FIRE PROTECTION

MAY 21, 2025

KIHBT
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FIRE PROTECTION
THE PROBLEM OF FIRE

 Fire has always been an essential element of our technological advancement, providing heat,
energy and light. Today, fire continues to be of great benefit to our well-being if it is controlled.
 If allowed to start and spread without strict control, it can be one of the greatest hazards with
potential for destruction on a wide scale.
 Early civilizations considered fire to be a natural element like air and water.
 Later experimenters found that the residue of a burnt fuel (ash) weighed less than the fuel
before it was burnt, and concluded that some substance was removed during the combustion
period: this they called ‘phlogiston’ after the Greek word phlogistos, meaning ‘inflammable’.
 The doctrine of phlogistics was overthrown by a French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–94),
who became known as the father of modern chemistry.
 Lavoisier discovered by his researches and experiments that air consists of one-fifth oxygen
and that the other main gas, nitrogen, accounted for the bulk of the remaining four-fifths. He
showed that oxygen played an important part in the process of combustion, and that nitrogen
does not support combustion.
 This discovery of the true nature of fire led to the conclusion that fire is a chemical reaction
whereby atoms of oxygen combine with other atoms such as carbon and hydrogen, releasing
water, carbon dioxide and energy in the form of heat.
 The chemical reaction will only start at a suitable temperature, which varies according to the
substance or fuel involved.
 During combustion, gases will be given off, some of which are more inflammable than the fuel
itself and therefore ignite and appear as flames, giving light, which is due to tiny particles being
heated to a point at which they glow.
 Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion and can give rise to deposits of solid carbon
commonly known as soot.
 From the discovery of the true nature of fire and processes of combustion it can be concluded
that there are three essentials to all fires:
1. Fuel - Generally any organic material is suitable.
2. Heat - Correct temperature to promote combustion of a particular fuel. Heat can be

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generated deliberately, which is termed ignition, or it can be spontaneous when the

fuel itself ignites.
3. Oxygen - Air is necessary to sustain and support the combustion process.

 The above is often referred to as the triangle of fire: remove any one of the three essentials
and combustion cannot take place.
 This fact provides the whole basis for fire prevention, fire protection and firefighting.
 If non-combustible materials were used in the construction and furnishing of buildings, fires
would not develop.
 This method is far too restrictive on the designer and builder: therefore combustible materials
are used and protected with layers or coverings of non-combustible materials, e.g.
plasterboard linings to wooden frames and combustible insulants.
 For guidance on minimum periods of fire resistance to structural elements, see Tables A1 and
A2 in Approved Document B to the Building Regulations.
 There is also provision for materials of limited combustibility, e.g. applications to stair
construction and roof decking, provided the extent of exposure is restricted.
See Table A7 in Approved Document B to the Building Regulations and associated references
to BS 476-11: Method for assessing the heat emission from building products.
 Firefighters try to remove one side of the fire triangle; to remove the fuel is not generally
practicable, but by using a cooling agent such as water the heat can be reduced to a safe level,
or alternatively by using a blanketing agent the supply of oxygen can be cut off and the fire
extinguished.

TERMINOLOGIES

1. Fire Load - In the context of fire safety, refers to the total amount of heat energy released by
the complete combustion of all combustible materials within a defined space or
compartment. It's a critical factor in determining the potential severity of a fire and is used to
design and implement appropriate fire protection measures.
2. Fire Precaution - Fire safety involves a proactive approach, combining preventative
measures with emergency preparedness. Key precautions include having smoke alarms, fire
extinguishers, and escape plans, while also maintaining electrical systems, heating equipment,

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and practicing fire safety in the kitchen.

3. Fire Protection - Involves strategies and systems to prevent fires, suppress them if they
occur, and contain their spread, ultimately safeguarding lives and property. It encompasses
various approaches, including active systems like fire alarms and sprinklers, passive systems
like fire-resistant walls, and preventative measures like flame proofing and fire stopping.
4. Fire Resistance - Fire resistance is the ability of a material to resist the effects of fire,
specifically how long it can withstand exposure to a standard fire test without losing its
structural integrity, load-bearing capacity, or thermal insulation. It's measured through fire
resistance tests, and building codes often require specific parts of a building to meet certain
fire resistance ratings.
5. Combustible Material - Is any substance that can ignite and burn when exposed to an
ignition source and sufficient heat. Examples include wood, paper, plastics, fabrics, and certain
fuels like gasoline and kerosene. While often used interchangeably with "flammable,"
combustible materials generally require a higher temperature to ignite compared to flammable
materials.
6. Fire Stop - A firestop or fire-stopping is a form of passive fire protection that is used to seal
around openings and between joints in a fire-resistance-rated wall or floor assembly. Firestops
are designed to maintain the fire-resistance rating of a wall or floor assembly intended to
impede the spread of fire and smoke.
7. Fire Classification - Fires are classified into different classes (A, B, C, D, F, and Electrical)
based on the type of fuel involved. These classifications help determine the most effective
extinguishing methods and safety precautions.

FIRE LOAD

 Buildings can be graded as to the amount of overall fire resistance required by taking into
account the following:
1. size of building (floor area and height from ground to highest floor);
2. use of building (purpose group);
3. fire load.
 The fire load is an assessment of potential fire severity based on the combustibility of materials
within a building.
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 Precise calculation of fire severity is impractical. It is therefore a broad estimate derived from
building usage (purpose grouping) and its contents.
 This load is expressed as the amount of heat that would be generated per unit area by the
complete combustion of its contents and combustible members, and is given a calorific value
of joules per square metre.
 Note that the numerical grade is equivalent to the minimum number of hours’ fire resistance
that should be given to the elements of the structure.
 Grade 1: Low fire load, not more than 1,150 MJ/m2. Typical buildings within this grade
are flats, offices, restaurants, hotels, hospitals, schools, museums and public libraries.
 Grade 2: Moderate fire load, 1,150 to 2,300 MJ/m2. Typical examples are retail shops,
factories and workshops.
 Grade 4: High fire load, 2,300 to 4,600 MJ/m2. Typical examples are certain types of
workshop and warehouses.
 When deciding the grade, no account is taken of the effects of any permanent fire protection
installations such as sprinkler systems. The above principles are incorporated in the Building
Regulations and, in particular, in Part B.

FIRE RESISTANCE

 In addition to the previous assessment, fire resistance is the ability of a component or element
of construction in a building to satisfy specific criteria from the relevant parts of BS 476: Fire
tests on building materials and structures.
 These are usually measurements of the effects of temperature, either radiant or naked flame,
over an exposure time, and may incorporate values for loadbearing capacity, integrity and
insulation.
 Components can also be studied as separate entities with regard to their behaviour when
subjected to the intense heat encountered during a fire and their ability to support fire spread
over their exposed surfaces.
 Structural steel is not considered to behave well under fire conditions, although its surface fire
spread is negligible.
 As the fire progresses and the temperature of steel increases there is an actual gain in the
ultimate strength of mild steel.

