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A. DEVELOPMENT: WHAT DOES IT MEAN?

1. Economic Growth vs. Holistic Progress

Traditionally, development was synonymous with economic growth, meaning a country's

success was measured by its GDP (Gross Domestic Product), level of industrialization, and
technological advancement. These factors translate into higher living standards, with citizens
enjoying greater income and access to goods and services.

However, this narrow definition has been increasingly challenged. Critics argue that economic
prosperity alone doesn't guarantee a good life for all. A more holistic approach to development
has emerged, encompassing:

a. Social Development: This focuses on improvements in education, healthcare, and social

welfare systems. An educated and healthy population is better equipped to contribute to and
benefit from a growing economy.

Social Development in the Philippine Context:

▪ Education: The 2008 Functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS)
reported that about 86.4% of Filipinos aged 10 to 64 years old were functionally literate,
with a slight increase from 84.1% in 2003 [1]. The Philippine Development Plan 2011-2016
aimed to improve access to quality education, with a focus on universal primary
education and enhancing the health system [1].
▪ Healthcare: The country has made progress in improving access to health services, with
a focus on disease control and sanitation. However, it still lags in achieving universal
primary education, improving maternal health, and combating HIV/AIDS [1]. The
Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Project (4Ps) is a conditional cash transfer program that has
led to reduced hunger, increased use of health services, and more children enrolling in
school [3].
▪ Social Welfare: The government social program includes initiatives such as the purchase
and subdivision of big estates for resale, settlement of landless families, and distribution
of relief supplies to the needy [5]. The Social Security System (SSS) provides benefits
including compensation for confinement due to injury or illness, pensions for temporary
incapacity, and indemnities to families in case of death [5].

b. Environmental Sustainability: Development shouldn't come at the expense of the

environment. Sustainable development practices aim to meet the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This
includes responsible use of resources, pollution control, and efforts to combat climate
change.

Environmental Sustainability in the Philippine Context:

▪ Climate Change: The country is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including
increased frequency and intensity of natural disasters, which disproportionately affect
the poor and vulnerable [3]. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is supporting the
Philippines in strengthening food systems against climate change and biodiversity loss
[3].

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▪ Resource Management: The government has implemented programs to manage natural
resources, such as the Livelihood Improvement Program (Kilusang Kabuhayan at
Kaunlaran—KKK) to enhance self-sufficiency at the village level [5].

c. Equality and Equity: Development should be inclusive, ensuring everyone benefits from
progress, not just a privileged few. This means tackling issues like income inequality, and
social stratification, and ensuring equal access to opportunities for all citizens.

Equality and Equity in the Philippine Context:

▪ Poverty Reduction: The poverty incidence of families slightly decreased from 21.1% in
2006 to 20.9% in 2009, but the country still faces significant poverty challenges [1]. The
Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Project (4Ps) has been effective in reducing poverty by
providing cash grants to over four million households [3].
▪ Income Inequality: Women in the Philippines generally earn about half as much as men,
and most occupy traditional social roles and occupations [5]. The country still faces
issues of income inequality, social stratification, and ensuring equal access to
opportunities for all citizens [1].
References

[1] [Official Gazette: Philippine Development Plan 2011-

2016](https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/2011/05may/Phil-Dev-Plan-2011-2016-Chapter-8-BSA.pdf)
[2] [SlideShare: Strategies in Social Development Practice](https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/strategies-in-social-
development-practicepptx/255002053)
[3] [Asian Development Bank: Social Development] (https://www.adb.org/what-we-do/topics/social-development/your-
questions-answered)
[4] [Philippines History and Social Development] (http://afranke1philippines.weebly.com/historyculture-and-social-
development.html)
[5] [Nations Encyclopedia: Philippines - Social Development](https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-
Oceania/Philippines-SOCIAL-DEVELOPMENT.html)

2. Key Characteristics of Developed Societies:

Looking at developed nations, we can see some common characteristics that reflect this broader
understanding of development:

High GDP per capita: This translates to a generally higher standard of living for citizens, with
greater access to goods and services.

▪ High GDP per capita Examples:

✓ United States: Known for its strong economy and high standard of living, the US
has a GDP per capita of around $69,862 (2020) [3].
✓ Germany: With a GDP per capita of $53,844 (2020), Germany is a developed
country with a strong industrial sector and a high standard of living [3].

Strong infrastructure: Reliable transportation networks, communication systems, and energy

grids are crucial for a functioning economy and improved quality of life.

▪ Strong Infrastructure Examples:

✓ Singapore: This city-state is renowned for its efficient transportation systems,
advanced communication networks, and reliable energy grids, making it a prime
example of a developed country with strong infrastructure [2].

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✓ Japan: Japan has a highly developed infrastructure, including advanced
transportation systems, high-speed internet, and reliable energy grids, which
contribute to its strong economy [2].

Advanced education and healthcare systems: A well-educated and healthy population is a

foundation for a strong workforce and a thriving society. Developed nations typically invest
heavily in these areas to ensure quality education and healthcare are accessible to all.

▪ Advanced Education and Healthcare Systems Examples:

✓ Australia: Known for its high-quality education system, Australia has a strong
focus on healthcare, with a well-developed public healthcare system and access
to quality medical care [2].
✓ Canada: Canada has a well-regarded education system and a comprehensive
public healthcare system, ensuring that its citizens have access to quality
healthcare and education [2].

Political stability and rule of law: A predictable political environment with a strong legal system
creates a stable foundation for investment and economic growth. Businesses and individuals are
more likely to invest and innovate when they feel secure in their rights and confident in the future.

