Subjective Well-Being (SWB)

Subjective Well-Being (SWB) is a scientific term used to describe an

individual’s self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life.
It involves both emotional and cognitive assessments of one’s quality
of life.
• According to Ed Diener (1984), a pioneer in this area, SWB includes
frequent positive emotions, infrequent negative emotions, and high
life satisfaction
It is a central theme in Positive Psychology, as it shifts the focus from
pathology and problems to what makes life worth living.
 Components of SWB
1.Life Satisfaction (Cognitive component):
•Refers to a global judgment about one’s life conditions, made through conscious evaluation.
•It is influenced by personal values, expectations, and cultural norms.

Example: A person may evaluate their life as satisfactory based on career achievement or family
happiness​.

2. Positive Affect (Emotional component):

• Represents the frequency and intensity of positive moods and feelings, such as joy,
enthusiasm, pride, and love.
• It contributes significantly to feelings of energy, creativity, and engagement in life.
• Positive affect is not merely the absence of negative emotions, but an important aspect in
its own right.
3. Negative Affect (Emotional component):
•Refers to the extent of unpleasant emotions experienced, such as
sadness, anxiety, anger, and guilt.
•Low levels of negative affect are essential for high subjective well-
being.
•Reducing chronic stress and negative thinking patterns plays a role in
enhancing SWB​.
 Measurement Tools of Subjective Well-
Being (SWB)
• Subjective Well-Being (SWB) is typically measured using self-report
instruments, which allow individuals to express how they feel about
their lives in terms of happiness, emotional states, and life satisfaction.
• The measurement of SWB is both qualitative and quantitative,
allowing to track well-being across populations and over time.

Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)

Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)
Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS)
1. Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
• Developed by: Ed Diener, Robert A. Emmons, Randy J. Larsen, and
Sharon Griffin in 1985.
• Purpose: Assesses an individual’s global cognitive judgment of their
life satisfaction, not momentary emotions.
• Structure: A 5-item scale, each item rated on a 7-point
Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly
agree).
•1 = Strongly Disagree
•2 = Disagree
•3 = Slightly Disagree
•4 = Neither Agree nor Disagree
•5 = Slightly Agree
•6 = Agree
•7 = Strongly Agree
Items:
1.In most ways, my life is close to my ideal.
2.The conditions of my life are excellent.
3.I am satisfied with my life.
4.So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.
5.If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.
Scoring:
• Add up the scores of all 5 items.
• Total Score Range: 5 to 35
Score Range Interpretation
• 31–35 Extremely Satisfied
• 26–30 Satisfied
• 21–25 Slightly Satisfied
• 20 Neutral
• 15–19 Slightly Dissatisfied
• 10–14 Dissatisfied
• 5–9 Extremely Dissatisfied
•Interpretation: The sum of the items provides a composite score that reflects an
individual’s satisfaction with life.
•Application: Widely used in clinical psychology, positive psychology interventions, and
cross-cultural studies.
• 2. Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)
• Developed by: David Watson, Lee Anna Clark, and Auke Tellegen in
1988.
• Purpose: Measures two dominant emotional dimensions—Positive
Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA).
• Examples:
• Positive Affect: Interested, Excited, Enthusiastic, Alert.
• Negative Affect: Upset, Hostile, Nervous, Afraid.
• Structure:
• Contains 20 adjectives (10 for PA, 10 for NA).
• Respondents rate the extent they feel each emotion over a specified time frame (e.g.,
“right now,” “in the past week,” “generally”).
• Rating scale ranges from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely).

Rated on a 5-point Likert scale:

• 1 = Very slightly or not at all
• 2 = A little
• 3 = Moderately
• 4 = Quite a bit
• 5 = Extremely
 Items:
• Positive Affect (PA): • Negative Affect (NA):
1.Interested 1.Distressed
2.Excited 2.Upset
3.Strong 3.Guilty
4.Enthusiastic 4.Scared
5.Proud 5.Hostile
6.Alert 6.Irritable
7.Inspired 7.Ashamed
8.Determined 8.Nervous
9.Attentive 9.Jittery
10.Active 10.Afraid
Scoring:
• Add scores separately for PA and NA items (two distinct scales).
• Score Range for Each: 10 to 50

Interpretation: High PA scores suggest a person frequently experiences pleasurable engagement, while high
NA scores reflect emotional distress.
• Score Meaning
• 40–50 Very high PA or NA
• 30–39 Moderately high
• 20–29 Moderate
• 10–19 Low PA or NA