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 This gain in strength decreases back to normal over the temperature range of 250 to 400 °C.
The decrease in strength continues, and by the time the steel temperature has reached 550 °C
it will have lost most of its useful strength.
 As the rise in temperature during the initial stages of a fire is rapid, this figure of 550 °C can
be reached very quickly. If the decrease in strength results in the collapse of a member, the
stresses it was designed to resist will be redistributed: this could cause other members to be
overstressed, and progressive collapse could occur.
 Also, the high degree of thermal movement in steel may cause disturbance to, or loss of,
bearing support, and this, too, will contribute to redistributed loadings and possibly progressive
structural collapse.
 Reinforced concrete structural members have good fire-resistance properties, and being non-
combustible do not contribute to the spread of flame over their surfaces.
 It is possible, however, under the intense and prolonged heat of a fire, that the bond between
the steel reinforcement and the concrete will be broken.
 This generally results in spalling of the concrete, which decreases both the protective cover of
the concrete over the steel and the cross-sectional area. As for structural steel members, this
can result in a redistribution of stresses leading to overloading of certain members, culminating
in progressive collapse.
 Timber, strange as it may seem, behaves very well structurally under the action of fire. This is
due to its slow combustion rate, the strength of its core failure remaining fairly constant. The
ignition temperature of timber is low (250–300 °C), but during combustion the timber chars at
about 0.5 –1.0 mm per minute, depending on the species and extent of heat and flame.
 The layer of charcoal so formed slows down the combustion rate of the core. Although its
structural properties during a fire are good, timber, being an organic material and therefore
combustible, will spread fire over its surface, which makes it unsuitable in most structural
situations. Intumescent paints will provide a limited resistance to fire, but more successful
protection is achieved by nailing and wire-binding plasterboard to the surface and finishing
with a board finish plaster.
 From the above brief considerations it is obvious that designers and builders need to have data
on the performance, under the conditions of fire, of materials and especially combinations of
materials forming elements. Such information is available in BS 476: Fire tests on building

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materials and structures. The BS is divided into parts that relate to the various fire tests applied
to building materials and structures.

FIRE TESTS ON BUILDING MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES – BS 476

BS 476 consists of 17 parts numbered intermittently between 3 and 33.
Part 3: External fire exposure roof test

 A series of tests for grading roof structures in terms of time for:

 Resistance to external penetration by fire;
 Distance of spread of flame over the external surface under certain conditions.
 The tests are applied to a specimen of roof structure not less than 1.500 m × 1.200 m, which
represents the actual roof construction including at least one specimen of any joints used and
complete with any lining that is an integral part of the construction.
 Three tests are applied:
 Preliminary ignition test.
 Fire penetration test.
 Roof surface spread of flame test.
 After testing, the specimen or form of roof construction can be graded by a double letter
designation in the range A–D. An AA designation is the most acceptable and DD the least.
 The initial letter relates to the time of fire penetration; the second letter is a measure of the
surface spread of flame:
First letter (penetration)
A. No penetration within 1 hour.
B. Specimen penetrated in not less than 1/2 hour.
C. Specimen penetrated in less than 1/2 hour.
D. Specimen penetrated in the preliminary flame test.
Second letter (spread of flame)
A. No spread of flame.
B. Not more than 533 mm spread.
C. More than 533 mm spread.
D. Specimens that continue to burn for 5 minutes after withdrawal of the test flame or spread
more than 381 mm across the region of burning in the preliminary flame test.

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Part 21: Method for determination of the fire resistance of loadbearing elements of construction
This document defines the application to beams, columns, floors, flat roofs and walls.

BUILDING REGULATIONS
 Building Regulation B1 requires that, in case of fire, a means of escape leading from the
building to a place of safety outside the building must be capable of being safely and effectively
used at all times. The regulation covers all building types with the exception of prisons.
 Design sections that satisfy the requirements of Regulation B1 are divided as follows:
Dwelling-houses;
Apartments;
General provisions for the common parts of apartments;
Design for horizontal escape – buildings other than dwellings;
Design for vertical escape – buildings other than dwellings;
General provisions common to buildings other than dwelling-houses.

BUILDING CODE REQUIRMENTS (BY LAW PROVISIONS)

Fire Resistance – General

Notes: - Several of the following by-laws require that the various parts of a building shall resist
fire for specified periods. These requirements so far as walls are concerned shall be satisfied either
if the construction is in accordance with the Third Schedule of these By-laws dealing with
traditional methods of building, or if the construction is in accordance with the Fourth Schedule
of these By-laws (which lists most of the common forms of construction). If the construction is
not in accordance with either of the aforesaid Schedules, then the fire resistance must be shown to
be adequate by reference to a test on a similar form of construction in accordance with British
Standard No. 476 under by-laws 69 and 70 of these By-laws.
69. (1) Save as provided in paragraph (b) of by-law 72 and by-law 75 of these By-laws, any
requirement in these By-laws, that a structural part of a building shall have a fire resistance of a
specified period shall be construed as requiring that that part shall be capable of resisting the action
of fire thereon for that period under the conditions of the test appropriate to that part under British
Standard 476 “FireTests on Building Materials and Structures” and any part of a building shall be
deemed to have the requisite fire resistance if:
(a) it is constructed as to have, in accordance with the Fourth Schedule of these By-laws,
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a notional period of fire resistance not less than the specified period; or
(b) a similar part made to the same specification as that part is proved to have the requisite
fire resistance under the conditions of the aforesaid test.
(2) For the purpose of this by-law, resistance to the action of fire in the case of a wall shall be taken
to mean resistance by that wall to fire on one side at a time, therefore in by-law 72 of these By-
laws, resistance to internal fire or external fire in relation to a wall shall be taken to mean resistance
to fire only on the inside or the outside of that wall as the case may be.
(3) The expression “non-combustible throughout” in relation to a wall means composed entirely,
apart from any combustible internal lining, of non-combustible material or materials.
(4) A wall required by these By-laws to be externally non-combustible shall be either a wall
noncombustible throughout or one having non-combustible external panels or covering.

Walls complying with Third Schedule of these By-laws.

70. Any wall complying (in respect of its stability) with the Third Schedule to these By-laws, shall
be deemed to satisfy all requirements relating to the non-combustibility and fire resistance of
external walls provided for in by-laws 72, 77, 78 and 80 of these By-laws and the similar
requirements in respect of the walls referred to in by-laws 73, 78 and 81 of these By-laws.

Fire Resistance – Small Houses

Definition of small house.
71. In any of these By-laws, relating to fire resistance “small house” means a one or two-storeyed
dwelling house of a capacity of less than 20,000 cu. ft. but does not include a flat.

External walls of small houses.

72. Every external wall of s small house shall –
(a) Comply with the requirements as to non-combustibility and fire resistance specified as
appropriate thereto in column (2) of the Table set out below according to the distance of
the wall from the nearest boundary of the plot as shown in column (1) of that Table; and
(b) Have a resistance to internal fire of half an hour, for the determination of which the
conditions of test referred to in paragraph (1) of by-law 69 of these By-laws shall apply
with the modification that the limit of temperature rise on the unexposed face as specified
in paragraph 11c of British Standard 476 “Fire Tests on building Materials and Structures”

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shall not apply.

Walls separating small houses.

73. (1) Subject to the provisions of paragraph (2) of this by-law, in a building comprising two or
more small houses, a wall separating such houses, shall be non-combustible throughout and shall
have fire resistance of one hour.
(2) (a) Where the external walls of a building comprising more than two small houses have
combustible externals panels of covering, the walls separating successive groups of not more than
two such houses shall-
(i) have a fire resistance of two hours;
(ii) extend not less than 9 in. beyond the outer surface of the external wall; and
(iii) (unless the roof is of solid or hollow slab construction of non-combustible material) be
carried not less than 15 in. above the roof (measured at right angles to the slope).
(b) Where the external walls of a building comprising more than four small houses have
combustible frames but non-combustible external panels or covering, the walls separating
successive groups of not more than four such houses shall have a fire resistance of two hours and
no part of the combustible construction of the external walls shall extend across the ends of any of
the separating walls.
(c) Where the external walls, including any external panels or covering, of a building comprising
more than eight small houses are non-combustible, the wall separating successive groups of not
more than eight such houses shall have a fire resistance of two hours.

Further provisions as to walls separating small houses.

74. (1) No combustible material shall be shall be built into or carried through or over a separating
wall to which by-law 73 of these By-laws applies, other than-

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(a) The ends of wooden beams, joists or purlins which are properly protected by brickwork
or other solid and non-combustible material not less than 4 in. thick, or by a beam box of
iron or other suitable non-combustible material; or
(b) Tiling or slating battens properly embedded in mortar or other suitable material.
(2) Where any separating wall to which by-law 73 of these By-laws relates is not carried up above
the underside of the covering of the roof, the slates or other covering or slab shall, where
practicable, be properly and solidly bedded in mortar on the top of the wall.

