MODULE 3

A. CIRCUIT BREAKERS

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated switch that interrupts excessive current flow to prevent
damage to electrical equipment.

Types of Circuit Breakers

1.1 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

� Used for: Low voltage applications (up to 100A).
� Protection: Overload and short circuit.
� Common in: Control panels, small industrial machines, and lighting systems.

1.2 Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)

� Used for: Medium voltage (100A to 2500A).
� Protection: Overload, short circuit, and sometimes earth faults.
� Common in: Industrial plants, motors, transformers, and distribution panels.

1.3 Air Circuit Breaker (ACB)

� Used for: High voltage (up to 6300A).
� Protection: Overcurrent, short circuit, earth fault, and undervoltage.
� Common in: Power distribution in industries, generators, and substations.

1.4 Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB)

� Used for: Medium & high voltage applications (up to 36kV).
� Protection: Short circuit and overload.
� Common in: Substations, high-power motors, and electrical grids.

1.5 SF6 Circuit Breaker

� Used for: Very high voltage applications (33kV to 800kV).
� Protection: High-voltage faults with excellent insulation properties.
� Common in: Power transmission lines and substations.
B. OVERLOAD RELAYS

An overload relay protects electrical motors and equipment from prolonged overcurrent situations. Unlike
circuit breakers, overload relays do not react to short circuits but instead trip the circuit after a delay.

Types of Overload Relays

2.1 Thermal Overload Relay

� Working Principle: Uses a bimetallic strip that bends when overheated, triggering a trip.
� Common in: Motor protection circuits, industrial machines.
� Advantages: Simple, low cost, widely used.

2.2 Magnetic Overload Relay

� Working Principle: Uses an electromagnetic coil to detect excessive current and trip the circuit.
� Common in: High-speed industrial applications where quick response is needed.
� Advantages: Faster response than thermal relays.

2.3 Electronic Overload Relay

� Working Principle: Uses current sensors and microcontrollers to detect overload conditions.
� Common in: Large motors and automation systems.
� Advantages: Precise, adjustable settings, better accuracy.

3. Differences between Circuit Breakers & Overload Relays

Feature Circuit Breaker Overload Relay

Protection Type Short circuit, overload Overload only

Response Time Immediate (fast trip) Delayed (gradual trip)

Reset Method Manual or automatic Manual or automatic

Application General power systems Motor protection

C. IMPORTANT ELEMENTS FOR POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

1. Switchgear

Consists of mainly bulk oil circuit breaker, minimum oil circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker, air
blast circuit breaker and vacuum circuit breaker etc. Different operating mechanisms such as
solenoid, spring, pneumatic, hydraulic etc. are employed in the circuit breaker. Circuit breaker is
the main part of protection system in power system and it automatically isolate the faulty portion
of the system by opening its contacts.

2. Protective Gear

Consists of mainly power system protection relays like current relays, voltage relays, impedance
relays, power relays, frequency relays, etc. based on operating parameter, definite time relays,
inverse time relays, stepped relays etc. as per operating characteristic, logic wise such as
differential relays, over fluxing relays etc. During fault the protection relay gives trip signal to
the associated circuit breaker for opening its contacts.

3. Station Battery
Circuit breakers in the electrical power system operate on DC (Direct Current) from station
batteries. These batteries store DC power, allowing circuit breakers to function even during a
complete power failure. Referred to as the heart of the electrical substation, station batteries
accumulate energy when AC power is available and provide essential power to trip the circuit
breaker if AC power fails.

D. PROTECTION AGAINST OVER VOLTAGE

Overvoltage protection in industrial settings is critical to prevent damage to electrical equipment,

ensure worker safety, and maintain operational continuity. Here are the key protection methods:

1. Surge Protection Devices (SPDs)

 Diverts excessive voltage to the ground.

 Installed at different levels: Main Power Supply, Distribution Panels, and Sensitive
Equipment.
 Types:
o Type 1 – Installed at the main power entry to protect against external surges (e.g.,
lightning).
o Type 2 – Used in distribution panels to prevent transient overvoltages.
o Type 3 – Protects specific industrial machinery or equipment.
2. Voltage Regulators & Stabilizers

 Automatically adjust the voltage to maintain a stable output.

 Types:
o Servo Voltage Stabilizers – Used in industries with fluctuating power.
o Static Voltage Stabilizers – Faster response for precision applications.

3. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

 Protects against voltage surges, sags, and power outages.

 Provides temporary power backup during overvoltage or outages.

4. Isolation Transformers

 Isolate sensitive equipment from the main power supply.

 Reduces voltage spikes and electromagnetic interference.

5. Overvoltage Protection Relays

 Monitors voltage levels and disconnects power if overvoltage is detected.

 Used in switchgear and motor control centers (MCCs).

6. Circuit Breakers & Fuses

 Protects against overcurrent and overvoltage.

7. Grounding & Earthing Systems

 Ensures excess voltage is safely discharged into the ground.

 Reduces the impact of electrical faults and lightning strikes.

8. Lightning Protection Systems

  Includes lightning rods, earthing grids, and surge arresters to prevent overvoltage
from lightning strikes.

E. Protection against undervoltage in Industrial Systems

Undervoltage occurs when the voltage level drops below the rated value, leading to inefficiencies,
overheating, equipment damage, and even system failures. Protecting industrial equipment against
undervoltage is essential for maintaining productivity and ensuring electrical safety.

1. Causes of Undervoltage

� Overloaded electrical network

� Poor power supply quality from the grid
� Long cable runs with high resistance
� Transformer faults or aging infrastructure
� Sudden disconnection of large loads
� Voltage sags due to short circuits or motor startups

2. Effects of Undervoltage on Industrial Equipment

� Electric Motors: Reduced torque, overheating, and premature failure.

� Computers & PLCs: System crashes and data corruption.
� Lighting Systems: Flickering or dimming lights.
� Heaters & Welders: Inconsistent performance and reduced output.

3. Protection against Under voltage

3.1 Undervoltage Relays (UVR)

 Monitors voltage levels and disconnects loads when voltage drops below a set limit.
 Automatically restores power when voltage normalizes.
 Used in motors, transformers, and industrial control panels.

3.2 Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs)

 Stabilizes voltage by adjusting input fluctuations.
 Essential for sensitive electronics and automation systems.
3.3 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
 Provides temporary power during undervoltage or blackouts.
 Protects servers, PLCs, and critical control systems.

3.4 Servo & Static Voltage Stabilizers

 Correct voltage fluctuations and prevent low-voltage damage.
 Used for large machinery and industrial plants.

3.5 Soft Starters & Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)

 Help motors operate smoothly during undervoltage conditions.
 Reduce stress on the motor and increase lifespan.

3.6 Capacitor Banks

 Improve power factor and voltage stability.
 Used in factories with large inductive loads (motors, compressors, pumps).

3.7 Load Shedding Systems

 Automatically disconnects non-critical loads to maintain voltage for essential systems.
 Used in power plants and industries with limited power supply.

3.8 Smart IoT-Based Monitoring Systems

 Real-time voltage monitoring and alerts.
 Can be integrated with SCADA systems for remote control.

F. Safe Limits of Amperage in Electrical Systems

The safe current (amperage) limits depend on wire size, insulation type, circuit breaker rating, and
application (industrial, residential, or commercial). Exceeding these limits can lead to overheating, fire
hazards, and equipment damage.

1. General Safe Current Ratings for Copper Wires (at 75°C, Standard
Insulation)
Max Current
Wire Size (AWG) Common Applications
(Amps)
 Max Current
Wire Size (AWG) Common Applications
(Amps)

14 AWG 15A Lighting, small appliances

12 AWG 20A Home outlets, small motors

10 AWG 30A Water heaters, A/C units

8 AWG 50A Large appliances, subpanels

6 AWG 65A Electric ovens, heavy motors

4 AWG 85A Large industrial loads

2 AWG 115A Main power feeders

1/0 AWG 150A High-power machinery

4/0 AWG 230A Industrial panels, generators

For aluminum wires, the capacity is about 20-30% lower than copper.

2. Safe Amperage Ratings for Circuit Breakers & Fuses

To prevent overloads, circuit breakers should match the wire capacity:

Breaker Size (Amps) Max Continuous Load (Amps @ 80%) Application

15A 12A Lights, outlets

20A 16A Kitchen, laundry

30A 24A A/C, water heaters

50A 40A EV chargers, welders

100A 80A Small homes, subpanels

200A 160A Large homes, industrial

3. Safe Amperage for Electrical Equipment
Equipment Max Current (Amps) Voltage (V)

Home Outlet 15-20A 120V

EV Charger 40-80A 240V

Industrial Motor 50-150A 480V

Large Transformer 200-500A 11kV+

G. Safe Distance from Power Lines Based on Voltage Capacity

Maintaining a safe clearance from power lines is crucial to prevent electrocution, flashovers, and
equipment damage. The required clearance depends on voltage levels, line type, and work activity.

