Immune System Lymph Nodes

-consists of a network of cells, proteins, tissues, and -Small, bean-shaped

organs that work together to protect our bodies from -laced along the lymphatic vessels, with clusters in
infectious microorganisms including bacteria, the neck, armpits, abdomen, and groin.
viruses, and fungi. -Each contains specialized compartments where
immune cells congregate, and where they can
Immune System of Fishes encounter antigens.
-two main parts: physical protection and
internal pathogen handling. Spleen
 Physical protection - scales and the layers -a flattened organ at the upper left of the abdomen.
of dermis and epidermis. These provide defense -like lymph nodes, the spleen contains specialized
against physical injury and disease organisms in compartments where immune cells gather and work,
the environment, which is further improved by and serves as a meeting ground where immune
a mucus covering that contains bactericides and defenses confront antigens.
fungicides. It helps slough off debris and
discourages parasites from attaching Lymphatic Vessels
themselves to the fish. -passageway of cells that closely parallels the
 Internal pathogen handling - fishes have some body’s veins and arteries.
general immunity provided by products in their -carry lymph, a clear fluid that bathes the body’s
blood: the antiviral chemical interferon and C- tissues.
reactive protein immediately attack bacteria and
viruses. Bone Marrow
-soft tissue in the hollow center of bones
Immune System of Amphibians -the ultimate source of all blood cells, including white
 fundamentally similar to that of mammals blood cells destined to become immune cells.
including leukocytes involved in innate immunity
Peyer’s Patches (aka aggregated lymphoid
as well as B and T lymphocytes expressing a
nodules)
wide repertoire of somatically generated
-small masses of lymphatic tissue found throughout
receptors.
 Notable differences from birds and mammals the ileum region of the small intestine.
include: the relatively poor T cell and B cell -They monitor intestinal bacteria populations and
response of urodeles; the absence of true lymph preventing the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the
intestines.
nodes; the differentiation of a functional immune
system a few days after fertilization.
Lymphocytes
The Structure of the Immune System - Heart of the Immune System
Lymphoid Organs -a class of white blood cells -- the principal active
-organs that are involved with our immune system components of the adaptive immune system.
-affect growth, development, and the release of
lymphocytes, or infection-fighting white blood cells Immune cells and their Products
-positioned throughout the body. -All immune cells begin as immature stem cells in the
-called lymphoid organs because they are home to bone marrow. They respond to different cytokines
lymphocytes, small white blood cells that are the key and other signals to grow into specific immune cell
players in the immune system. types, such as T cells, B cells, or phagocytes.
• Tonsils and adenoids -B cells & T cells - main types of lymphocytes.
• Thymus
• Lymph nodes B Cells
• Spleen -B cells work by secreting substances called
• Appendix antibodies into the body’s fluids.
• Lymphatic vessels -Each B cell is programmed to make one specific
• Bone marrow antibody.
• Peyer’s Patches -When a B cell encounters its triggering antigen, it
Tonsils, Adenoids and Appendix gives rise to many large cells known as plasma cells.
-Clumps of lymphoid tissues that serve as gateways Every plasma cell is essentially a factory for
to the body. producing an antibody. Each of the plasma cells
descended from a given B cell manufactures millions
Thymus- an organ that lies behind the breastbone; of identical antibody molecules and pours them into
lymphocytes known as T lymphocytes, or just “T the bloodstream.
cells,” mature in the thymus. Antibodies
-belong to a family of large molecules known as  When monocytes migrate into tissues, they
immunoglobulins. develop into macrophages. Specialized types of
-Antibodies ambush antigens circulating the macrophages can be found in many organs,
bloodstream. including lungs, kidneys, brain, and liver.
Different types play different roles in the immune
defense strategy. Self and non-self
 When immune defenders encounter cells or
 Immunoglobulin G, or IgG, works efficiently to organisms carrying markers that say “foreign,”
coat microbes, speeding their uptake by other they quickly launch an attack.
cells in the immune system.  Anything that can trigger this immune response
 IgM is very effective at killing bacteria. is called an antigen. An antigen can be a
 IgA concentrates in body fluids—tears, saliva, microbe such as a virus, or even a part of a
the secretions of the respiratory tract and the microbe.
digestive tract—guarding the entrances to the
body. Basic Classification of Immunity
 IgE, whose job is to protect against parasitic
infections, is the villain responsible for the
symptoms of allergy.
 IgD remains attached to B cells and plays a key
role in initiating early B-cell response.