Floors and interior walls of small houses.

75. (1) In every small house of two storeys, the upper floor shall be so constructed as to be capable
of satisfying the test for fire resistance specified in British Standard 476 “Fire Tests on Building
Materials and Structures” as to freedom from collapse for half an hour, and as to rise of temperature
and freedom from cracks or similar failures for 15 minutes.
(2) Any floor to which paragraph (1) of this by-law applies, shall be deemed to have the fire
resistance required by that paragraph if it is constructed in accordance with the relevant provisions
of Table B of the fourth Schedule to these By-laws.
(3) In every small house, all load bearing walls, other than a wall to which by-laws 72, 73, 74 and
76 of these By-laws apply, shall have a fire resistance of half an hour for the determination of
which the conditions of test referred to in paragraph (1) of by-law 69 of these By-laws shall apply
subject to the modification, that the limit of temperature rise on the unexposed face as specified in
paragraph 11c of British Standard 476 “Fire Tests on Building Materials and Structures” shall
apply.

Garages attached to dwellings.

76. (1) For the purpose of this by-law a garage means a covered space capable of accommodating
a motor car, enclosed on more than two sides or with a room above.
(2) Where a garage is built as part of a dwelling or attached thereto-
(a) the underside of the floor of the room above the garage, shall be properly ceiled with
non-combustible material having a fire resistance of not less than half an hour;
(b) the material covering the roof of the garage shall be as specified in by-law 94 of these
By-laws;
(c) all walls separating the garage from the remainder of the building, not being walls to
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which by-laws, 73, 81 and 87 of these By-laws apply shall have a fire resistance of not
less than half an hour, and be of non-combustible material and contain no combustible
linings;
(d) an opening in an wall referred to in subparagraph (c) hereof shall-
i. At its lowest point be at least 4 in. above the level of the floor of the garage.
ii. Be protected by self-closing doors, having a fire resistance of half an hour; and
iii. Be so arranged that access is in accordance with by-law 163 of these By-laws.
(3) A door for the purpose of subparagraph (d) (ii) of paragraph (2) of this by-law shall be
deemed to be self-closing if it is hung on efficient rising butts, and shall be deemed to have the
requisite fire resistance if constructed in accordance with the specification in British Standard
1459: Part 3, for doors having a fire resistance of half an hour.

Fire Resistance of Buildings Other Than Small Houses

General rule as to external walls, other than walls of small houses.

77. The external wall of any building, other than a small house shall, unless otherwise provided
for in these By-laws, be non-combustible throughout and have a fire resistance of more than two
hours.

Modification for External walls of certain one storey buildings.

78. (1) Every external wall of a domestic or public building of one storey, not being a small house,
shall, if the building has a capacity specified in column (1) of Table set out below, and the distance
of the wall from the nearest boundary of the plot corresponds with any distance specified in column
(2) of that Table opposite the appropriate specification in column (1), comply with the
requirements as to no combustibility and fire resistance specified as appropriate thereto in column
(3) of that Table.

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(2) Every external wall of a building of the warehouse class, not intended to be used wholly or
predominantly for storage, and comprising only one storey shall comply with the requirements as
to non-combustibility and fire resistance specified as appropriate thereto in column (2) of Table B
set out below according to the distance of the wall from the nearest boundary of the plot as shown
in column (1) of that Table.

(3) Where a building, other than a small house, is completely separated into two or more parts by
fire division walls complying with by-law 84 of these By-laws, the requirements of paragraph (2)
of this bylaw shall be deemed to be satisfied, if the external walls of each such part, have the non-
combustibility and degree of fire resistance appropriate in the case of an entire building of the
same cubic capacity as that part.

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Modification for external walls of certain buildings of more than one storey.
79. Where an external wall of a domestic building of two or more storeys, other than a shop or
small house, is a panel wall supported in a structural frame of metal or reinforced concrete and is
constructed of non-combustible material and is not less than 10 ft. or a distance equivalent to half
the height of the building, whichever is the greater, from the nearest boundary or in the case of
existing premises from those premises, the frame and panel of such wall shall have a fire resistance
of one hour.

Modification for external walls of large storage buildings.

80. Every external wall of a building of the warehouse class intended to be used wholly or
predominantly for storage shall, if the capacity of the building exceeds 250,000 cu. ft., or if its
height exceeds 75 ft. be non-combustible throughout and have a fire resistance of four hours:
Provided that where a building is completely separated into two or more parts by fire-division
walls complying with by-law 84 of these By-laws, by-law 84 shall apply as if each such part were
a separate building.

Separating Walls.
81. (1) this by-law shall apply to walls separating houses or other buildings, not being walls, to which by
law 73 or by-law 86 of these By-laws apply.
(2) The wall shall be non-combustible throughout.
(3) The wall shall, if constructed for the separation of domestic buildings, other than shops, have a fire
resistance of four hours, and in any other case, it shall have a fire resistance of six hours.
(4) Where the council agrees to an opening in a wall, it shall be protected by doors or shutters having a fire
resistance of half the period required for that wall.
(5) No combustible material shall be built into or carried through or over the wall, other than-
(a) The ends of wooden beams, joists or purlins which are properly protected by brickwork or other
solid and non-combustible material not less than 4 in. thick, or by a beam box of iron or other
suitable non-combustible material; or
(b) Tiling or slating battens properly embedded in mortar or other suitable material.
(6) Except as provided for in by-law 82 of these By-laws, if the roofs of the buildings separated by the wall,
are not of solid slab or are of hollow slab construction of non-combustible material-
(a) the wall shall, if either of the buildings separated by it is a public building or a building of the
(b) warehouse class, be carried up above the underside of the covering of the roof for a distance of at

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least 18 in. (measured at right angles to the slope);

(c) the wall shall, if the buildings are domestic buildings and either of them comprises more than five
storeys, be carried up above the underside of the covering of the roof for a distance of at least 12
in. (measured at right angles to the slope).
(7) In any case other than one to which paragraph (6) of this by-law applies, if the wall is not carried up
above the underside of the covering of the roof, the slates or other covering or slab shall be properly and
solidly bedded in mortar on the top of the wall.

Buildings erected on single plot for different tenancies.

82. If a building is capable of being let in different tenancies, and the roof of the building is
throughout of non-combustible materials, the internal walls shall comply with the requirements
for a separating wall, except that the requirements of paragraphs (6) (a) and (b) of by-law 81 of
these By-laws shall not apply.

Fire-division of warehouses.
83. Buildings used predominantly for storage shall be divided internally with fire-division walls,
so that, no floor area exceeds 5,000 sq. ft. and no cubic capacity is greater than 250,000 cu. ft.
Fire-division walls.
84. (1) every fire-division wall in a building shall comply with paragraphs (2), (4), (5), (6) and (7)
of by-law 81 of these By-laws and with paragraph (2) of this by law.
(2) In a building of the warehouse class for use wholly or predominantly for storage, the wall shall
have a fire resistance of four hours, and in any other building, it shall have a fire resistance of two
hours.

Fire-division of offices.
85. No offices shall extend to more than 10,000 sq. ft. in area at any level of floor, unless separated
from all other parts of the same building by fire-division walls.

Walls separating flats.

86. A wall constructed for the separation of flats within a building (other than a load-bearing wall
to which by-law 87 of these By-laws applies) shall be non-combustible throughout and have a fire
resistance of-
(a) One hour if the building is a domestic building intended to be used wholly or predominantly
for human habitation and exceeds either 50 ft. in height or 2,500 sq. ft. on any one storey
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in floor area;
(b) Half an hour in any other case.

Fire resistance of floors, columns, beams and certain walls.