▪ Political Stability and Rule of Law Examples:

✓ United States: The US is known for its stable political environment and strong legal
system, which provides a secure foundation for investment and economic growth
[2].
✓ Germany: Germany has a stable political environment and a strong legal system,
which contributes to its economic stability and high standard of living [2].

Environmental protection: Developed nations often have regulations and practices in place to
safeguard the environment. This includes measures to control pollution, conserve natural
resources, and mitigate the effects of climate change.

▪ Environmental Protection Examples:

✓ Sweden: Sweden is known for its strong environmental policies and practices,
including measures to control pollution, conserve natural resources, and mitigate
the effects of climate change [2].
✓ New Zealand: New Zealand has a strong focus on environmental protection, with
initiatives to preserve its natural beauty and mitigate the impacts of climate
change [2].

Development is a complex and multifaceted concept. The definition continues to evolve as we

grapple with global challenges like poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation.
References

[1] [Study Smarter: Developed Countries](https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/macroeconomics/international-

economics/developed-countries/)
[2] [Study.com: Developed Countries] (https://study.com/academy/lesson/developed-countries-definition-examples.html)
[3] [Investopedia: Top Developing Countries] (https://www.investopedia.com/updates/top-developing-countries/)
[4] [Wikipedia: Developed Country] (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country)
[5] [Scribd: Characteristics of Developed Countries] (https://www.scribd.com/presentation/259352802/Characteristics-of-
Developed-Countries)

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B. FACES OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE THIRD WORLD

Development in poor or 3rd world nations can have both positive and negative impacts on these
countries. Here are some of the key advantages and disadvantages:

a. Advantages
1. Economic Growth: Development can lead to significant economic growth, as countries can
specialize in activities that they are best suited for and trade with other countries to obtain
goods and services that they need [4].
2. Increased Access to Resources: Development can provide access to resources such as
healthcare, education, and infrastructure that can improve the quality of life for citizens [5].
3. Improved Standard of Living: Development can lead to an improvement in the standard of
living for citizens, as they have access to better healthcare, education, and other resources
[5].
4. Increased Global Cooperation: Development can promote global cooperation, as countries
work together to address common challenges and achieve shared goals [4].
5. Spread of Knowledge and Technology: Development can lead to the spread of knowledge and
technology, as countries share their expertise and innovations [4].

b. Disadvantages
1. Increased Competition: Development can lead to increased competition, as countries
compete with each other for resources, markets, and influence [4].
2. Exploitation of Labor and Resources: Development can lead to the exploitation of labor and
resources, as wealthy countries take advantage of weak labor and environmental laws in
developing countries [4].
3. Imbalanced Trade: Development can lead to imbalanced trade, as countries trade more than
they produce, leading to a trade deficit [4].
4. Domestic Job Loss: Development can lead to domestic job loss, as industries are outsourced
to other countries [4].
5. Lack of Environmental Regulations: Development can lead to a lack of environmental
regulations, as countries prioritize economic growth over environmental protection[4].

Conclusion

Development in third-world nations can have both positive and negative impacts on these
countries. While it can lead to economic growth, increased access to resources, and improved standard
of living, it can also lead to increased competition, exploitation of labor and resources, imbalanced trade,
domestic job loss, and lack of environmental regulations.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Development

[1] https://www.lawteacher.net/free-law-essays/international-law/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-world-trade-
organization-international-law-essay.php
[2]
https://labordoc.ilo.org/discovery/fulldisplay?adaptor=Primo+Central&context=PC&docid=cdi_proquest_miscellaneous_742
834776&lang=en&offset=40&query=sub%2Cexact%2C+Economic+regulation+&search_scope=MyInst_and_CI&tab=Everythi
ng&vid=41ILO_INST%3A41ILO_V1
[3] https://ideas.repec.org/a/pal/jintbs/v39y2008i6p957-979.html
[4] https://www.motionpoint.com/blog/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-globalization-preparing-for-expansion/
[5] https://cleartax.in/glossary/third-world/

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C. UNDERDEVELOPMENT: THE FLIP SIDE OF THE COIN
Underdevelopment can be seen as the opposite side of the development spectrum. It refers to a
state where a country or region faces significant challenges in meeting the basic needs of its
population and achieving a decent standard of living. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

1. Indicators of Underdevelopment
Several factors point towards underdevelopment, including:
a. Poverty: A large portion of the population lives below the poverty line, struggling to afford
basic necessities like food, shelter, and clothing.

▪ Poverty Situation in the Philippines

✓ High Poverty Rate: The Philippines has a significant poverty rate, with around
16.6% of the population living below the poverty line in 2020.
✓ Income Inequality: The country faces significant income inequality, with the
richest 10% of the population holding around 30% of the total income, while the
poorest 10% holding less than 3%.
✓ Lack of Access to Education: Low literacy rates and limited access to quality
education hinder economic growth and social mobility.

▪ Lack of Access to Education in the Philippines

✓ Low Literacy Rate: The Philippines has a literacy rate of around 95.4%, which is
lower than many developed countries.
✓ Limited Access to Quality Education: Many schools in the country lack adequate
facilities, resources, and qualified teachers, limiting access to quality education.
✓ Poor Health: Inadequate healthcare infrastructure and high rates of malnutrition
and preventable diseases contribute to underdevelopment.