• Application:
• Can be used with different time frames: “Right now,” “Today,” “Past few days,” “Generally,” etc.
• Useful in clinical, educational, and workplace well-being assessments​
• 3. Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS)
Developed by:
• Sonja Lyubomirsky and Heidi Lepper (1999)

Purpose and Use

• The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) is a brief 4-item self-report
measure designed to assess global subjective happiness. Unlike tools that
assess moment-to-moment emotions, the SHS captures a broad, trait-like
sense of how happy a person feels in general.
• It is widely used in happiness research, well-being programs, and cross-
cultural studies, and has demonstrated high internal consistency and
construct validity.
Predictors of Subjective Well-Being (SWB)
Subjective Well-Being (SWB) refers to how people experience and
evaluate their lives in terms of emotional reactions and cognitive
judgments.

Predictors of SWB are commonly grouped into

• Top-Down (internal) and
• Bottom-Up (external) factors.
• Biological & Genetic Influences
• Situational and Temporal Events
1. Top-Down Predictors (Internal/Psychological Factors)
• These relate to how individuals process and interpret their life
circumstances, often rooted in personality, cognition, and emotion
regulation.

•a) Personality Traits

•b) Cognitive Style and Interpretation
•c) Goals and Value Alignment
•d) Gratitude and Forgiveness
a) Personality Traits
• Personality is foundational in SWB because it influences emotional
reactivity, social behaviour, and coping styles.
• Extraversion: Extraverts are generally more sociable, active, and expressive,
which leads to more frequent positive emotional experiences.
Example: An extrovert may feel energised and joyful after social gatherings, increasing
their positive affect.
• Neuroticism: Highly neurotic individuals are more likely to experience
anxiety, sadness, and anger.
• Example: Even small inconveniences may lead them to feel overwhelmed or unhappy,
reducing SWB.
• Conscientiousness: Linked with goal-setting and self-discipline, it promotes
satisfaction through personal achievement and responsibility.
• Agreeableness: Promotes harmonious relationships and forgiveness,
enhancing emotional stability and life satisfaction.
• Openness to Experience: While less directly linked, openness may facilitate
creativity and appreciation of life’s beauty, which boosts meaning and well-
being.
b) Cognitive Style and Interpretation
Cognitive processes filter how we perceive life, thus influencing SWB.

•Optimism: Expecting good things in life helps people approach challenges as

opportunities rather than threats.
Example: Optimistic students tend to feel better prepared and less anxious during
exams.

•Self-Esteem: High self-worth correlates strongly with satisfaction across life domains.
Example: People with high self-esteem handle criticism constructively and feel
confident in their decisions.

•Perceived Control: Belief in one’s ability to influence outcomes contributes to agency,

motivation, and happiness.
Example: A person who feels in control of their finances feels less stressed and
more satisfied.
c) Goals and Value Alignment
• Intrinsic goals (e.g., personal growth, relationships, community
contribution) are associated with long-term well-being.
• Extrinsic goals (e.g., fame, image, material success) provide
temporary satisfaction but do not significantly increase SWB.

Example: Someone pursuing the goal of being a kind parent or mentor

experiences deeper and sustained happiness than someone driven
primarily by earning status or luxury items.
• d) Gratitude and Forgiveness:
• Gratitude increases positive affect, reduces toxic emotions, and
enhances empathy.
• Forgiveness releases resentment and is linked to better mental and
physical health.

Example: A daily gratitude journal leads to improved mood, better

sleep, and greater life satisfaction.
 2. Bottom-Up Predictors (External/Life Circumstances)
• These are external, measurable life conditions that can influence SWB,
though often to a lesser and shorter-lived extent than top-down predictors.
• a) Income and Wealth
• b) Education
• c) Physical and Mental Health
• d) Social Relationships
• e) Marriage and Family
• f) Employment and Work Environment
• g) Cultural and Religious Contexts
• a) Income and Wealth:
• While money increases happiness up to a basic threshold, after which
its effect plateaus (Easterlin Paradox), financial stability can reduce
stress and increase life satisfaction.
Example: Earning enough to comfortably meet basic needs correlates
with higher well-being, but owning luxury items may not increase
happiness proportionally.
b) Education:
• Education is associated with greater autonomy, career choices, social
mobility, and a sense of personal efficacy.
Example: A graduate who gains not only income but also purpose and a
supportive network through education tends to report higher SWB.

c) Physical and Mental Health

•Good health is a strong foundation for SWB. Conversely, chronic
illness or pain lowers it, though people can adapt over time.