1. Minimum Safe Clearance for Overhead Power Lines (General Guidelines)

Voltage Level Minimum Clearance (Horizontal & Vertical)

Up to 1 kV 3 meters (10 feet)

1 kV – 50 kV 3 meters (10 feet)

50 kV – 200 kV 5 meters (16 feet)

200 kV – 500 kV 7 meters (23 feet)

500 kV – 750 kV 10 meters (33 feet)

750 kV – 1,000 kV 14 meters (45 feet)

2. Safe Distance for Construction & Equipment

Equipment/Activity Minimum Clearance from Power Lines

Cranes, Ladders, Lifts 4m (13 feet) for 50kV, plus 10cm per additional kV
 Equipment/Activity Minimum Clearance from Power Lines

Scaffolding 3m (10 feet) from lines up to 50kV

Excavation near poles 3m (10 feet) from underground cables

Work on transmission towers Only qualified personnel allowed

3. Safe Clearance for Buildings Near Power Lines

Voltage Level Minimum Distance from Structures

Up to 11 kV 1.2 meters (4 feet)

11 kV – 33 kV 3.7 meters (12 feet)

33 kV – 132 kV 5.5 meters (18 feet)

132 kV – 400 kV 7.5 meters (25 feet)

4. Underground Power Cable Safe Distances

Voltage Level Minimum Depth

Low Voltage (230V-1kV) 0.6m (2 feet)

1kV – 11kV 0.9m (3 feet)

33kV – 132kV 1.2m (4 feet)

Over 132kV 1.5m (5 feet)

H. JOINTS AND CONNECTIONS IN INDUSTRIAL CONDUCTORS

Proper joints and connections in industrial wiring are essential for safety, efficiency, and longevity.
Below are different types of joints and connections used in industrial settings:
1. Types of Joints in Conductors

a) Straight Joint (Butt Joint)

 Used to extend cable length.

 Conductors are twisted together, soldered, or crimped and insulated.
 Common in underground and long-distance power transmission.

b) Tee Joint

 A branch is taken from the main conductor.

 Used in distribution networks and industrial wiring.

c) Western Union (Twist) Joint

 Used in low-voltage applications.

 Conductors are twisted for mechanical strength and soldered for better conductivity.

d) Britannia Joint

 Used for overhead lines and high-strength applications.

 Conductors are wrapped around each other and soldered.

e) Compression Joint (Crimped Joint)

 Used in high-voltage cables.

 Requires crimping tools to form a strong, durable connection.

f) Sleeve Joint (Ferrule Joint)

 A metal sleeve is used to connect two conductors.

 Provides a secure and insulated connection.

2. Types of Electrical Connections in Industries

a) Soldered Connection

 Uses solder to bond conductors.

 Provides good conductivity but is less flexible.

b) Crimped Connection

 Uses a crimping tool to join conductors with a connector.

 Common in control panels and motor connections.

c) Bolted Connection
  Used in busbars and heavy-duty power connections.
 Nuts and bolts secure conductors, ensuring high mechanical strength.

d) Plug & Socket Connection

 Used in industrial machines and equipment.

 Enables easy disconnection and reconnection.

e) Terminal Blocks

 Used for organized wiring in control panels.

 Allows easy maintenance and testing.

f) Busbar Connections

 Used in power distribution panels.

 Made of copper or aluminum for high current flow.

I. PROTECTION MECHANISMS IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

In industries, protecting electrical equipment from overload, short circuits, no-load conditions, and
earth faults is crucial to prevent damage, fires, and downtime. Below are the different protection
methods:

1. Overload Protection

Occurs when the electrical load exceeds the rated capacity of the system for a prolonged period.

Protection Methods:

� Thermal Overload Relays – Detect excessive current over time and trip the circuit.
� Fuses – Melt and break the circuit when excessive current flows.
� MCBs (Miniature Circuit Breakers) – Trips when continuous overcurrent is detected.
� Electronic Overload Relays – Used in modern systems with adjustable settings.

� Used in motors, transformers, and industrial machines.