▪ Poor Health Status in the Philippines

✓ High Malnutrition Rate: The Philippines has a high malnutrition rate, particularly
among children, which can lead to long-term health problems and decreased
productivity.
✓ Limited Healthcare Infrastructure: The country faces challenges in providing
quality healthcare, particularly in rural areas, where access to medical facilities
and trained healthcare professionals is limited.
✓ Limited Infrastructure: Deficient transportation networks, unreliable power
supplies, and poor sanitation systems create barriers to development.

▪ Limited Infrastructure in the Philippines:

✓ Deficient Transportation Network: The Philippines has a limited and often
unreliable transportation network, which can make it difficult to access remote
areas and transport goods.
✓ Power Outages: The country experiences frequent power outages, particularly in
rural areas, which can hinder economic activity and daily life.
✓ Environmental Degradation: Unsustainable practices can lead to deforestation,
soil erosion, and water scarcity, further hindering progress.

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▪ Environmental Degradation in the Philippines
✓ Deforestation: The Philippines has significant deforestation rates, which can lead
to soil erosion, landslides, and loss of biodiversity.
✓ Water Scarcity: The country faces water scarcity issues, particularly during dry
seasons, which can impact agriculture, industry, and daily life.
✓ Political Instability and Conflict: Civil wars, corruption, and weak governance
create an unstable environment that discourages investment and development
efforts.

▪ Political Instability and Conflict in the Philippines

✓ Conflict in Mindanao: The ongoing conflict in Mindanao has led to significant
displacement and economic disruption, hindering development efforts in the
region.
✓ Corruption: Corruption is a significant issue in the Philippines, which can
discourage investment and hinder development efforts.

2. Is Underdevelopment Simply the Absence of Development?

Underdevelopment is more than just the lack of development. It's a complex situation often
rooted in historical, political, and economic factors. Here's why it's not a simple binary:

1. Historical Inequalities: Colonial legacies, exploitation of resources, and unequal trade

relationships can create lasting disadvantages for underdeveloped countries.
2. Power Dynamics: The global economic order can perpetuate underdevelopment, with
powerful nations influencing trade policies and resource access in ways that benefit
themselves.
3. Vicious Cycles: Poverty, poor health, and lack of education can create a vicious cycle that
traps a country in underdevelopment. For example, children who are malnourished may
struggle to learn in school, limiting their future employment opportunities and
perpetuating poverty.

Understanding underdevelopment requires examining the underlying causes that prevent a

country from reaching its full potential. It's not just about catching up, but also about addressing
historical injustices and creating a more equitable global system.
References

[1] [Official Gazette: Philippine Development Plan 2011-

2016](https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/2011/05may/Phil-Dev-Plan-2011-2016-Chapter-8-BSA.pdf)
[2] [SlideShare: Strategies in Social Development Practice](https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/strategies-in-social-
development-practicepptx/255002053)
[3] [Asian Development Bank: Social Development](https://www.adb.org/what-we-do/topics/social-development/your-
questions-answered)
[4] [Philippines History and Social Development](http://afranke1philippines.weebly.com/historyculture-and-social-
development.html)
[5] [Nations Encyclopedia: Philippines - Social Development](https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-
Oceania/Philippines-SOCIAL-DEVELOPMENT.html)

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D. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT

1. MODERNIZATION THEORY: Catching Up the West

Modernization theory is a prominent perspective on development that emerged in the
mid-20th century. It proposes a linear, progressive path that all countries must follow to achieve
development, often used as a blueprint for development policies.

Stages of Development:

Modernization theory outlines five stages that countries supposedly progress through:

1. Traditional Society: Characterized by subsistence agriculture, limited technology, and

strong social hierarchies. Change is slow, and traditions hold a strong influence.
2. Preconditions to Take-Off: This stage involves the emergence of a spirit of innovation and
entrepreneurship. Investments are made in infrastructure, education, and some basic
industries.
3. Take-Off: Rapid economic growth occurs, driven by industrialization, urbanization, and
technological advancements. This is seen as the tipping point towards sustained
development.
4. Drive to Maturity: The economy continues to diversify and expand. Heavy industries
become established, and technological innovation accelerates.
5. 5. Age of High Mass Consumption: This final stage features a high standard of living with
widespread consumer goods, advanced technology, and a service-based economy.

Philippines Progress Towards Modernization:

▪ Economic Growth: The Philippines has experienced steady economic growth, with a GDP
growth rate of around 6% in recent years [1].
▪ Industrialization: The country has made significant strides in industrialization, with a
growing manufacturing sector and investments in infrastructure [1].
▪ Technological Advancements: The Philippines has seen advancements in technology,
particularly in the fields of business process outsourcing (BPO) and information
technology (IT) [1].
▪ The Philippines is currently in the Drive to Maturity stage of development. The country has
made significant progress in diversifying its economy, expanding its industries, and
accelerating technological innovation. However, it still faces challenges in achieving
sustained economic growth and addressing issues such as poverty, inequality, and
environmental degradation.

Philippines Progress Towards Modernization:

▪ Poverty and Inequality: The country still faces significant poverty and inequality issues,
with a large portion of the population living below the poverty line [1].
▪ Environmental Concerns: The Philippines is vulnerable to environmental degradation,
including deforestation, soil erosion, and water scarcity [4].
▪ Infrastructure: While there have been infrastructure improvements, the country still
lacks reliable transportation networks, energy grids, and sanitation systems [1].