87. (1) In every building, other than a small house, which comprises more than one storey, and is
of a class and description specified in columns (1) and (2) of the following Table –
(a) Every floor above the lowest storey;
(b) every load-bearing wall, other than an external wall, wall separating buildings or fire-
division wall;
(c) every column and beam, other than one to which by-law 92 of these By-laws applies; and
(d) every wall enclosing a common stairway or a lift shaft;
Shall have the fire resistance specified in column (3) of the said Table in relation to the class and
description of a building specified in columns (1) and (2) respectively:
Provided that-
(i) Where more than one period of fire resistance would be applicable, according to whether regard
is had to the height, floor area or capacity of the building, the longer or longer period shall be taken
to be the required period of fire resistance; and
(ii) Where a building is completely separated into two or more parts by fire-division walls
complying with by-law 84 of these By-laws, or comprises two or more dwellings, shops or other
premises (not being individual flats) the requirement of this paragraph shall apply to each such
part, dwelling, shop or premises as if it were a separate building.
(2) Every opening in an internal wall enclosing a common stairway or a lift shaft shall, be protected
by doors or shutters having fire resistance of not less than half the period required for that wall but
under no circumstances the doors or shutters shall have a fire resistance of less than half an hour.
(3) In this by-law-
“Common stairway” means a stairway intended for common use in a building for access to a storey
capable of being let in separate tenancies, or where more than ten persons are employed on such
storey; and
“Floor area” means in relation to a building the floor area of any one storey in that building.

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Ceilings of public buildings.

88. Public buildings of the types defined in Groups III and IV of the Sixth Schedule of these By-
laws have ceilings with half hour fire resistance, and where, required by the council on account of
fire hazard, similar provisions may be required for other public buildings.

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Stairs for two or more dwellings.

89. In the case of a building containing two or more dwellings, every flight of stairs and every
landing forming part of a main stairway intended for common use by the occupants of two or more
such dwellings, shall comply with the requirements specified in column (2) of the Table set out
below in relation to the description of the building specified in column (1) of that Table.

Fire Resistance – Miscellaneous Provisions Applying to all Buildings

Fire –stops in cavity walls.

90. (1) In every cavity wall built wholly of partly of combustible materials the cavity between any
leaves formed of or containing combustible material, shall be fire-stopped at the junction of the
wall with any other wall or with any floor, ceiling or roof and, if the wall exceeds 15 ft. length, at
intervals of not more than 15 ft.
(2) Any such cavity wall may be fire-stopped by blocking the cavity with non-combustible
material.

Opening in external walls.

91. (1) Unless the council otherwise agrees, openings shall only be permitted in external walls,
where such walls are not within the distances prescribed hereunder from a plot boundary, other
than one abutting onto a street-
(a) 7 ft. 6 in. in a central area;
(b) 5ft. in any residential area; and
(c) 10 ft. in any other area.
Provided that on a return wall or one at right angles to the nearest plot boundary, the distance of
the opening from such boundary, may be reduced to 2 ft. 6 in. or if the separating wall projects 2

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ft. beyond the face of such return wall, the distance from the boundary may be reduced to the
thickness of the separating wall.
(2) In the case of a building, other than a dwelling house of not more than two storeys, where any
part of an opening in an external wall is vertically above an opening in an adjoining storey, suitable
provision shall be made to prevent the spread of fire from the lower to the upper opening.
(3) The requirements of paragraph (2) of this by-law shall be deemed to be satisfied if-
(a) The bottom of the higher opening is not less than 3 ft. above the top of the lower opening
and not less than 2 ft. above the upper surface of the floor separating the storeys; or
(b) A balcony of non-combustible material with a solid floor or some similar horizontal
protection is constructed between the two openings to project 2 ft. from the wall and extend
laterally beyond each limit of the overlap of the openings in such a way that-
(i) Where the lower or neither opening continues beyond that limit, for not less than 1 ft.;
and
(ii) Where the upper opening continues beyond that limit, for not less than 2 ft.

Structural members supporting certain walls.

92. Any part of a structural frame, any beam or column, carrying an external wall, a wall separating
buildings or a fire division wall, shall have the same fire resistance as that required by these By-
laws for the wall it carries.

External panel walls in frame structures.

93. Where the external walls of buildings on adjacent plots are contiguous with a common plot
boundary, and the walls are panel walls supported in a structural frame of metal or reinforced
concrete and otherwise fulfil the requirements for a separating wall, the requirements of by-law 81
of these bylaws shall be satisfied, if the combined thickness of the panels provides the full fire
resistance required by these By-laws.
Roofs
Roofs – protection against fire.
94. (1) In every building of the warehouse class, in every public building or dwelling house
exceeding 36,000 cu. ft. in capacity and in dwelling houses forming part of a block of more than
two, the roof shall be so covered as to afford adequate protection against the spread of fire into
the building or to adjoining buildings

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(2) In every building other than a building to which paragraph (1) of this by-law applies, the roof
shall be so covered, or to the building shall be so isolated from other buildings, as to afford
adequate protection against the spread of fire into the building or to adjoining buildings.
(3) A roof shall be deemed to satisfy the requirements of paragraphs (1) and (2) of this by-law, if
it is covered with any one or more of the following materials-
(a) natural slate, or slabs of stone;
(b) tiles of slabs of burnt clay or concrete;
(c) slates, tiles or sheets of asbestos cement;
(d) corrugated sheets of galvanized steel, or of other not less suitable material, of an approved
thickness;
(e) metal sheeting covered on both inner and outer surfaces with bituminous material, or a
similar approved weather-resisting protective covering;
(f) glass tiles or sheets, or glass bricks or blocks in concrete or metal frames;
(g) lead, copper, zinc or aluminium, of an approved thickness;
(h) asphalt mastic with sanded or graveled finish containing not less than 83 per cent of
mineral matter and laid not less than ½ in. thick on a suitable base;
(i) asbestos based roofing felt which conforms with British Standard 747;
(j) organic based roofing felt covered with non-combustible material, not less than ½ in.
thick, or with bituminous macadam composed of fine gravel or stone chippings with not
greater than 7 per cent of bituminous material.
(4) A building shall be deemed to satisfy the requirements of paragraph (2) of this by-law as to
isolation, if the distance between the building and the boundary of the nearest adjacent plot is equal
to not less than twice the height of the building, except that in the case of a small house as defined
in bylaw 71 if these By-laws, such distance may be reduced to 10 ft.

FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

A. PORTABLE EXTINGUISHERS
 Portable fire extinguishers are designed to put out small fires in their incipient stage. A small
fire, if not checked immediately, will soon spread out of control. The portable fire extinguisher
is one of the most valuable fire-protection appliances in use today.
 For a fire extinguisher to be effective, the following conditions must be met:

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 The extinguisher must be right for the type of fire;

 It must be located where it can be easily reached;
 It must be in good working order;
 The fire must be discovered while it is still small;
 The person using the extinguisher must be trained to use it properly.
 The provisions of fire protection extinguishers requirements are subject to certain statutory
requirements of Occupational Health and Safety Act (OSHA) and in accordance with the
recommendations of National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). The National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) has established the requirements for the number, size,
placement, performance, and maintenance of portable fire extinguishers.
 Portable fire extinguishers apply an extinguishing agent that will either cool burning fuel,
displace or remove oxygen, or stop the chemical reaction so a fire cannot continue to burn.
When the handle of an extinguisher is compressed, agent is expelled out the nozzle. A fire
extinguisher works much like a can of hair spray.
 Fires can be extinguished in one of four ways:
1. By cooling: Water is used to cool the burning material below the temperature at which it
starts to burn,
2. By smothering: Carbon dioxide (CO2) or foaming agents are used to smother (oppress)
the burning material so that air is excluded;
3. By removing the fuel: Fuel can be any combustible material-solid, liquid or gas. In place
of usage you require these elements but definitely in event of fire a means to cut the fuel
must be considered for instance “turning off a fuel line.”
4. By disrupting: Interrupting the chemical chain reaction can extinguish the fire.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES

To select the proper fire extinguisher, you must first become familiar with the different classes of
fires. NFPA classify fires into four basic categories - designated Class - A, B, C, and D as
described below.

