record 1011:

1. Index shows Block B contains keys starting from 1010.

2. Do sequential search inside Block B to find 1011.

Advantages:

1. Supports Both Access Types:

o Direct access (via index)

o Sequential access (record by record)

2. Faster Range Queries: Useful when searching for a set of records within a key range.
3. Maintains Order: Good for applications needing sorted data (e.g., bank records).
4. Efficient Searching: Better than pure sequential method for large files.

Disadvantages:

1. Complex to Maintain: Records need to stay in sorted order.

2. Insertion is Costly: Inserting a new record in the middle requires shifting data or
restructuring.
3. Index Updating: Frequent insertions and deletions can lead to index fragmentation.
4. Extra Storage: Like indexed files, it needs space for index.

4. Differences between Indexed and Indexed Sequential File Organization

Feature Indexed File Indexed Sequential File

Record Order No specific order Records sorted by key

Access Type Random access Random + sequential access

Block-level search +
Index Search Direct key match
sequential

More complex due to

Insertion/Deletion Slower due to index
ordering

Single record Range queries and sorted

Best Use Case
lookup data

5. Applications

• Indexed File:

o Library systems
o Employee databases

o Vehicle registration records

• Indexed Sequential File:

o Bank transaction systems

o Reservation systems (airlines, trains)

o Payroll and billing systems

6. Conclusion
Both indexed file organization and indexed sequential file organization are powerful
ways to store and retrieve data efficiently.

• Indexed File Organization is best for fast random access.

• Indexed Sequential File Organization is ideal when both fast access and ordered data
are needed.
 Understanding these helps in designing better data storage systems for real-time and
large-scale applications.

2.Explain Hash File Organization

1. Introduction to Hashing
Hashing is a popular technique used in file organization for fast data access.
In Hash File Organization, a hash function is used to compute the address of the data record
based on a key.
Instead of searching the entire file or using an index, the system computes the location of
the record directly using the hash function.

2. Definition of Hash File Organization

Hash file organization is a technique in which the address of the record is calculated using a
hash function applied on the search key.
This address is then used to store or retrieve the record directly.
This allows very fast access, especially for large files where other methods (like sequential or
indexed) may be slow.

3. Working Principle of Hashing

1. A hash function is chosen (e.g., h(key) = key % n).

2. The key of the record (e.g., student ID, employee number) is input to the hash
function.

3. The function returns a bucket address or location in the file.

4. The record is stored at that address.
5. To retrieve the record, apply the same hash function to the key and go directly to the
address.

5. Simple Example
Assume we have a hash function:
h(key) = key % 10
Now let’s say we are storing these student IDs:
101 → 101 % 10 = 1
102 → 102 % 10 = 2
113 → 113 % 10 = 3
121 → 121 % 10 = 1 (Collision!)
Table Representation:
 Bucket Record

0
1 101, 121

2 102

3 113

... ...

5. Hash Function
A hash function maps a key to a location in memory (or disk).
Good hash functions should:
• Distribute records uniformly
• Minimize collisions
• Be simple and fast to compute
Common Hash Functions:
1. Modulus Function: h(k) = k % m
2. Folding Method: Break key into parts and add
3. Mid-Square Method: Square the key and extract middle digits

6. Collision in Hashing
A collision occurs when two different keys hash to the same address.
Example:
101 % 10 = 1
121 % 10 = 1
Both keys are mapped to the same bucket (1).
To solve collisions, we use collision resolution techniques.

7. Collision Resolution Techniques

1. Open Hashing (Separate Chaining):
• Each bucket is a linked list.
• Records with same hash address are stored in the list.
• Example:
Bucket 1 → 101 → 121
2. Closed Hashing (Open Addressing):
• If collision occurs, find next empty slot.
Types of Open Addressing:
• Linear Probing: Check next slot: h(k) + 1, h(k) + 2...
• Quadratic Probing: h(k) + 1², h(k) + 2²...
• Double Hashing: Use a second hash function if collision occurs

8. Advantages of Hash File Organization

1. Fast Access:
Direct access to records using a hash function – faster than searching or indexing.
2. Efficient for Large Files:
Even large databases perform well under hashing.
3. Simplicity:
Hashing logic is relatively easy to implement.
4. No Sorting Needed:
Records don’t need to be in any order.

9. Disadvantages of Hash File Organization

1. Collision Handling Required:
Collisions are common and need complex logic to resolve.
2. No Range Queries:
You can’t retrieve a range of values (like keys between 100 and 200).
3. Poor Performance with High Load Factor:
Too many records lead to more collisions and slower performance.
4. Fixed File Size in Some Methods:
May not handle dynamic file growth well without advanced techniques.