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Criticisms of Modernization Theory:

While influential, modernization theory has faced significant criticism for its limitations:

▪ Ignores Historical Context: It overlooks the historical inequalities created by

colonialism and unequal trade relations. These factors can significantly hinder a
country's ability to progress through the stages.
▪ One-Size-Fits-All Approach: The model assumes a universal path to development,
neglecting the unique social, cultural, and political contexts of different countries. What
works for one nation may not be suitable for another.
▪ Focus on Westernization: The theory implicitly promotes Western models of
development as superior, overlooking the value of traditional practices and cultural
identities.
▪ Environmental Concerns: The emphasis on rapid industrialization ignores the potential
environmental consequences of unchecked growth.

Direction Towards Development: To achieve sustained development, the Philippines needs

to address its challenges and focus on a more nuanced approach that considers historical
context, cultural specificities, and environmental sustainability. This includes:

• Inclusive Growth: Implement policies that promote inclusive growth, reducing

poverty and inequality by providing access to education, healthcare, and economic
opportunities for all.
• Sustainable Development: Adopt sustainable practices that balance economic
growth with environmental protection, ensuring the long-term viability of natural
resources.
• Cultural Preservation: Value and preserve traditional practices and cultural
identities, recognizing their importance in shaping the country's development path.
• Infrastructure Development: Continue to invest in reliable infrastructure, including
transportation networks, energy grids, and sanitation systems, to support economic
growth and improve the quality of life for citizens.

Modernization theory provides a basic framework for understanding development, but it's
important to acknowledge its shortcomings. A more nuanced approach that considers historical context,
cultural specificities, and environmental sustainability is necessary for effective development strategies.
References

[1] [Revisesociology: Modernization Theory](https://revisesociology.com/2017/09/19/modernization-theory/)

[2] [Scribd: Group 7 Reflection Paper] (https://www.scribd.com/document/531098983/GROUP-7-REFLECTION-PAPER)
[3] [DTIC: Modernization Theory] (https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/AD0726463.pdf)
[4] [Base D-P-H: Environmental Concerns] (https://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/premierdph/fiche-premierdph-4166.html)
[5] [Study.com: Modernization Theory] (https://study.com/learn/lesson/modernization-theory.html)

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2. DEPENDENCY THEORY: A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE
Dependency theory offers a critical perspective on development, challenging the
assumptions of modernization theory. It argues that the underdevelopment of many countries is
not simply due to a lack of progress but rather a consequence of their position within the global
economic system.
Dependency theory emphasizes the importance of breaking free from exploitative
relationships and promoting self-reliance in developing countries. It challenges the idea of a
universal path to development and calls for a more equitable global economic order.
Dependency Theory: A Different Perspective in the Philippine Context - Dependency theory
offers a critical perspective on development, challenging the assumptions of modernization
theory. It argues that the underdevelopment of many countries, including the Philippines, is not
simply due to a lack of progress but rather a consequence of their position within the global
economic system.

A. Exploitation by Developed Nations Hinders Progress - Dependency theory emphasizes

the exploitative relationship between developed and underdeveloped countries. Here's how
it plays out:

▪ Core-Periphery Model: The theory divides the world into a "core" of wealthy, developed
nations and a "periphery" of underdeveloped countries. The Philippines is part of the
periphery, with a history of colonial exploitation by Spain, the United States, and Japan.
This has led to a distorted economy, with a focus on primary commodity exports and a
lack of industrialization. The core benefits from:
o Unequal Trade: Developed countries often set trade policies that favor their
industries, making it difficult for developing nations to export manufactured
goods and compete in the global market. They may also extract raw materials
from peripheral countries at lower prices.
o Foreign Investment: While foreign investment has brought resources and
technology, it has also led to the exploitation of cheap labor and the repatriation
of profits back to core countries, hindering local development. This is evident in
the country's business process outsourcing (BPO) sector, where foreign
companies often dominate and repatriate profits.
o Debt Dependence: Developing countries may rely on loans from developed
nations and international institutions, leading to a cycle of debt that limits their
ability to invest in their development priorities. The Philippines has relied on loans
from developed nations and international institutions, leading to a cycle of debt
that limits its ability to invest in its own development priorities. This has been the
case with loans from institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
the World Bank.

B. Focuses on Power Dynamics and Historical Inequalities - Dependency theory highlights

the historical and structural factors that perpetuate underdevelopment:
▪ Colonial Legacy: Colonial exploitation has left many former colonies with weak
infrastructure, dependence on primary commodity exports, and distorted economies.
The country's colonial past has left it with a weak infrastructure, a distorted economy, and
a lack of industrialization. This legacy continues to influence its development path.

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▪ Power Dynamics: Developed countries hold significant power in international
institutions like the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), influencing policies that can disadvantage developing nations like the Philippines.
▪ External Dependency: Developing countries may rely on core nations for technology,
expertise, and manufactured goods, hindering their own innovation and self-sufficiency.
The Philippines relies on core nations for technology, expertise, and manufactured goods,
hindering its own innovation and self-sufficiency. This is evident in its reliance on
imported goods and technology, rather than developing its own industries.

C. Breaking Free from Exploitative Relationships: Dependency theory emphasizes the

importance of breaking free from exploitative relationships and promoting self-reliance in
developing countries. In the Philippine context, this means:
▪ Promoting Local Industries: The government should focus on developing local industries,
such as manufacturing and agriculture, to reduce reliance on imported goods and
technology.
▪ Reforming Trade Policies: The Philippines should work to reform trade policies to ensure
fairer prices for its exports and to reduce its reliance on unequal trade agreements.
▪ Reducing Debt Dependence: The country should strive to reduce its debt dependence by
investing in its own development priorities and diversifying its economy.
▪ By acknowledging the historical and structural factors that perpetuate
underdevelopment, the Philippines can work towards a more equitable global economic
order and promote self-reliance in its development path.