2. Short Circuit Protection

Happens due to direct contact between phase and neutral/ground, leading to sudden high current flow.
Protection Methods:

� Magnetic Circuit Breakers (MCB/MCCB/ACB/VCB) – Trips instantly upon detecting a short

circuit.
� High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Fuses – Breaks the circuit immediately to avoid damage.
� Current-Limiting Fuses – Reduce fault current magnitude.

� Used in power distribution panels, transformers, and motor circuits.

3. No-Load Protection

Applied in motors and transformers when operating without load can cause damage, inefficiency, or
safety hazards.

Protection Methods:

� No-Load Relays – Trips when the system operates under unsafe load conditions.
� Under-Current Relays – Detects low or zero current flow and disconnects the system.
� Phase-Loss Protection – Prevents running of motors when a phase is missing.

� Used in industrial motors, generators, and HVAC systems.

4. Earth Fault Protection

Occurs when current leaks to the ground due to insulation failure, equipment faults, or broken
conductors.

Protection Methods:

� Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) – Trips when leakage current exceeds a set limit.
� Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB) – Detects and disconnects leakage currents (30mA,
100mA, etc.).
� Earth Fault Relay (EFR) – Monitors ground fault currents and triggers a protective shutdown.
� Grounding & Bonding – Ensures a safe discharge path for fault currents.

� Used in residential, industrial, and commercial electrical installations.

J. FRLS INSULATION (FLAME RETARDANT LOW SMOKE) IN
ELECTRICAL WIRING

What is FRLS Insulation?

FRLS (Flame Retardant Low Smoke) insulation is a special type of cable insulation designed to reduce
fire hazards by minimizing flame spread, smoke generation, and toxic gas emissions. It is commonly
used in industries, commercial buildings, and public spaces where fire safety is a priority.

K. Insulation and Continuity Test in Electrical Systems

These two tests are essential for ensuring the safety and reliability of electrical installations. They are
typically conducted during initial installation, maintenance, or fault diagnosis.

1. Insulation Resistance Test (Insulation Test)

� Purpose:

To ensure that the insulation between conductors or between conductors and earth is intact
and prevents leakage current.

� How It’s Done:

 A high DC voltage (typically 250V, 500V, or 1000V) is applied between:

o Phase to Neutral
o Phase to Earth
o Neutral to Earth
 A megger (insulation resistance tester) is used.

� Acceptable Values:

 For domestic wiring: > 1 MΩ

 For industrial circuits: > 2 MΩ to 100 MΩ (depending on voltage class and standards)

� Low resistance indicates:

 Deteriorated insulation
 Presence of moisture
 Short circuits or leakage paths
2. Continuity Test

� Purpose:

To verify that the conductive path (wires, cables, earth) is complete from one point to another,
especially for earth conductors and bonding connections.

� How It’s Done:

 Use a multimeter or continuity tester.

 Apply a small voltage or current across the circuit/wire.
 If the circuit is continuous, the tester beeps or shows near-zero resistance (0–1 Ω).

� Acceptable Value:

 Resistance should be very low, ideally < 1 Ω for bonding and earthing conductors.

� Tools Required:

 Megger (Insulation Resistance Tester)

 Multimeter / Continuity Tester
 Earth Resistance Tester (for additional grounding checks)

� Safety Precautions:

1. Switch off all power before testing.

2. Discharge capacitors before insulation testing.
3. Never use insulation test on live circuits.
4. Label tested circuits to avoid duplicate checks.
5. Wear PPE while testing industrial panels.

L. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – Essential Safety Kit

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is crucial for safeguarding workers from physical, electrical,
chemical, and biological hazards in industrial, medical, and construction environments.
1. Categories of PPE & Their Uses

A) Head Protection

� Hard Hats / Helmets – Protects against falling objects and impacts.

� Bump Caps – Used in low-risk areas for minor head protection.

� Used in construction, factories, and electrical work.

B) Eye & Face Protection

� Safety Glasses / Goggles – Shields against dust, debris, and chemical splashes.
� Face Shields – Used in welding, grinding, and medical procedures.

� Used in laboratories, welding, and chemical handling.

C) Ear Protection

� Earplugs – Reduces noise levels in loud environments.

� Earmuffs – Provides better noise reduction for prolonged exposure.

� Used in factories, power plants, and airports.

D) Respiratory Protection

� Dust Masks – Filters out airborne dust and particles.