10. Applications of Hash File Organization

• Used in Database Systems for fast lookups (e.g., find employee by ID).
• Compiler Symbol Tables
• Banking Systems to access account details
• Caching Systems

11. Visual Representation

Hash Table Example:
Hash Function: h(key) = key % 10

Records: 100, 102, 112, 122

Resulting Hash Table:

Index | Record(s)
------------------
0 |
1 |
2 | 102, 112, 122 (collision!)
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
 Using Separate Chaining, bucket 2 will store: 102 → 112 → 122

12. Conclusion
Hash file organization is highly efficient for direct access to records using a hash
function.
While it excels in speed, particularly for single-record queries, it is not suitable for
sorted data or range queries.
Understanding and handling collisions effectively is key to maintaining performance.

3.File Allocation Methods in OS

What is File Allocation in OS?
Whenever a hard disk is formatted, a system has many small areas called blocks or
sectors that are used to store any kind of file. File allocation methods are different
ways by which the operating system stores information in memory blocks, thus
allowing the hard drive to be utilized effectively and the file to be accessed. Below
are the types of file allocation methods in the Operating System.
Types of File Allocation Methods in Operating System.
• Contiguous File allocation
• Linked File Allocation
• Indexed File Allocation
• Contiguous File Allocation.
• First, let's understand the meaning of contiguous, here contiguous means
adjacent or touching. Now let's understand what is contiguous file
allocation.
• What is Contiguous File allocation?
• In contiguous file allocation, the block is allocated in such a manner that all
the allocated blocks in the hard disk are adjacent.
• Assuming a file needs 'n' number of blocks in the disk and the file begins
with a block at position'x', the next blocks to be assigned to it will
be x+1,x+2,x+3,...,x+n-1 so that they are in a contiguous manner.
• Let's understand this diagrammatically.
• Example
• We have three different types of files that are stored in a contiguous manner
on the hard disk.
 •

In the above image on the left side, we have a memory diagram where we can see
the blocks of memory. At first, we have a text file named file1.txt which is
allocated using contiguous memory allocation, it starts with the memory
block 0 and has a length of 4 so it takes the 4 contiguous blocks 0,1,2,3. Similarly,
we have an image file and video file named sun.jpg and mov.mp4 respectively,
which you can see in the directory that they are stored in the contiguous
blocks. 5,6,7 and 9,10,11 respectively.

Here the directory has the entry of each file where it stores the address of the
starting block and the required space in terms of the block of memory.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

• It is very easy to implement.

• There is a minimum amount of seek time.
• The disk head movement is minimum.
• Memory access is faster.
• It supports sequential as well as direct access.

Disadvantages

• At the time of creation, the file size must be initialized.

• As it is pre-initialized, the size cannot increase. As
• Due to its constrained allocation, it is possible that the disk would fragment
internally or externally.
 • Linked File Allocation.
• What is Linked File Allocation?
• The Linked file allocation overcomes the drawback of contiguous file
allocation. Here the file which we store on the hard disk is stored in a
scattered manner according to the space available on the hard disk. Now,
you must be thinking about how the OS remembers that all the scattered
blocks belong to the same file. So as the name linked File Allocation
suggests, the pointers are used to point to the next block of the same file,
therefore along with the entry of each file each block also stores the pointer
to the next block.
• Let's understand this better diagrammatically by taking an example.
• Example
• Here we have one file which is stored using Linked File Allocation.

In the above image on the right, we have a memory diagram where we can see
memory blocks. On the left side, we have a directory where we have the
information like the address of the first memory block and the last memory block.

In this allocation, the starting block given is 0 and the ending block is 15, therefore
the OS searches the empty blocks between 0 and 15 and stores the files in available
blocks, but along with that it also stores the pointer to the next block in the present
block. Hence it requires some extra space to store that link.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

• There is no external fragmentation.

• The directory entry just needs the address of starting block.
 • The memory is not needed in contiguous form, it is more flexible than
contiguous file allocation.

Disadvantages

• It does not support random access or direct access.

• If pointers are affected so the disk blocks are also affected.
• Extra space is required for pointers in the block.
• Indexed File Allocation.
• What is Indexed File Allocation?
• The indexed file allocation is somewhat similar to linked file allocation as
indexed file allocation also uses pointers but the difference is here all the
pointers are put together into one location which is called index block. That
means we will get all the locations of blocks in one index file. The blocks
and pointers were spread over the memory in the Linked Allocation method,
where retrieval was accomplished by visiting each block sequentially. But
here in indexed allocation, it becomes easier with the index block to
retrieve.
• Let's take an example to explain this better.
• Example
• As shown in the diagram below block 19 is the index block which contains
all the addresses of the file named text1. In order, the first storage block is
9, followed by 16, 1, then 10, and 25. The negative number -1 here denotes
the empty index block list as the file text1 is still too small to fill more
blocks.
 •

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

• It reduces the possibilities of external fragmentation.