References

[1] [Philippines and Underdevelopment - Final Paper for Readings in Philippine

History](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352993276_Philippines_and_Underdevelopment_-
_Final_Paper_for_Readings_in_Philippine_History)
[2] [CWdocx](https://www.coursehero.com/file/119714322/CWdocx/)
[3] [Dependency Theory - Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/topic/dependency-theory)
[4] [No8p087.pdf](https://u-ryukyu.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/2012599/files/No8p087.pdf)
[5] [Dependency Theory - Tandfonline](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00472337885390101)

OTHER MAJOR THEORIES IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community development is a multifaceted process that involves enhancing the economic, social,
and physical aspects of a specific community and its residents. Here are seven theories that provide
frameworks for understanding community development:

1) Social Capital Theory: This theory focuses on relationships and trust building. It emphasizes
the importance of social relationships in building solidarity and successful community
initiatives. Social capital is the set of resources intrinsic to social relations, including trust,
norms, and networks [2][3].
2) Structural Functionalism: This theory examines community structures and organizations. It
views societies as systems with interdependent structures that perform certain functions for
societal maintenance. Practitioners using this theory would focus on building links with
broader social systems to support community development [2][3].

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3) Conflict Theory: This theory addresses power dynamics and competing interests between
groups. It highlights the importance of understanding and addressing these power
imbalances to achieve more equitable outcomes. Practitioners using this theory would focus
on empowering marginalized groups and promoting social justice [2][3].
4) Symbolic Interactionism: This theory explores how shared meanings are constructed
through social interaction. It emphasizes the importance of understanding how people give
meaning to objects, deeds, and events within their community. Practitioners using this theory
would focus on building shared meanings and promoting community cohesion [2][3].
5) Communicative Action Theory: This theory promotes deliberation to integrate technical and
local knowledge. It emphasizes the importance of communication and participation in
community development. Practitioners using this theory would focus on creating spaces for
dialogue and collaboration [2][3].
6) Rational Choice Theory: This theory examines individual motivations for participation. It
emphasizes the importance of understanding why people choose to participate in
community initiatives. Practitioners using this theory would focus on building motivation and
creating incentives for community engagement [2][3].
7) Structuration Theory: This theory links macro and micro perspectives by considering
community structures and agency. It emphasizes the importance of understanding how
community structures shape individual behavior and vice versa. Practitioners using this
theory would focus on building community capacity and promoting social change [2][3].

These seven theories provide a comprehensive framework for understanding community

development and can be used to guide practice in various contexts.
References:

[1] https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/polytechnic-university-of-the-philippines/bachelor-of-science-in-
accountancy/seven-theories-in-community-development/35098853
[2] https://lms.su.edu.pk/download?filename=1588488336-theoriesforcd-191102194934.pdf&lesson=17870
[3] https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/theories-for-cd/189753172
[4] https://typeset.io/questions/what-is-community-development-theory-32bxwu0szm
[5] https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/communitydevelopmentpractice/chapter/chapter-3-theories-approaches-and-
frameworks-in-community-work/

3. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT

Modernization and dependency theories have sparked ongoing debates about the most effective
paths to development. The Philippines has been grappling with the challenges of development,
and various alternative approaches have emerged to address the limitations of modernization
and dependency theories. Here are some examples of these alternative approaches in the
Philippine context: In response, several alternative approaches have emerged, each
emphasizing different aspects of progress:

▪ Sustainable Development: This approach recognizes the limitations of unchecked

economic growth and emphasizes meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It focuses on
environmental protection, responsible resource use, and ensuring social justice
alongside economic development.
• Environmental Protection: The Philippines has been working to protect its natural
resources, including the establishment of protected areas and conservation
efforts. For example, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources

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(DENR) has implemented programs to preserve the country's forests and marine
ecosystems [1].
• Responsible Resource Use: The government has also emphasized responsible
resource use, such as the implementation of the National Renewable Energy
Program to promote the use of renewable energy sources [1].

▪ Human Development Index (HDI): Developed by the United Nations Development

Program (UNDP), the HDI is a composite index that goes beyond just economic growth.
It considers three key dimensions of human development:
o A long and healthy life: Measured by life expectancy at birth.
o Knowledge and education: Measured by average years of schooling and
expected years of schooling for children.
o A decent standard of living: Measured by Gross National Income (GNI) per
capita adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP).

The HDI provides a more nuanced picture of development beyond just economic output.
It allows for comparisons between countries at similar income levels but with different
social and educational achievements.
• The Philippines has made significant progress in education, with a focus on
increasing access to quality education. For example, the Department of
Education (DepEd) has implemented programs to improve teacher training and
infrastructure[1].
• The country has also made strides in healthcare, with a focus on improving
access to healthcare services. For example, the Department of Health (DOH) has
implemented programs to increase healthcare coverage and improve healthcare
infrastructure[1].

▪ Basic Needs Approach: This approach prioritizes meeting the essential needs of all
citizens for a decent life. It focuses on providing access to:
o Food, water, and sanitation
o Shelter
o Healthcare
o Education
o Social security

The Philippines has implemented programs to ensure food security, such as the
Department of Agriculture's (DA) efforts to increase agricultural production and improve
food distribution [1]. The government has also focused on providing shelter for the
homeless, such as through the National Housing Authority's (NHA) programs to build
affordable housing[1].

The goal is to ensure all citizens have a foundation for well-being and participation in
society.