Example: Regular exercise and adequate sleep improve mood and

energy, while illness or disability may reduce well-being unless
psychological resilience develops.
d) Social Relationships
•One of the strongest external predictors of happiness. Quality (not
quantity) of relationships matters.

Example: A strong, supportive friendship provides emotional buffering

against stress and enhances daily joy.

e) Marriage and Family

•Married individuals often report higher life satisfaction, especially if
the marriage is stable and supportive. Parenting and family bonds also
enrich well being when positive.

Note: Marital quality matters more than marital status. Conflictual

relationships lower SWB.
• f) Employment and Work Environment:
• Being employed correlates with higher SWB, not just due to income, but
also structure, social identity, and purpose.
• Example: People with meaningful work (even if modestly paid) report
higher satisfaction than those in high-paying but stressful or purposeless
jobs.

• g) Cultural and Religious Contexts

• Cultural values shape how people define happiness (e.g., individual
fulfilment in the West vs social harmony in the East).
• Religiosity/spirituality often provides meaning, hope, coping
mechanisms, and community, enhancing SWB.
• Example: Participating in weekly religious gatherings or spiritual
meditation can foster peace and purpose.
• 3. Biological & Genetic Influences:
• Genetic studies (especially with twins) suggest that 30–50% of
happiness is heritable, forming a “set point” of well-being.
• However, environment and intentional activities can shift this baseline.
Example: Despite genetic predispositions, habits like gratitude, helping
others, and meditation can raise an individual's SWB.

4. Situational and Temporal Events

Life events (e.g., weddings, promotions, accidents) can cause temporary
spikes or dips in SWB, but most people return to a baseline level of
happiness (Hedonic Adaptation).
Example: Winning a lottery may cause a short-term boost in happiness,
but within a year, many return to their usual levels of well-being.
 Factors That Increase
Subjective Well-Being (SWB)
Subjective Well-Being (SWB) refers to a person’s cognitive and emotional evaluations of their life.
Research shows that SWB is not fixed it can be intentionally improved through thoughts, actions, and habits.
• Predictors estimate or forecast an outcome.
• Factors contribute to an outcome.
1. Gratitude Practices
2. Acts of Kindness and Altruism
3. Positive Relationships
4. Meaning and Purpose in Life
5. Pursuing Intrinsic Goals
6. Mindfulness and Meditation
7. Physical Activity and Health Behaviors
8. Flow and Engagement
9. Positive Thinking and Optimism
10. Forgiveness
1. Gratitude Practices
Gratitude is the appreciation for what is valuable and meaningful to oneself. It involves
recognizing the goodness in life.
• Gratitude amplifies positive emotions and reinforces the memory of good events.
• It shifts focus from what's lacking to what's present and fulfilling.
• Encourages prosocial behavior, strengthening social bonds.
Research Insight:
Gratitude interventions such as journaling or expressing thanks significantly improve mood
and life satisfaction (Compton & Hoffman, pp. 505–507).
Examples:
• Keeping a daily gratitude journal.
• Writing or delivering a gratitude letter.
• Sharing appreciation in relationships.
2. Acts of Kindness and Altruism
Voluntarily doing good for others without expecting something in return.
• Kindness generates positive emotions (the "helper's high").
• It creates meaning and strengthens social ties.
• Enhances self-perception and social connectedness.

