Language – Detailed Study Guide
1. Introduction: Language, Speech, and Communication
Speech involves using vocal cords to produce sounds. These sounds form the basis of
spoken language.
Language is a structured system that uses symbols (sounds, letters, signs) to convey
meaning. It includes spoken, written, or signed forms.
Communication refers to any method used to share information—this includes language but
also gestures, body language, images, etc. It's broader than just language.
2. Aspects of Language
Language involves:
- Production: Expressing thoughts through speaking, writing, or signing.
- Comprehension: Understanding spoken, written, or signed language.
- Usage: Reading, writing, speaking, and signing in daily life.
3. Language as a Communication System
All human languages have grammar and allow endless creativity (productivity).
Animal communication (e.g., bees) lacks grammar and productivity.
Natural languages are:
- Rule-based (regular)
- Productive (can create infinite sentences).
4. Structure of Language
Includes:
- Phonemes: Smallest sound units (e.g., /d/ in 'dog').
- Morphemes: Smallest meaningful units (e.g., 'un-', 'play').
- Syntax: Sentence structure rules.
- Semantics: Word and sentence meanings.
- Discourse: Connecting sentences in stories or speech.
- Pragmatics: Social rules for using language.
5. Phonology
Phoneme: A sound that can change meaning (e.g., 'bat' vs 'pat').
Phonetics: How speech sounds are made.
Phonemics: Which sounds matter in a language.
6. Morphemes
Free morphemes: Can stand alone (e.g., 'book').
Bound morphemes: Must attach (e.g., 'un-', '-s').
Function words: Help sentence structure (e.g., 'and').
Content words: Carry meaning (e.g., 'eat').
7. Syntax
Syntax = How words are arranged in a sentence.
Typical sentence: Noun Phrase (NP) + Verb Phrase (VP).
Parsing: Breaking down a sentence for understanding.
8. Parsing and Chomsky’s Grammar
Parsing: Analyzing sentence structure.
Chomsky’s theory:
- Deep structure = core meaning.
- Surface structure = actual expression.
Example: 'Susie ate the crocodile' = 'The crocodile was eaten by Susie'.
9. Semantics
Denotation: Literal meaning.
Connotation: Emotional/cultural meaning.
Semantic priming: Related words (e.g., 'doctor' → 'nurse') recognized faster.
10. Lexicon
Lexicon = mental dictionary of words and morphemes.
Context helps in understanding word meanings.
11. Discourse and Pragmatics
Discourse: Connecting sentences in speech or text.
Pragmatics: Social use of language (e.g., politeness, sarcasm).
12. Language Acquisition
Stages:
- Cooing → Babbling → One-word → Two-word → Full sentences.
Chomsky's LAD = built-in ability to learn language.
Nature and nurture both contribute to language learning.
13. Language Comprehension
Spectrograms show speech sounds over time.
Coarticulation: Speech sounds overlap but we understand them.
We use context and categories to understand speech.
14. Language Production
Lexicalization: Turning thoughts into words.
- Lemma = idea + grammar.
- Lexeme = exact word form.
Tip-of-the-tongue: Know idea, can't recall word.
Speech errors: Mistakes in word or sound order.
15. Psycholinguistics
Study of how language is understood, produced, and learned.
Includes: Linguistics, neurolinguistics, sociolinguistics, computational linguistics.
16. Language and Cognition
Language helps with thinking, memory, and perception.
Some believe language influences thought; others think they’re partly separate.
17. Linguistic Relativity
Strong form: Language controls thought (not supported).
Weak form: Language influences thought (supported).
Example: Cultures with many rice terms notice more types of rice.
18. Bilingualism
Learning a second language is easier at a young age.
Brain stores languages both jointly and separately.
Benefits: Better thinking skills, cognitive flexibility.
19. Language in Social Context
Language use changes based on situation and social role.
Pragmatics and sociolinguistics study this.
20. Neuropsychology of Language
Studies brain-language connections.
Aphasia = language loss from brain damage.
- Broca’s: Trouble speaking.
- Wernicke’s: Nonsense speech.
- Conduction: Can't repeat words.
- Anomic: Word-finding difficulty.
- Global: Severe loss of all language skills.
21. Brain and Language
Broca’s area: Produces speech.
Wernicke’s area: Understands speech.
Brain scans show most language function is in the left hemisphere.