▪ Community-Based Development: This approach empowers local communities to

identify their own needs and priorities for development. It emphasizes local
participation, self-reliance, and utilizing local resources. The Philippines has
emphasized local participation in development efforts, such as through the Department
of the Interior and Local Government's (DILG) programs to empower local governments
and communities[1]. The country has also promoted self-reliance, such as through the

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Department of Trade and Industry's (DTI) programs to support local entrepreneurship and
small-scale industries[1].

▪ Gender Equality: Recognizing the critical role of women in development, this approach
focuses on promoting gender equality and empowering women to participate fully in
economic, social, and political spheres. The Philippines has made significant strides in
empowering women, such as through the Department of Social Welfare and
Development's (DSWD) programs to support women's economic empowerment and
gender equality[1]. The government has also promoted women's participation in
economic, social, and political spheres, such as through the Commission on Human
Rights (CHR) efforts to promote gender equality and women's rights[1].

These are just a few examples, and there's ongoing debate about the most effective
development strategies. The best approach may vary depending on the specific context of a
country or region. However, these alternatives all highlight the importance of considering social
justice, environmental sustainability, and the well-being of all citizens as core aspects of
development. These alternative approaches highlight the importance of considering social
justice, environmental sustainability, and the well-being of all citizens as core aspects of
development in the Philippine context.

References

[1] https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Alternative-Approaches-to-Development:-Social-in-
Tantingco/df570b3423e04b51b3d61de5e7c9d9eabfd628e3
[2] https://cids.up.edu.ph/programs-2/alternative-development/
[3] https://openaccess.wgtn.ac.nz/articles/thesis/Alternativ
e_Approaches_to_Development_Social_Entrepreneurship_in_the_Philippines/16992811
[4] https://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/premierdph/fiche-premierdph-4166.html
[5] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4825938_Alternative_approaches_to_development_economics

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E. SOCIAL CHANGE: THE ENGINE OF DEVELOPMENT

1. How Social Change Contributes to Development

Social change plays a crucial role in driving development. It involves transformations in
social structures, institutions, and cultural norms that can empower individuals and create a
more equitable and prosperous society. Here are two keyways social change contributes to
development: a. Education and Empowerment; and b. Technological Advancement &
Innovation.

a. Education and Empowerment:

• Breaking the Cycle of Poverty: Investing in education, particularly for girls, is a powerful tool
for breaking the cycle of poverty. Education equips individuals with the skills and knowledge
needed to secure better jobs, participate more effectively in the economy, and improve their
overall well-being.
• Empowering Citizens: Social change movements that promote equality and social justice
can empower marginalized groups to claim their rights and participate more fully in society.
This can lead to increased political participation, improved access to resources, and a
stronger sense of agency among citizens.
• Shifting Social Norms: Social change can challenge harmful traditional practices that
hinder development, such as child marriage or gender discrimination. By promoting more
inclusive and equitable norms, societies can unlock the potential of all their citizens.
• Example: The Philippines has made significant progress in increasing access to education,
particularly for girls. For example, the Department of Education (DepEd) has implemented
programs to improve access to quality education, especially in rural areas. Social change
movements that promote equality and social justice have empowered marginalized groups
to claim their rights and participate more fully in society. For example, the women's suffrage
movement has led to increased political participation and improved access to resources for
women. Social change has challenged harmful traditional practices that hinder
development, such as child marriage and gender discrimination. For example, the
Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) has implemented programs to
prevent child marriage and promote gender equality.

b. Technological Advancements and Innovation:

• Driving Economic Growth: Social change can foster an environment that encourages
innovation and technological advancements. This can lead to the development of new
industries, increased productivity, and improved living standards.
• Social Innovation: Social change movements can also drive innovation in areas beyond
traditional technology, such as developing new approaches to healthcare delivery,
education, or environmental protection. These innovations can improve the lives of millions
and contribute to sustainable development.
• Example: The Philippines has seen significant growth in the technology sector, driven by
social change movements that promote innovation and entrepreneurship. For example, the
rise of the business process outsourcing (BPO) industry has created new job opportunities
and contributed to economic growth. Social change movements have also driven innovation
in areas beyond traditional technology, such as developing new approaches to healthcare

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delivery and environmental protection. For example, the Department of Health (DOH) has
implemented programs to improve healthcare access and reduce healthcare costs.

Examples of Social Change in the Philippines

✓ The Women's Suffrage Movement: The women's suffrage movement in the Philippines, which
began in the early 20th century, led to the granting of women's right to vote in 1937. This
movement empowered women to participate more fully in society and politics.
✓ The Philippine Revolution: The Philippine Revolution, which began in the late 19th century,
aimed to overthrow Spanish colonial rule and establish an independent Philippine government.
This movement led to significant social and political changes, including the establishment of a
new government and the promotion of education and economic development.
✓ The BPO Industry: The rise of the BPO industry in the Philippines, which began in the early 2000s,
has created new job opportunities and contributed to economic growth. This industry has also
driven innovation and entrepreneurship, promoting social change and development.

Conclusion

Social change plays a crucial role in driving development in the Philippines. By empowering
citizens, promoting education and innovation, and challenging harmful traditional practices, social
change movements can contribute to a more just, prosperous, and sustainable future for the country.