Research Insight:
Seligman's research showed that people who performed five acts of kindness in a day reported
increased happiness (Snyder & Lopez, 2002, p. 73).
Examples:
• Donating to charity.
• Helping a colleague or stranger.
• Volunteering time for community work.
3. Positive Relationships
Deep, supportive, and emotionally satisfying connections with others.
• Relationships satisfy the need for belonging and support.
• Promote emotional expression, empathy, and stress relief.
• Provide meaning and joy in everyday life.
Research Insight:
Fredrickson emphasizes that love is the most consistent and frequent positive
emotion, crucial to well-being (Compton & Hoffman, pp. 144–145).
Examples:
• Maintaining friendships through regular contact.
• Practicing active listening in conversations.
• Expressing affection and appreciation in relationships.
4. Meaning and Purpose in Life
A sense of direction, significance, and connection to something larger than oneself.
• Enhances motivation, resilience, and long-term satisfaction.
• Provides coherence and reduces existential anxiety.
• Encourages value-driven goal pursuit.
Research Insight:
Individuals with a strong sense of meaning have higher well-being and are better
able to cope with adversity (Compton & Hoffman, pp. 497–499).
Examples:
• Pursuing meaningful careers or spiritual paths.
• Parenting or mentoring with intention.
• Engaging in purposeful volunteerism.
5. Pursuing Intrinsic Goals
Goals pursued for inherent satisfaction rather than external rewards.
• Fulfills basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
• Enhances intrinsic motivation and emotional richness.
• Promotes long-term life satisfaction.
Research Insight: People focused on intrinsic values (like connection and growth)
report more vitality and well-being than those chasing extrinsic rewards (Compton
& Hoffman, pp. 96–97, 147–148).
Examples:
• Developing a skill out of passion.
• Creating art, writing, or engaging in hobbies.
• Building relationships rather than seeking popularity.
6. Mindfulness and Meditation
The practice of present-moment awareness with acceptance and nonjudgment.
• Reduces emotional reactivity, stress, and negative thinking.
• Increases emotional clarity and self-compassion.
• Supports psychological flexibility and resilience.

Research Insight:
Mindfulness practices lead to increases in well-being and decreases in anxiety and depression
(Compton & Hoffman, pp. 121–129).
Examples:
• Guided or silent meditation.
• Mindful walking, eating, or listening.
• Breathing exercises during stressful moments.
7. Physical Activity and Health Behaviors
Engaging in movement, nutrition, and rest that support bodily health.
• Physical activity releases endorphins and improves brain chemistry.
• Supports energy levels, sleep, and stress reduction.
• Increases body awareness and self-efficacy.

Research Insight:
Exercise is as effective as antidepressants in mild depression and promotes long-term happiness
(Fredrickson, Snyder & Lopez).
Examples:
• Brisk walking, swimming, yoga, or dance.
• Eating nutritious meals mindfully.
• Maintaining a consistent sleep routine.
8. Flow and Engagement
A state of deep involvement and immersion in an activity where time seems to vanish.
• Creates feelings of mastery and purpose.
• Fosters creativity, productivity, and intrinsic enjoyment.
• Enhances self-confidence and intrinsic motivation.

Research Insight:
Csikszentmihalyi’s flow theory shows that frequent flow experiences correlate with greater SWB
(Compton & Hoffman, pp. 115–119).
Examples:
• Playing music or sports.
• Coding, writing, or painting with full concentration.
• Engaging in a challenge that matches one’s skills.
9. Positive Thinking and Optimism
An attitude that expects favorable outcomes and focuses on strengths and solutions.
• Reframes difficulties as challenges.
• Increases goal persistence and resilience.
• Buffers against stress and depression.
Research Insight:
Optimistic people cope better with illness, setbacks, and uncertainty (Snyder's Hope
Theory, Compton & Hoffman, pp. 140–141).
Examples:
• Practicing positive affirmations.
• Challenging negative automatic thoughts.
• Focusing on solutions rather than problems.
10. Forgiveness
A conscious decision to release resentment toward a person or situation.
• Reduces stress and physical symptoms (like hypertension).
• Enhances empathy and relationship repair.
• Promotes emotional freedom and peace.

Research Insight:
Forgiveness therapy is shown to significantly increase emotional well-being (McCullough et al.,
Snyder & Lopez, pp. 318–320).
Examples:
• Reflecting on the humanity of the offender.
• Writing a forgiveness letter or engaging in healing conversations.
• Practicing loving kindness meditation.
 Broaden-and-Build theory
• The Broaden-and-Build theory, developed by Barbara Fredrickson,
suggests that experiencing positive emotions broadens one's
momentary thought-action repertoire(List of supplies), leading to
building enduring personal resources.

• This theory posits that positive emotions like joy, interest, and love
can lead to more flexible and creative responses, ultimately enhancing
an individual's coping skills and overall well-being.
Broadening:
• Positive emotions broaden one's attention and cognitive processes,
allowing individuals to be more receptive to new information and
experiences.
• This "broadening" of thought-action repertoire includes a wider range
of behaviors, ideas, and social connections.