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FIRE EXTINGUISHER TYPES & USES

 It is vital to know what type of extinguisher you are using. Using the wrong type of extinguisher
for the wrong type of fire can be life-threatening. For example, you spray water on a grease
fire, the water will cause the grease to splatter and the fire may spread; similarly, if you dowse
live electrical equipment with water, you are putting yourself in danger of electrical shock.
Turning off the electricity will change the status of a Class - C fire to a Class - A and/or B fire.
 The effectiveness of a fire extinguisher on a particular fire depends on the amount and type of
agent in the extinguisher. Matching the agent to the fire begins with an understanding of how
fires are classified.
 There are six different types of fire extinguishers and are classified by the type of fire on which
they can be used. Each extinguisher and extinguishing agent has certain advantages and
disadvantages associated with its use and limitations on what it can accomplish.
1. Type of Extinguisher: Stored-pressure water Extinguishers.
Suitability: Class - A fires
Features: Stored pressure water type extinguishers contain water under pressure and are usually
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quite large and heavy. Use of this type is recommended when burning combustibles require a
cooling and wetting action. Water extinguishers are effective against fires involving: wood, paper,
plastic, rubber or textiles.

You cannot use a water extinguisher for a Class -B fire, (flammable liquids), as flammable liquids
are lighter than water and will float on the surface of the water. This will simply aid in the spread
of the fire.
You cannot use a water extinguisher on a Class - C fire, (electrical fire), because you run the risk
of receiving an electrical shock. Water is an electrical conductor so as the water spreads out, the
chance of electrocution increases. A stored pressure distilled water mist extinguisher is safe to use
around energized electrical fires provided that you do not place any portion of the extinguisher
within ten inches (10") of the electrical source. The misting nozzle provides safety from electric
shock and reduces the scattering of burning materials.

2. Type of Extinguisher: Carbon-dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

Suitability: Class - B & C fires

Features: The use of CO2 as an extinguishing agent is based on the principle of lowering the

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percentage of oxygen within the fire area. The fire is extinguished by a reduction of the oxygen
content from the normal 21 percent to 15 percent. Since CO2 is heavier than air, it has the ability
to penetrate into loose material and confined spaces. The rapid expansion of the gas on discharging
produces a refrigerating effect, as indicated by the CO2 snow, which has a temperature of minus
79°C (110°F). This snow turns into gas and in the process absorbs heat from the surrounding
atmosphere.
Uses: Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are used for Class - B and C fires. CO2 extinguishers
have an advantage over other extinguishers (e.g. dry chemical type) since they don't leave a
harmful residue - a good choice for electrical machinery and apparatus, and any situation where
water would be damaging to the material after the fire is extinguished. It is however not as effective
outdoors as it is indoors due to the effect of wind on the agent.
Precautions in Using CO2: The characteristics of carbon dioxide are such that certain
precautionary measures are necessary:
 So far as safety to life is concerned, CO2, if not breathed in excessive amounts, is not
dangerous; however, a concentrated atmosphere inhaled for several minutes will produce
suffocation. Inhaling CO2 at concentration above 9 percent can render a person helpless
almost immediately. As CO2 design concentrations for fire extinguishing generally exceed
25 percent, it is potentially dangerous for personnel to be in an area protected by a CO 2
system.
 When carbon dioxide (CO2) converts from its liquid state in a fire extinguisher, to its
vapour state in the atmosphere, static electricity is created. The hose and horn assembly of
the extinguisher is designed to conduct and dissipate this static charge to prevent harm to
the operator and the generation of a static electrical spark. The spark will take place if the
extinguisher's grounding state is altered during operation; that is, if you place the
extinguisher on the ground while operating the unit or if you come into contact with another
grounded object while operating the unit. The preferred way to operate this extinguisher
is to drag the extinguisher into and out of the fire area while discharging the unit; thus the
extinguisher remains grounded at all time.
 CO2 is stored in a liquid state under very high pressure; and when discharged, the rapid
expansion produces a refrigerating effect to the extent that one may obtain a "burn," or
frostbite from coming in contact with a metal part through which the gas has passed. The
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discharge pressure is so great that it is not uncommon for bits of dry ice to shoot out the
nozzle. They don't work very well on class-A fires because they may not be able to displace
enough oxygen to put the fire out, causing it to re-ignite.
3. Type of Extinguisher: Dry chemical Extinguishers

Suitability: Class - A, B and C fires

Features: Dry-chemical extinguishers expel a finely powdered dry chemical which, on striking
flame, releases many times its volume in nontoxic fire- extinguishing gases similar to CO2. The
powder consists principally of bicarbonate of soda which has been chemically processed to make
it free-flowing. The extinguishers contain a cartridge of CO2 or nitrogen (depending on size) to
expel the dry chemical. These extinguishers can be used for electrical fires, both in rotating
machinery and other equipment. However, the powder remaining after the fire is extinguished is
difficult to clean from motor or generator windings. These extinguishers are effective on fires of
flammable liquids in vats and pools, spilled fires on floors, or in any situation where the compound
stream can be swept across the burning surface.
Dry chemical extinguishers have an advantage over CO2 extinguishers since they leave a non-
flammable substance on the extinguished material, reducing the likelihood of re-ignition.
These extinguishers are the most versatile type of portable extinguishers, effective in Class - A, B
and C fires. Use of a dry chemical extinguisher is not affected by wind like CO2 extinguishing
agents.
The compact nature of these fire extinguishers, ranging from the 0.9kg domestic model up to the
9kg industrial model, enables them to be utilized in numerous applications.
4. Type of Extinguisher: Multipurpose Extinguishers
Suitability: Class - A, B, C & D fires

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Features: Multipurpose powders fall into three distinct groups:

i. BC Type
ii. ABC Type
iii. D Type (powder)

BC Type: These are based on sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate compounds. These
are effective on Class - B (flammable liquid/liquefiable solids) and Class - C (flammable gas) fires.
The BC variety leaves a mildly corrosive residue which must be cleaned immediately to prevent
any damage to materials.
Potassium bicarbonate BC Powder (often called Purple K) is twice more effective than sodium
bicarbonate powder. Urea based Potassium Bicarbonate BC Powder (commonly known as
Monnex) is still more effective. The unique property of Monnex is that within the combustion
zone, the high temperature causes the powder to explode and break into minute particles giving a
very large surface area which affects the extinction of the flames instantaneously.
ABC Type: ABC-rated extinguishers, commonly called multi-purpose or tri-Class -
Extinguishers, are capable of fighting all three classes of fire. These are mixtures of ammonium
phosphate and ammonium sulphate, ground to selected particle sizes and treated with flow
promoting and moisture repellent additives. They are acidic in nature and are effective on Class -
A (flammable solids), Class - B (flammable liquid/liquefiable solids) and Class - C (flammable
gas) fires. They are electrically non-conductive.
In addition to the particle surface extinguishing effect of a Class - B powder, Class - ABC powders
have low melting/decomposition points in the order of 150°C to 180°C.
When these powders are applied to hot and smouldering surfaces, the particles fuse and swell to
form a barrier which excludes oxygen and thereby completes the extinguishing process and

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prevents re-ignition. Different blends are available, the more ammonium phosphate, the more
effective it is.
Class - D: Class -D powder is a special form of fire fighting agent that is used for combustible
metal fires. Three main types are in use-
Sodium Chloride for fires involving alkali metals such as sodium and potassium, also
zirconium, uranium and powdered aluminium. It extinguishes a metal fire by fusing to form
a crust.
Copper extinguishing agent specially developed for fighting lithium and lithium alloy fires.
The copper compound smothers the fire and provides an excellent heat sink for dissipating
heat.
Ternary Eutectic Chloride developed specifically for uranium fires works similar to
Sodium Chloride. It is extremely toxic.
Metals: Fires involving powders, flakes or shavings of combustible metals such as magnesium,
titanium, potassium, and sodium require special extinguishers labeled D.