References

[1] [Human Rights Careers](https://www.humanrightscareers.com/issues/social-change-101-meaning-examples-learning-

opportunities/)
[2] [Base D-P-H](https://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/premierdph/fiche-premierdph-4166.html)
[3] [Helpful Professor](https://helpfulprofessor.com/social-change-in-sociology-examples/)
[4] [Phoenix University Blog](https://www.phoenix.edu/blog/what-is-social-change.html)
[5] [Semantic Scholar](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Alternative-Approaches-to-Development:-Social-in-
Tantingco/df570b3423e04b51b3d61de5e7c9d9eabfd628e3)

Processes that cause Social Change:

Social change is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that can be caused by various
processes. Here, we will discuss four key processes that contribute to social change:

1. Discovery
Discovery is the process of uncovering new knowledge or information that can lead to
significant social change. This can include scientific discoveries, technological
advancements, or new insights into human behavior and society. When new knowledge is put
into practice, it can lead to changes in how people live, work, and interact with each other.

The discovery of vaccination by Edward Jenner in 1796 revolutionized the way people
approached diseases like smallpox. This discovery led to a significant reduction in the
number of smallpox cases and ultimately contributed to the eradication of the disease in
1980. The discovery of vaccination also paved the way for the development of other vaccines,
further reducing the incidence of infectious diseases

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2. Invention
Invention is the process of creating new products, processes, or systems that can lead to
social change. Inventions can be driven by the need to solve a specific problem or to improve
existing technologies. Inventions can also be driven by the desire to create something new
and innovative.

The invention of the Internet by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in the 1970s revolutionized the
way people communicate and access information. The Internet has enabled global
connectivity, facilitated e-commerce, and transformed the way people work and interact with
each other

3. Innovation
Innovation is the process of finding better and more efficient means of doing things. This
can include improving existing technologies, processes, or systems or creating new ones.
Innovation can be driven by the need to solve a specific problem or to improve existing
solutions.
The innovation of the smartphone by Steve Jobs and Apple in the late 1990s and early
2000s revolutionized the way people communicate and access information. Smartphones
have enabled people to stay connected with each other and access a vast array of
information and services on the go.

4. Diffusion
Diffusion is the process of spreading cultural traits from group to group as a result of
contact. This can include the spread of ideas, values, and practices from one culture to
another. Diffusion can be driven by factors such as migration, trade, or technological
advancements.

The diffusion of Western culture to other parts of the world has led to significant social
change. The spread of Western values, such as individualism and democracy, has influenced
the way people live and interact with each other. The diffusion of Western technology, such
as the Internet and smartphones, has also transformed the way people communicate and
access information

Conclusion

These four processes - discovery, invention, innovation, and diffusion - are key drivers of
social change. They can lead to significant changes in how people live, work, and interact with
each other. By understanding these processes, we can better appreciate the complex and
multifaceted nature of social change
References:

[1] https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-change/Explanations-of-social-change
[2] https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/socialchange/chapter/2-4-patterns-and-process-of-social-change/
[3] https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/process-of-social-change-250603170/250603170
[4] https://brocku.ca/MeadProject/Cooley/Cooley_1897b.html
[5] https://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/331courseE/331_LG_E/331_LG_E_L18.pdf

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2. Challenges to Social Change
Social movements advocating for increased environmental protection may struggle to
gain traction in communities that rely heavily on resource extraction for their livelihoods.

Despite these challenges, social change remains a powerful force for development. By
understanding the obstacles and working to overcome them, communities and advocates can
increase the effectiveness of their efforts and create a more equitable and just future.

Barriers to Social Change

Social change can face several barriers that hinder its progress. Here are some of the key
barriers:
i. Cultural Barriers
▪ Traditionalism: The tendency to believe that anything that happens is the will of
some supernatural force and cannot be modified by human effort [2].
▪ Cultural Ethnocentrism: The belief that one's own culture is superior to others [3].
▪ Pride and Dignity: The reluctance to change due to concerns about losing status or
reputation [2].
ii. Social Barriers
▪ Patterns of Cooperation: The difficulty in changing social norms and behaviors when
people are used to working together in a certain way [2].
▪ Patterns of Competition: The resistance to change when people are used to
competing in a certain way [2].
▪ Authority Patterns: The difficulty in changing social structures when people are used
to following certain authority figures or institutions [2].
▪ Characteristics of the Social Structure: The resistance to change when social
structures are deeply ingrained and difficult to alter [2].
iii. Psychological Barriers
▪ Differences in Perception: The difficulty in changing when people have different
perceptions of the world [2].
▪ Problems of Communication and Learning: The difficulty in changing when people
have different ways of communicating and learning [2].
▪ Fear of the Unknown: The reluctance to change due to fear of the unknown or
uncertainty [3].
iv. Economic Barriers
▪ Cost: The difficulty in changing when there are significant costs associated with the
change [3].
▪ Resource Availability: The difficulty in changing when resources are limited [3].
v. Other Barriers
▪ Fatalism: The belief that change is inevitable and therefore there is no need to try to
change [3].
▪ Ignorance and Fear of the Unknown: The reluctance to change due to lack of
knowledge or fear of the unknown [3].
▪ Resistance to Change: The tendency to resist change due to a desire to maintain the
status quo [3].

These barriers to social change can be significant and can hinder the progress of social
change. However, understanding these barriers can help us develop strategies to overcome them
and facilitate social change.