Examples: joy leading to play, interest to exploration, and love to

connection.
Building:
• The broadened repertoire allows individuals to develop new skills,
knowledge, and social bonds, which can be drawn upon later to
enhance coping and resilience.
• These resources build up over time, contributing to overall well-being
and a more positive life experience.
Examples: play building physical skills, exploration building
navigational skills, and positive interactions building social support
networks.
Adaptation and Survival:
• The theory proposes that positive emotions, ultimately contribute to
long-term adaptation and survival by enhancing resilience and overall
well-being.
• This is because the resources built through positive emotions can be
used to cope with future challenges and improve the odds of
successful adaptation.
• In essence, the broaden-and-build theory suggests that positive
emotions are not just fleeting feelings but have a profound and lasting
impact on an individual's development and well-being by fostering a
cycle of positive experiences and personal growth.
 Broaden-and-Build Model Works

Stage Process Outcome

Experiencing joy, love, gratitude,

Positive Emotion Induction Shift in psychological state
interest

Broadened Thought-Action Expanded awareness, exploration,

Cognitive flexibility and openness
Repertoire play, creativity

Development of physical,
Building Enduring Resources Increased resilience and thriving
psychological, social assets

Upward Spiral of Emotions and Repeated cycles enhance well-being Sustainable happiness and
Growth over time flourishing
STAGE 1: Positive Emotion Induction
• Positive emotions like joy, interest, love, contentment, and gratitude arise
from meaningful or enjoyable life events.
• Positive emotions are psychological in nature (not just sensory pleasures
like food or sex) and involve appraisal and meaning.

Examples:
• Feeling joy after achieving a small personal goal.
• Feeling interest when discovering something new.
• Feeling love during warm social interaction.
STAGE 2: Broadened Thought–Action Repertoire
• Positive emotions broaden an individual's momentary thought-action repertoire.
• Cognitive processes become more flexible, creative, and open.
• Individuals think outside the box, explore new ideas, and show cognitive expansiveness

Contrast with Negative Emotions:

•Negative emotions like fear and anger narrow attention (specific fight or flight behaviors).
•Positive emotions expand behavioral options and thought processes.
Examples:
•Joy inspires playful exploration.
•Interest motivates learning and new experiences.
•Love encourages trust and social bonding.
STAGE 3: Building Enduring Personal Resources
Through broadened behaviors, individuals build lasting resources over time that outlast the fleeting emotion.

•Types of Resources Built:

Resource Domain Examples
Physical Resources Health, vitality, immune strength
Cognitive Resources Creativity, knowledge, problem-solving
Psychological Resources Resilience, optimism, emotional intelligence
Social Resources Friendships, support networks, social capital
These resources prepare individuals to better manage future challenges and adversities, improving survival and
quality of life​.

Examples:
•Frequent play builds motor and social skills in children.
•Building friendships through love leads to a robust support network.
STAGE 4: Upward Spiral of Positive Emotions and Resources
• Accumulated resources increase the likelihood of experiencing more
positive emotions in the future.
• How It Works:
• Resources lead to greater life satisfaction, better coping skills, and more
opportunities for joy, love, and contentment.
• These new positive emotions again broaden thinking and build more resources,
creating a self-sustaining upward spiral.
• Example:
A person who builds strong friendships (social resource) through earlier
positive emotions will likely experience ongoing feelings of love and
support, generating more positive emotions.
 Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand,
manage, and utilize emotions effectively in oneself and in others.
• Salovey and Mayer (1990) originally defined EI as a form of
intelligence that involves emotional awareness and regulation for
problem-solving and adaptation.

• By Salovey & Mayer (1990):

“The ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions,
to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s
thinking and actions.”
 Components of EI
1.Perceiving Emotions – the ability to detect and decipher
emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts.
2.Using Emotions – harnessing emotions to facilitate various
cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem-solving.
3.Understanding Emotions – comprehending emotional language
and appreciating complicated relationships among emotions.
4.Managing Emotions – regulating emotions in both ourselves
and others to promote personal understanding and growth.
Broaden-and-Build Theory Connection:
• Positive emotions (as emphasized in the Broaden-and-Build theory by
Barbara Fredrickson) expand one’s awareness and encourage novel,
varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions.
• EI facilitates the experience and regulation of these positive emotions,
contributing to long-term well-being by building enduring personal
resources.
• EI and Subjective Well-Being:
• Emotional Intelligence is strongly associated with greater subjective
well-being.
• Individuals with high EI tend to have:
• Better coping strategies
• Higher life satisfaction
• Greater emotional regulation
• More positive interpersonal relationships