� N95 & FFP3 Respirators – Protects against fine particles, bacteria, and viruses.
� Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) – Used in extreme hazardous environments.

� Used in construction, mining, and hospitals.

E) Hand Protection

� Insulated Gloves – Prevents electric shock for electricians.

� Cut-Resistant Gloves – Used in glass, metal, and woodworking industries.
� Chemical-Resistant Gloves – Protects hands from corrosive chemicals.

� Used in electrical work, chemical handling, and mechanical work.

F) Body Protection

� Flame-Resistant Clothing (FR) – Protects from fire hazards.

� Chemical-Resistant Suits – Used for handling hazardous chemicals.
� Reflective Safety Vests – Improves visibility in road work and construction.

� Used in firefighting, hazardous material handling, and construction.

G) Foot Protection

� Steel-Toe Safety Shoes – Protects against falling objects.

� Electrical-Resistant Boots – Prevents electric shock.
� Chemical-Resistant Boots – Used in corrosive environments.

� Used in factories, power plants, and heavy industries.

H) Fall Protection

� Safety Harness & Lanyards – Prevents falls from heights.

� Lifelines & Safety Nets – Provides additional fall protection.

� Used in construction, telecom towers, and oil rigs.

2. Importance of PPE in Industries

✔ Prevents injuries and fatalities in hazardous workplaces.

✔ Ensures compliance with OSHA, ISO, and other safety regulations.
✔ Reduces workplace accidents and medical costs.
M. SAFETY IN HANDLING HAND-HELD ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES,
TOOLS, AND MEDICAL EQUIPMENT
Proper safety measures are essential to prevent electric shocks, fires, and injuries when handling
electrical appliances, power tools, and medical devices.

1. Safety Measures for Hand-Held Electrical Appliances

These include electric kettles, hairdryers, irons, mixers, and small electronic devices.

� Safety Tips:

✔ Use Certified Appliances – Ensure appliances have CE, UL, or BIS certification.
✔ Check for Damaged Cords – Do not use appliances with frayed or cracked cords.
✔ Avoid Wet Hands & Surfaces – Prevent electric shock by keeping hands dry.
✔ Use Proper Plugs & Sockets – Do not use force to insert plugs into outlets.
✔ Unplug After Use – Avoid keeping appliances plugged in when not in use.
✔ Do Not Overload Circuits – Prevent overheating by avoiding multiple devices on one socket.
✔ Keep Away from Flammable Materials – Prevent fire hazards.

� Common in homes, offices, and small businesses.

2. Safety in Handling Hand-Held Power Tools

Includes drills, grinders, saws, and welding tools used in industries and workshops.

� Safety Tips:

✔ Use Insulated & Double-Insulated Tools – Reduces risk of electric shock.

✔ Wear Proper PPE – Use gloves, safety goggles, and hearing protection.
✔ Check Power Ratings – Ensure tools match the power supply voltage.
✔ Inspect Cords & Plugs – Replace damaged cables before use.
✔ Avoid Water Exposure – Never operate power tools in wet conditions.
✔ Turn Off When Not in Use – Disconnect from power before changing accessories.
✔ Use Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI) – Protects against leakage currents.

� Used in construction, automotive, and electrical maintenance.

3. Safety in Handling Medical Equipment

Includes X-ray machines, ventilators, ECG machines, defibrillators, and electric beds.

� Safety Tips:

✔ Regular Calibration & Maintenance – Ensures accurate operation.

✔ Use Medical-Grade Power Supplies – Reduces electrical interference.
✔ Avoid Contact with Liquids – Prevents short circuits and device failures.
✔ Check Grounding & Wiring – Ensures proper electrical safety compliance.
✔ Follow Manufacturer Instructions – Use only approved accessories.
✔ Emergency Power Backup (UPS/Generator) – Ensures continuous operation in power failure.
✔ Avoid Using Damaged Equipment – Report and replace faulty devices immediately.

� Essential in hospitals, clinics, and diagnostic centers.

4. General Electrical Safety Precautions

� Follow Electrical Codes & Standards – Ensure compliance with IEC, OSHA, and IS 732.
� Use Circuit Protection Devices – Install RCCBs, MCBs, and ELCBs for added safety.
� Educate Users on Safe Handling – Train staff and workers in electrical hazard prevention.
� Emergency Action Plan – Know how to react in case of an electric shock or fire.