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References:

[1] https://www.studocu.com/in/messages/question/5083102/explain-barriers-of-social-change
[2] https://www.coursehero.com/file/p2vdif1/Barriers-and-Stimulants-to-Social-Changes-These-
barriers-and-stimulants-may-be/
[3] https://people.uncw.edu/pricej/teaching/socialchange/reactions%20to%20social%20change.htm
[4] https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/social-change-195990642/195990642
[5] https://www.scribd.com/presentation/360923656/Barriers-to-Social-Change-0-1

a. Resistance to Change and Traditional Values

• Vested Interests: Those who benefit from the status quo may resist change, even if
it ultimately benefits society as a whole. This can include powerful elites, traditional
institutions, or even individuals who feel comfortable with the way things are. The
Philippine government has faced resistance from powerful elites and traditional
institutions when implementing policies that aim to reduce poverty and inequality.
For example, the implementation of the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program
(CARP) has been hindered by resistance from large landowners who benefit from the
status quo [1].
• Fear of the Unknown: Change can be unsettling, and people may be hesitant to
embrace new ideas or ways of doing things, particularly if they disrupt established
traditions or cultural values. The country has seen resistance to changes in
traditional practices, such as the shift towards renewable energy sources. Some
communities have been hesitant to adopt new technologies, fearing the loss of
traditional livelihoods [3].
• Religious Beliefs: Deeply held religious beliefs can sometimes clash with social
change movements, particularly those advocating for greater social freedoms or
changes to traditional family structures. The Philippines is a predominantly Catholic
country, and religious beliefs have sometimes clashed with social change
movements. For example, the reproductive health law, which aimed to improve
access to family planning and reproductive health services, faced opposition from
the Catholic Church [4].

b. Inequality and Unequal Access to Resources

• Power Imbalances: Existing social hierarchies can make it difficult for marginalized
groups to advocate for change. Those with power and resources may be able to
silence dissenting voices or manipulate the system to maintain their advantage. The
Philippines has significant power imbalances, with a small elite holding significant
wealth and power. This has made it difficult for marginalized groups to advocate for
change, as they often lack access to resources and platforms to raise their voices
[1][3].
• Limited Resources: Social change movements often require resources to mobilize
support and raise awareness. Lack of access to funding, media platforms, or
communication channels can hinder their reach and impact. Social change
movements in the Philippines often face limited resources, including funding, media
platforms, and communication channels. This has hindered their ability to mobilize
support and raise awareness about important issues [3].

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• Geographical Inequalities: The benefits of social change may not be equally
distributed. Social movements may struggle to reach geographically isolated
communities or those lacking access to technology and communication
infrastructure. The Philippines is an archipelago with significant geographical
inequalities. Social movements may struggle to reach geographically isolated
communities, which often lack access to technology and communication
infrastructure [1][3].

Additional Examples:

The Marcos regime, which ruled the Philippines from 1965 to 1986, was marked by significant
resistance to social change. The regime used its power to suppress dissent and maintain its grip on
power, hindering efforts to address poverty and inequality [4].

The COVID-19 Pandemic: The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the challenges of social
change in the Philippines. The government's response to the pandemic has been criticized for
exacerbating existing inequalities, with marginalized communities facing significant challenges in
accessing healthcare and economic support [3].

Conclusion

Social change is crucial for development, but it faces significant challenges in the Philippine
context. By understanding these challenges and working to overcome them, communities and
advocates can increase the effectiveness of their efforts and create a more equitable and just future
for all Filipinos.

References:

[1] https://www.jil.go.jp/english/jli/documents/2023/045-05.pdf
[2] https://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/premierdph/fiche-premierdph-4166.html
[3] https://www.genevaenvironmentnetwork.org/events/challenges-on-the-economic-social-cultural-and-
environmental-situation-in-the-philippines-upr41-side-event/
[4] https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4025&context=etd
[5]
https://openaccess.wgtn.ac.nz/articles/thesis/Alternative_Approaches_to_Development_Social_Entrepreneurship_i
n_the_Philippines/16992811

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F. SYMPTOMS/FACTORS OF POVERTY BY DR. PHIL BARTLE

Dr. Phil Bartle, a retired sociology professor with extensive experience in community
development, has identified several key symptoms of poverty. These symptoms are not necessarily
the causes of poverty but rather the consequences of poverty that can perpetuate it. Here are some
of the key symptoms of poverty as identified by Dr. Bartle:

a. Lack of Skills: Poverty is often linked to a lack of skills and education among community
members. This can make it difficult for individuals to secure better-paying jobs and improve
their economic situation [1][5].
b. Disease: Poverty can lead to a higher incidence of disease, which can further exacerbate
poverty. For example, absenteeism due to illness can lead to job loss and reduced income
[5].
c. Lack of Knowledge: Poverty can also be perpetuated by a lack of knowledge and information.
When people are not aware of available resources and opportunities, they may not be able to
take advantage of them to improve their situation [5].
d. High Population Growth: High population growth rates can contribute to poverty by putting
pressure on resources and making it more difficult for individuals to access necessities like
healthcare and education [3].
e. Inequality: Poverty is often linked to high levels of inequality, both within and between
communities. This can create a cycle of poverty where those who are already disadvantaged
are further marginalized [3].
f. Lack of Access to Resources: Poverty can also be perpetuated by a lack of access to
resources such as healthcare, education, and clean water. These necessities are essential
for improving quality of life and breaking the cycle of poverty [3].
g. Intergenerational Poverty: Poverty can become entrenched when it is passed down through
generations. Children who grow up in poverty are more likely to remain poor as adults,
perpetuating the cycle of poverty [3].

These symptoms of poverty highlight the complexity of the issue and the need for a multifaceted
approach to address it.

References:

[1] https://financeandfury.com.au/incentives-economic-inequality-and-poverty/
[2] https://wikieducator.org/Introduction_to_Community_Empowerment
[3] https://www.adb.org/publications/poverty-philippines-causes-constraints-and-opportunities
[4] https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/27529/poverty-philippines-causes-constraints-opportunities.pdf
[5] https://financeandfury.libsyn.com/what-5-factors-create-poverty

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