Class K - Dry and wet chemical extinguishers for kitchen fires

CLASS K: Kitchen Fires, involving combustible cooking fluids such as oils and fats.

Note: Your present fire extinguishing equipment may not put out a fire involving vegetable oil in
your deep fat fryer.

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Do not attempt to use a Class A extinguisher containing water or CO2 on a deep fat fryer
fire. An explosive type reaction may result.
Place a placard near the Class K fire extinguisher which states: "In case of appliance fire,
use this extinguisher only after the fixed fire suppression system has been actuated". Class
K fire extinguishers are only intended to be used after the activation of a built-in hood
suppression system. If no commercial cooking system hood and fire suppression system
exists, Class K extinguishers are not required.
Extinguishing agents in many Class K extinguishers are electrically conductive and should
only be used after electrical power to the kitchen appliance has been shut off.
Class K extinguishers use a variety of agents. Potassium bicarbonate is used in some Class
K dry chemical extinguishers, and there are also Class K wet chemical extinguishers which
spray a fine mist.
Travel distance to a Class K extinguisher shall not exceed 30 feet.
Install a 2-A water-type extinguisher or 6L wet chemical fire extinguisher for solid fuel
cooking appliances with fire boxes.
Inspect, test and maintain Class K fire extinguishers yearly.

Caution:

 Although modern powders are non-toxic, the discharge of a powder extinguisher in a confined
space can cause a sudden reduction of visibility which may temporarily jeopardize escape,
rescue or other emergency action. Where there is a possibility that personnel may be exposed
to a dry-chemical discharge, suitable safeguards shall be provided to ensure prompt evacuation
of such lo cations, and also to provide means for prompt rescue of any trapped personnel.
 The agent is slightly corrosive and may damage sensitive computer/electronic equipment.
 Sodium Bicarbonate Powders, unless specially treated, are not compatible with foams.
 The chemical extinguishers have the drawback of often ruining sensitive equipment because it
leaves behind the secondary residues. But since the priority is on safety the ABC multi-purpose
extinguishers are widely used mainly because it not only reduces any confusion about what to
use and where (saving time), but also covers the possibility that, for example, any Class - B
fire that spreads from the stove to the curtains (Class - A) can be fought with the same
extinguisher.

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 The powder has no cooling properties, one of the reasons it is ineffective against class F fires
as, although it can extinguish the flame, the heat of the fat will cause immediate flashback. The
lack of a securing blanket means there is a re-ignition risk.
5. Type of Extinguisher: Aqueous Foam Extinguishers
Suitability: Class - B fires
Features: Firefighting foam is a mass of gas-filled bubbles which is lighter than flammable
liquids. The foam can float on all flammable liquids and produces a continuous layer of vapor-
sealing, water-bearing material for purposes of halting or preventing combustion. Two main types
of foam are available. These are low- and high-expansion foams:
Low-Expansion Foam - The normal expansion ratios for low expansion foam range from 4:1 to
12:1. The expansion ratio is the volume of foam generated, divided by the volume of solution used.
The primary method of extinguishment with low-expansion foam is smothering, although cooling
is a factor. The minimum foam depth for extinguishing a fire is about 6 mm (1/4 in) with an average
depth of 76 mm (3 in) or more.
High-Expansion Foam - The normal expansion ratios for high- expansion foam range from 100:1
up to 1000:1. The primary method of extinguishment is the smothering and cooling effect of water.
High-expansion foam is particularly suited as a flooding agent for use in confined spaces, for
transporting wet foam masses to inaccessible places, and for volumetric displacement of vapour,
heat, and smoke.
Limitations of Foam
Foams are primarily used for control and extinguishment of fires involving flammable or
combustible liquids, and the following criteria must usually be met for the foam to be effective:
 The liquid must be below its boiling point at the ambient condition of temperature and pressure.
 If foam is applied to liquids with a bulk temperature higher than 100 EC (212 EF), the foam
forms an emulsion of steam, air, and fuel. This may produce a fourfold increase in volume.
 The foam must not be highly soluble in the liquid to be protected, and the liquid must not be
unduly destructive to the foam.
 The liquid must not be water reactive.
 The fire must be a horizontal surface fire as falling fuel fires cannot be extinguished by foam
unless the fuel has a relatively high flashpoint and can be cooled to extinguishment by the
water in the foam. However, some foams are capable of following a flowing fuel fire.
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The following general rules apply to the application and use of ordinary air foams:
 Most foams are adversely affected by contact with vaporizing liquid extinguishing agents
and by many dry chemical agents. These materials should not be used simultaneously with
air foams. Gases from decomposing plastic materials have a similar breakdown effect on
foams.
 Foam solutions are not recommended for use on electrical fires as the foam is conductive.
 High-expansion foam can seem to completely submerge and apparently extinguish fires,
while the fire continues to burn quietly beneath it. This can occur when burning vapors
beneath the foam support the foam blanket on heated air.
 Foam extinguishers are red with a blue-band or label.

Type of Extinguisher: Halon 1211 and halogenated agent-type stored

Suitability: Class - B fires
Features: Halon type extinguishers chemically interrupt the flaming process by displacing the
oxygen from the fire. These extinguishers, like CO2, are very popular for use around
computer/electronic equipment, because they leave no residue. Unfortunately, halogenated
extinguishing agents are chlorofluorocarbons, and are contributing to the depletion of atmospheric
ozone. Because of international concerns of ozone depletion and their damaging effect on the
environment, Halon fire extinguishers are banned and rarely used anymore.
To summarize, the table below will help you to match types of extinguishers to different classes
of fire. Some extinguishers are suitable for one class of fire only; others can fight two or even three
classes of fire. However, no extinguisher is suitable to fight all four classes of fire.
These are only the common types of fire extinguishers. There are many others to choose from.
Base your selection on the classification and the extinguisher’s compatibility with the items you
wish to protect. Multipurpose ABC type extinguishers, which use a chemical powder to smoother
the source of the fire, are the favoured choice today. Not only these are effective, it is easier for an
inexperienced user to direct the discharge plume to the base of the flame from a safe distance.

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SIZE, PLACEMENT & LOCATION OF EXTINGUISHERS

No matter how carefully they are selected, fire extinguishers won't be of any use if they can't be
reached in an emergency. Once the extinguisher choice is made based on the classes of fires likely
to occur in the immediate work area, the next important step is the placement of fire extinguishers.
The placement should be such that they are readily accessible to workers without subjecting them

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to possible injury. Placement is best accomplished through a physical survey of the area to be
protected. In general, selected locations should be visible, accessible, and uniformly distributed.
NFPA 10 (E3) requires that the minimum number of extinguishers be installed in a manner that
fulfill both the distribution and travel distance requirements for a particular occupancy
classification.