• Rather than accessing sequentially it has direct access to the block.

Disadvantages

• Here more pointer overhead is there.

• If we lose the index block we cannot access the complete file.
• It becomes heavy for the small files.
• It is possible that a single index block cannot keep all the pointers for some
large files
 4.Directory in OS
A directory is a container that is used to contain folders and files. It organizes files
and folders in a hierarchical manner. In other words, directories are like folders that
help organize files on a computer. Just like you use folders to keep your papers and
documents in order, the operating system uses directories to keep track of files and
where they are stored. Different structures of directories can be used to organize
these files, making it easier to find and manage them.

In an operating system, there are different types of directory structures that help
organize and manage files efficiently.
Directories in an OS can be single-level, two-level, or hierarchical.
1) Single-Level Directory
The single-level directory is the simplest directory structure. In it, all files are
contained in the same directory which makes it easy to support and understand.
A single level directory has a significant limitation, however, when the number of files
increases or when the system has more than one user. Since all the files are in the
same directory, they must have a unique name. If two users call their dataset test,
then the unique name rule violated.

Advantages
• Since it is a single directory, so its implementation is very easy.
• If the files are smaller in size, searching will become faster.
• The operations like file creation, searching, deletion, updating are very easy in such a
directory structure.
• Logical Organization : Directory structures help to logically organize files and
directories in a hierarchical structure. This provides an easy way to navigate and
manage files, making it easier for users to access the data they need.
• Increased Efficiency: Directory structures can increase the efficiency of the file
system by reducing the time required to search for files. This is because directory
structures are optimized for fast file access, allowing users to quickly locate the file
they need.
• Improved Security : Directory structures can provide better security for files by
allowing access to be restricted at the directory level. This helps to prevent
unauthorized access to sensitive data and ensures that important files are protected.
• Facilitates Backup and Recovery : Directory structures make it easier to backup and
recover files in the event of a system failure or data loss. By storing related files in the
same directory, it is easier to locate and backup all the files that need to be
protected.
• Scalability: Directory structures are scalable, making it easy to add new directories
and files as needed. This helps to accommodate growth in the system and makes it
easier to manage large amounts of data.
Disadvantages
• There may chance of name collision because two files can have the same name.
• Searching will become time taking if the directory is large.
This can not group the same type of files together.
2) Two-Level Directory
As we have seen, a single level directory often leads to confusion of files names
among different users. The solution to this problem is to create a separate directory
for each user.

In the two-level directory structure, each user has their own user files directory
(UFD). The UFDs have similar structures, but each lists only the files of a single user.
System's master file directory (MFD) is searched whenever a new user id is created.

Advantages
• The main advantage is there can be more than two files with same name, and would
be very helpful if there are multiple users.
• A security would be there which would prevent user to access other user's files.
• Searching of the files becomes very easy in this directory structure.
Disadvantages
• As there is advantage of security, there is also disadvantage that the user cannot
share the file with the other users.
• Unlike the advantage users can create their own files, users don't have the ability to
create subdirectories.
• Scalability is not possible because one user can't group the same types of files
together.
3) Tree Structure/ Hierarchical Structure
Tree directory structure of operating system is most commonly used in our personal
computers. User can create files and subdirectories too, which was a disadvantage in
the previous directory structures.
This directory structure resembles a real tree upside down, where the root
directory is at the peak. This root contains all the directories for each user. The users
can create subdirectories and even store files in their directory.
A user do not have access to the root directory data and cannot modify it. And, even
in this directory the user do not have access to other user's directories. The
structure of tree directory is given below which shows how there are files and
subdirectories in each user's directory.

Tree/Hierarchical Directory Structure

Advantages
• This directory structure allows subdirectories inside a directory.
• The searching is easier.
• File sorting of important and unimportant becomes easier.
• This directory is more scalable than the other two directory structures explained.
Disadvantages
• As the user isn't allowed to access other user's directory, this prevents the file
sharing among users.
• As the user has the capability to make subdirectories, if the number of subdirectories
increase the searching may become complicated.
• Users cannot modify the root directory data.
• If files do not fit in one, they might have to be fit into other directories.