T Cells
-T cells do not recognize free-floating antigens.
Rather, their surfaces contain specialized antibody-
Innate vs Adaptive
like receptors that see fragments of antigens on the
-Immune system is composed of two major
surfaces of infected or cancerous cells.
subdivisions, the innate/nonspecific immune system
-T cells contribute to immune defenses in two major
&the adaptive/specific immune system.
ways: some direct and regulate immune responses;
 The innate immune system is a primary defense
others directly attack infected or cancerous cells.
mechanism against invading organisms, while
 the adaptive immune system acts as a second
 Helper T cells, or Th cells, coordinate immune
line of defense.
responses by communicating with other cells.
Some stimulate nearby B cells to produce
antibody, others call in microbe-gobbling cells
called phagocytes, and still others activate other
T cells.
 Killer T cells—also called cytotoxic T
lymphocytes or CTLs— are useful for attacking
viruses because viruses often hide from other
parts of the immune system while they grow
inside infected cells. CTLs recognize small
fragments of these viruses peeking out from the
cell membrane and launch an attack to kill the Natural > Passive vs Active
cell. Passive Immunity (Maternal)
 Natural killer (NK) cells are another kind of
-You don’t produce the antibodies
lethal white cell, or lymphocyte. Like killer T cells,
A mother will pass immunities on to her baby during
NK cells are armed with granules filled with
pregnancy. These antibodies will protect the baby
potent chemicals. But while killer T cells look for
for a short period of time following birth while its
antigen fragments bound to self-MHC
immune system develops.
molecules, NK cells recognize cells lacking self- Active Immunity (Infection)
MHC molecules. Thus NK cells have the -A person naturally develops active immunity after
potential to attack many types of foreign cells.
infection.

Phagocytes and Their Relatives

Artificial > Passive vs Active
 Phagocytes are large white cells that can Passive Immunity (Antibody transfer)
swallow and digest microbes and other foreign -Passive immunity occurs when an individual is
particles.
given prepared antibodies.
 Monocytes are phagocytes that circulate in the
Active Immunity (Immunization)
blood.
-Vaccines are available to induce long-lived active bubble) SCID is a serious immune system
immunity in a well person. disorder that occurs because of a lack of both B
and T lymphocytes, which makes it almost
impossible to fight infections.
 DiGeorge syndrome (thymic dysplasia), a
birth defect in which kids are born without a
thymus gland, is an example of a primary T-
lymphocyte disease.
 Chediak-Higashi syndrome and Chronic
Granulomatous Disease (CGD) both involve
the inability of the neutrophils to function
normally as phagocytes.