LOCATION GUIDELINES

Locate extinguishers where they can be readily reached for use while a fire is still small. However,
don't locate them where they could be a hazard to employees, or where they could get damaged.
If not equipped with wheels, ensure that portable extinguishers weighing more than 18 kilograms
(kg) or 39 pounds (lbs.) are installed so that the top is not more than 1.1 meters (m) or 3.6 feet (ft.)
above the floor. Those weighing 18 kg or less must not be more than 1.5m (5 ft.) above the floor.
Here are some general pointers for where to locate extinguishers in your workplace.
Locate them:
 So that they are visible, along with their operating instructions and identification marks;
 Where they can be easily reached (i.e., they must not be blocked by machines or materials);
 In or near corridors or aisles leading to exits however, they must not block aisles;
 Close to potential fire hazards, but not so close that they could be damaged or cut off by a
fire;
 Where they will not expose people using them to undue risk, e.g., using a halon
extinguisher in an unventilated area;
 Where they will not be damaged by moving trucks, cranes or other work activities, or
corroded by chemical processes;
 So that they are protected against the elements (if stored outdoors).
IN SPECIAL AREAS

Where highly combustible material is stored in small rooms or enclosed spaces:

 Locate the extinguisher outside of the room (this will force the potential user to exit the
room and then decide whether to re-enter it to fight the fire).
For service rooms that contain electrical equipment:
 Locate extinguishers in or near the room.
On vehicles or in areas where extinguishers are subject to jarring or vibration:
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 Mount extinguishers on brackets designed to with stand vibration.

IDENTIFICATION OF EXTINGUISHERS
 Manufacturers place markings on extinguishers to indicate the class or classes of fire for which
they are suitable. There are two sets of standard symbols used to label an extinguisher for the
class or classes of fires on which it can be used. One or both of these symbol sets will appear
on the label of all listed portable fire extinguishers.
 The first system uses geometric shapes and colors with a class letter shown inside the shape.
(On Class - A and B extinguishers a number is used in conjunction with the letter. This number
represents the performance capability; a general rule of thumb is, the higher the number, the
better the extinguisher will perform.) The other system uses pictographs to make selection
easier.
 Fire extinguishers have color-coded symbols on their faceplate to show their classification (A-
green triangle, B-red square, C-blue circle, D-yellow star). Some extinguishers are marked
with multiple ratings such as AB, BC or ABC. These extinguishers are capable of putting out
more than one class of fire.
Figure: Symbol and Color Markings on Extinguishers

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HOW A FIRE EXTINGUISHER WORKS

 Portable fire extinguishers apply an extinguishing agent that will either cool burning fuel,
displace or remove oxygen, or stop the chemical reaction so a fire cannot continue to burn.
 When the handle of an extinguisher is compressed, agent is expelled out the nozzle. A fire
extinguisher works much like a can of hair spray.

1-A: 10-BC
 The letters (A, B, and C) represent the type(s) of fire for which the extinguisher has been
approved. The number in front of the A rating indicates how much water the extinguisher is
equal to and represents 1.25 gallons of water for every unit of one. For example, a 4-A rated
extinguisher would be equal to five (4 x 1.25) gallons of water.
 The number in front of the B rating represents the area in square feet of a class B fire that a
non-expert user should be able to extinguish. Using the above example, a non-expert user
should be able to put out a flammable liquid fire that is as large as 10 square feet.

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USING A FIRE EXTINGUISHER

The following steps should be followed when responding to incipient stage fire:
Sound the fire alarm and call the fire department, if appropriate.
Identify a safe evacuation path before approaching the fire. Do not allow the fire, heat, or
smoke to come between you and your evacuation path.
Select the appropriate type of fire extinguisher.
Discharge the extinguisher within its effective range using the P.A.S.S. technique (pull,
aim, squeeze, and sweep).
Back away from an extinguished fire in case it flames up again.
Evacuate immediately if the extinguisher is empty and the fire is not out.
Evacuate immediately if the fire progresses beyond the incipient stage.

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B. HOSE REEL INSTALLATIONS

 Hose reels are firefighting equipment for use as a first-aid measure by building occupants.
They should be located where users are least likely to be endangered by the fire, i.e. the
staircase landing.
 The hose most distant from the source of water should be capable of discharging 0.4 l/s at a 6
m distance from the nozzle, when the two most remote hose reels are operating simultaneously.
 A pressure of 200 kPa is required at the highest reel. If the water main cannot provide this, a
break/suction tank and booster pumps should be installed. The tank must have a minimum
volume of water of 1.6 m3.

Fig… Supply to hose reels indirect from main

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 A 50 mm i.d. supply pipe is adequate for buildings up to 15 m height and a 65 mm i.d. pipe
will be sufficient for buildings greater than this.
 Fixed or swinging hose reels are located in wall recesses at a height of about 1 m above floor
level. They are supplied by a 25 mm i.d. pipe to 20 or 25 mm i.d. reinforced non-kink rubber
hose in lengths up to 45 m to cover 800 m2 of floor area per installation.

Fig…Supply to hose reels direct from main

Fig... Typical hose reel (fixed type)

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 Standard fire hose is made up of rubber lined cotton fibre 65 mm in dia, capable of standing
routine test pressure of 14 kg/sqcm. Sometimes unlined or rubber lined or rubber cotton
hose may be used for this purpose.
 The fire hose is housed in a special made glass cabinet.

C. FIRE ALARMS
Fire detection and alarm systems may contain:
 System control unit
 Primary (mains) electrical supply
 Secondary (battery or capacitor stand-by) power supply. An emergency generator could
also be used
 Alarm activation devices - manual or automatic
 Alarm indication devices - audible and/or visual
 Remote indication on a building monitoring system
 Control relay via a building management system to effect fire extinguishers and ventilation
smoke control actuators.
 System control unit - an alarm panel which monitors the state of all parts (zones) of the
installation. It identifies the point of origin of an alarm, displays this on the panel and
communicates this to remote control locations.

ZONES:

 Max. 2000 m2 floor area in one storey.

 No detachment of compartment areas within one floor area zone.
 Max. 30 m search distance into a zone.
 Single occupancy of a zone where several separate business functions occur in one
building.
Requirements for dwellings

 Automatic fire detection and alarm systems are to be provided to the recommendations of BS
5839: Fire detection and alarm systems in buildings.
 They may comply with Part 1 or 6 of the BS, i.e. Code of practice for system design,
installation, commissioning and maintenance, or Code of practice for the design and

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installation of fire detection and alarm systems in dwellings, respectively.

 Alternatively, a smoke alarm system may be acceptable if it complies with BS EN 14604:
Smoke alarm devices. These should have primary and secondary power supplies.
Point detectors - individual heat or smoke detection units which respond to an irregular situation
in the immediate vicinity.
Line detectors - a continuous type of detection comprising a pair of conducting cables separated
by low temperature melting insulation to permit a short circuit alarm when the cables contact.
Suitable in tunnels and service shafts.
Provision in large houses (>1 storey):

Note: prefixes used in the BS categories indicates that L is a specific application to protection
of life, whereas P indicates that for property.

Application:
 Optical type (photo-electric) detectors in circulation spaces, i.e. hallways, corridors and
landings.
 Ionisation type detectors in living and dining areas.
Preferred location of detectors:
 Over 300 mm from light fittings.
 Min. one per storey.
 Loft conversions, with alarm linked to operate others and be operated by others in the dwelling.
 Circulation spaces between bedrooms.
 Circulation spaces < 7.5 m from doors to habitable rooms.
 Kitchens (with regard to heat/smoke producing appliances).
 Living rooms.
Requirements for buildings other than dwellings
 This is less easy to define due to the variation in building types and patterns of occupancy. BS

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5839 requirements may suit some buildings, but could cause panic in others, e.g. shopping
centres, where people may be unfamiliar with the layout.
 In these situations, trained staff may be the preferred system of building evacuation. At
building design stage, consultation between the local building control authority, the fire
authority and the building's insurer are paramount, as alterations post-construction are always
extremely expensive.

MEANS OF ESCAPE IN CASE OF FIRE

 Means of escape from within a building is concerned with the safe discharge of personnel if an
outbreak of fire should occur.
 It is designed to provide the occupants with the opportunity to reach an area of designated
safety.
 This takes into account factors such as the risks to human life, unfamiliarity with building
layout, problems of smoke, and the short space of time available to evacuate the premises
before the problems become almost insurmountable.
 Fear is a natural human response when confronted with uncontrolled fire and in particular fear
of smoke, which is justified by the fact that more deaths are caused by smoke and heated gases
than by burns.
 Statistics show that on average approximately 54% of deaths in fires are caused by smoke, 40%
by burns and scalds and 6% by other causes.
 Smoke may be defined as visible suspension in atmosphere of solid and/or liquid particles
resulting from combustion or pyrolysis.
 Although the above statement is true, smoke can also be caused by the release into the air of a
variety of chemical compounds.
 The main dangers, contained in smoke, to human life are the carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide gases that are normal products of combustion.
 The presence of these gases does not always cause the greatest hazard in human terms, because
the density of smoke is more likely to create fear than the undetectable gases.
 Buoyant and mobile dense smoke will spread rapidly within a building or compartment during
a fire, masking or even obliterating exit signs and directions.
 Gases, other than those mentioned previously, are generally irritants that can affect the eyes,

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causing watering which further impairs the vision, and can also affect the respiratory organs,
causing reactions to slow and a loss of directional sense.
 It is worth remembering that smoke, being less dense than air, rises, and that taking up a
position as near to the floor as possible will increase the chances of escape.
 Carbon dioxide has no smell and is always present in the atmosphere, but because it is a
product of combustion its volume increases at the expense of oxygen during a fire.
 The gas is not poisonous but can cause death by asphyxia. The normal amount of oxygen
present in the air is approximately 21%; if this is reduced to 12% abnormal fatigue can be
experienced; down to about 6% it can cause nausea, vomiting and loss of consciousness; below
6% respiration is difficult, which can result in death.
 Carbon dioxide will not support combustion, and can cause a fire to be extinguished if the
content by volume exceeds 14%, a fact used by firefighters in their efforts to deal with an
outbreak of fire.
 Carbon monoxide, like carbon dioxide, is odourless, but it is very poisonous and, having
approximately the same density as air, will spread rapidly. A very small concentration (0.2%
by volume) of this colourless gas can cause death in about 40 minutes.
 The first effects are dizziness and headaches, followed in 5 to 10 minutes by loss of
consciousness leading to death.
 As the concentration increases, so the time lapse from the initial dizziness to death decreases,
so that by the time the concentration has reached about 1.3% by volume death can take place
within a minute or two.
 The heat that is associated with fire and smoke can also be injurious and even fatal.
Temperatures in excess of 100 °C can cause damage to the windpipe and lungs, resulting in
death within 30 minutes or sooner as the temperature rises.
 An interesting fact that emerges from statistics is that females generally have longer survival
periods than males, and as would be expected the survival time decreases with age.
 Injuries caused by heat are generally in the form of burns, followed very often by shock, which
can be fatal in many cases.
 The above has been written not to frighten, but to emphasize the necessity for an adequate
means of escape to give occupants and visitors in buildings a reasonable chance to reach an
area of safety should a fire occur.

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 To this end a maze of legislation and advisory documentation exists to guide the designer in
planning escape routes without being too restrictive on the overall design concept.

PLANNING ESCAPE ROUTES

 When escape routes are being planned the occupancy must be considered. Occupants of flats
will be familiar with the layout of the premises, whereas customers in a shop may be
completely unfamiliar with their surroundings.
 In schools the fundamental principle is the provision of an alternative means of escape, and in
hospitals the main concern is with the adequacy of the means of escape from all parts of the
building.
 In the context of means of escape in case of fire the building and its contents are of secondary
importance. The provision of a safe escape route should, however, allow at the same time an
easy access for the fire service using the same routes, and because these routes are protected
the risk of fire spread is minimized.
 In practice the provision of an adequate means of escape and structural fire protection of the
building and its contents are virtually inseparable.
 Each building has to be considered as an individual exercise, but certain common factors
prevail in all cases:
An outbreak of fire does not necessarily imply the evacuation of the entire building.
Rescue facilities of the local fire service should not be considered as part of the planning
of means of escape.
Persons should be able to reach safety without assistance when using the protected
escape routes.
All possible sources of an outbreak and the course the fire is likely to take should be
examined and the escape routes planned accordingly.

FIRE PROTECTION TO BUILDING ELEMENTS (STRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION)

 The purpose of structural fire protection is to ensure that during a fire the temperature of
structural members or elements does not increase to a figure at which their strength would be
adversely affected.
 Additionally, when considering the features in layout and/or construction that are intended to
reduce the effects of a fire, it can be established that containment of fire spread within buildings
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by such measures as compartmentation, as well as providing physical means for preventing it

spreading to other buildings e.g. cavity barriers, is also of paramount importance.
 It is not practicable or possible to give an element complete protection in terms of time:
therefore elements are given a fire resistance for a certain period of time that it is anticipated
will give sufficient delay to the spread of fire, ultimate collapse of the structure, time for
persons in danger to escape and to enable firefighting to be commenced.
 These periods of time vary depending on the function or purpose group and occupancy of the
building, and the size/height of the top floor above ground and the depth of basement.
See tables in Appendix A to Approved Document B of the Building Regulations for specific
requirements.
 Before a fire-resistance period can be determined it is necessary to consider certain factors:
 fire load intensity of the building (amount of combustible material per m of floor area);
 behaviour of materials under fire conditions;
 behaviour of combinations of materials under fire conditions;
 Building Regulation requirements as laid down in Part B.

BEAMS

 The specimen is to be full size or have a minimum span of 4.000 m and be located to simulate
actual site conditions. If the beam is exposed to fire on three faces, associated construction as
in practice shall be included in the specimen.
Fire resistance
 The test specimen is deemed to have failed when it can no longer support its design loading.
This occurs if:
1. The deflection exceeds L/20, where L is the clear span of the specimen in mm.
2. The rate of deflection (mm/min) calculated at 1 minute intervals commencing 1 minute
from the heat application exceeds the limit set by L2/9,000d, where d is the distance
from the top of the structural section to the bottom of the design tension zone in mm.
 Take (1) or (2), whichever is exceeded first.

COLUMNS
 The specimen is to be full size or to have a minimum length of 3.000 m and be loaded to

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simulate actual site conditions. The specimen is heated on all exposed faces.
Fire resistance
 This is the time taken for the specimen to no longer support the test load, i.e. to show a
noticeable change in the rate of deformation.

FLOORS AND FLAT ROOFS

 The specimen is to be full size or a minimum of 3.000 m wide × 4.000 m span and be loaded
to simulate actual site conditions.
 If a ceiling is intended to add to the fire resistance, it must be included with the test specimen.
 This also applies to any construction or expansion joints, light diffusers or any other
components integral with the actual installation.
 The specimen is heated from one side by a furnace to produce a positive pressure at standard
heating conditions (see Part 20) until failure occurs or the test is terminated.
Fire resistance
 Loading as for columns, plus criteria to assess integrity and insulation.
 Integrity - A 100 mm × 100 mm × 20 mm thick cotton wool pad of mass 3 to 4 g is held
over the centre of any crack through which flames and gases can pass. The pad is held
25 mm from and parallel to the crack for a period of 10 seconds to determine whether
hot gases can cause ignition. The observation is repeated at frequent intervals.
Alternatively, gap gauges can be used where a crack occurs, i.e. a 6 mm gauge
penetrating into the furnace for a distance exceeding 150 mm, or a 25 mm gauge
penetrating through the specimen and into the furnace.
 Insulation - The unexposed face of elements having a separating function is observed at
intervals of not more than 5 minutes. Failure is deemed to occur if:
Mean temperature rises more than 140 °C above initial temperature.
Point temperature rises more than 180 °C above initial temperature.
WALLS

 The specimens must include provision for any mechanical joints and be tested from both sides.
They must be full size or a minimum of 3.000 m × 3.000 m and loaded to simulated actual site
conditions.

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Fire resistance
 Time taken to failure by any one of three observations:
Noticeable change in the rate of deformation;
Loss of integrity (as for floors and flat roofs);
Loss of insulation (as for floors and flat roofs).

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