Immune tolerance Acquired (secondary) Immunodeficiencies

-the tendency of T or B lymphocytes to ignore the  HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
body’s own tissues. Maintaining tolerance is infection/AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency
important because it prevents the immune system syndrome) is a disease that slowly and steadily
from attacking its fellow cells. destroys the immune system. It is caused by
HIV, a virus that wipes out certain types of
Vaccines lymphocytes called T-helper cells. Newborns
-consist of killed or modified microbes, components can get HIV infection from their mothers while in
of microbes, or microbial DNA that trick the body the uterus, during birth process, or
into thinking an infection has occurred. An breastfeeding. People can get HIV infection by
immunized person’s immune system attacks the having unprotected sexual intercourse with an
harmless vaccine and prepares for subsequent infected person or from sharing contaminated
invasions. needles for drugs, steroids, or tattoos.
-Vaccines remain one of the best ways to prevent  Immunodeficiencies caused by
infectious diseases and have an excellent safety medications. Some medicines suppress the
record. immune system. One of the drawbacks of
-Previously devastating diseases such as smallpox, chemotherapy treatment for cancer, for
polio, and whooping cough have been greatly example, is that it not only attacks cancer cells,
controlled or eliminated through worldwide but other fast-growing, healthy cells, including
vaccination programs. those found in the bone marrow and other parts
of the immune system.
Disorders of the Immune System
Immunodeficiency Disorders Autoimmune Disorders
-Immunodeficiencies happen when a part of the -the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's
immune system is missing or not working properly. healthy organs and tissues as though they were
-Some people are born with an immunodeficiency foreign invaders. Autoimmune diseases include:
(aka primary immunodeficiencies), although • Lupus: a chronic disease marked by muscle
symptoms of the disorder might not appear until and joint pain and inflammation (the abnormal
later in life. immune response also may involve attacks on
-Immunodeficiencies also can be acquired through the kidneys and other organs)
infection or produced by drugs (aka secondary • Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis: a disease in
immunodeficiencies). which the body's immune system acts as
-It can affect B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, or though certain body parts (such as the joints of
phagocytes. the knee, hand, and foot) are foreign tissue and
attacks them.
Primary Immunodeficiencies • Scleroderma: a chronic autoimmune disease
 IgA deficiency is the most common that can lead to inflammation and damage of
immunodeficiency disorder. It is a disorder in the skin, joints, and internal organs
which the body doesn't produce enough of the • Ankylosing spondylitis: a disease that
antibody IgA. People with IgA deficiency tend to involves inflammation of the spine and joints,
have allergies or get more colds and other causing stiffness and pain
respiratory infections, but the condition is • Juvenile dermatomyositis: a disorder marked
usually not severe. by inflammation and damage of the skin and
 Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) muscles
(aka "bubble boy disease" after a Texas boy
with SCID who lived in a germ-free plastic Allergic Disorders
-happen when the immune system overreacts to walls), some antibiotic compounds
exposure to antigens in the environment. The (e.g., phytoalexins), and even enzymes that
substances that provoke such attacks are perturb pathogens
called allergens. The immune response can cause  Plants Have an Innate (Passive) Immune
symptoms such as swelling, watery eyes, and System
sneezing, and even a life-threatening reaction  Plants don’t have antibodies or special cells
called anaphylaxis. Medicines called antihistamines that search for and destroy pathogens.
can relieve most symptoms.  Plants do, however, have cell-surface receptors
Allergic disorders include: to identify certain patterns characteristic of
 Asthma, If the lungs are oversensitive to pathogens.
certain allergens (like pollen, molds, animal Such receptors, when activated, trigger the
dander, or dust mites), breathing tubes can production of chemical signals, such as methyl
become narrowed and swollen, making it hard jasmonate that may elicit both local and
for a person to breathe. systemic defense responses.
 Eczema is an itchy rash also known as atopic Local defensive responses included the so-
dermatitis. Although not necessarily caused by called “hypersensitive response” characterized
an allergic reaction, eczema most often by the self-destruction of the plant cells in a
happens in kids and teens who have allergies, localized area around the site of infection.
hay fever, or asthma or who have a family Plants also possess inducible systemic defense
history of these conditions. responses when locally infected by pathogens
 Allergies - Environmental allergies (to dust
mites, for example), seasonal allergies (such as Although plants do have the ability to defend
hay fever), drug allergies (reactions to specific themselves against disease-causing organisms
medications or drugs), food allergies (such as (sort of a rudimentary immune system), plants don’t
to nuts), and allergies to toxins (bee stings, for have an immune system as complex as humans.
example) are the common conditions people
usually refer to as allergies.  Individual plant cells express receptors that
recognise pathogen molecules and then trigger
Cancers of the Immune System defence responses, which can include: cell wall
 Cancer happens when cells grow out of control. thickening, production of anti-microbial
Leukemia, which involves abnormal compounds and host cell death.
overgrowth of leukocytes, is the most common  Often, the best way in terms of a whole plant
childhood cancer. response is just for that cell to commit suicide.
 A lot of pathogens feed on living tissue, so if the
Trivia: immediate cells that are being infected die, it
-The human immune system contains stops the pathogen from being able to access
approximately 1 trillion T cells and 1 trillion B cells, nutrients and then it can't spread through the
located in the lymphoid organs and in the blood, rest of the plant.
plus approximately 10 billion antigen-presenting
cells located in the lymphoid organs.
-The function of the appendix is unknown. One
theory is that the appendix acts as a storehouse for
good bacteria, “rebooting” the digestive system
after diarrheal illnesses. Other experts believe
the appendix is just a useless remnant from our
evolutionary past.

Plants Immune System

Plants can be infected by pathogens.

Pathogens
-used to describe an infectious agent such as
a virus, bacterium, protozoa, prion, a fungus, or
other micro-organism.
-The scientific study of pathogens is
called Pathology.

 Plants defend themselves against pathogens by

producing physical barriers (e.g., plant cell