CALCULUS I - CLASS NOTES

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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1. Introduction to Calculus
2. Functions and Models
3. Limits and Continuity
4. Derivatives and Differentiation Rules
5. Applications of Derivatives
6. Integrals and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
7. Applications of Integration
8. Key Mathematicians and Historical Development
9. Problem-Solving Strategies and Study Tips

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1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS
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What is Calculus?
-----------------
* Branch of mathematics dealing with rates of change and accumulation
* Two main branches: Differential Calculus and Integral Calculus
* Differential Calculus: Studies rates of change (derivatives)
* Integral Calculus: Studies accumulation and area under curves (integrals)
* Fundamental tool in physics, engineering, economics, and many other fields

Historical Context
------------------
* Developed independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the 17th
century
* Built upon earlier work by mathematicians like Fermat, Cavalieri, and others
* Revolutionized mathematics and enabled advances in science and engineering
* Unified many existing mathematical results into a coherent framework

Course Overview
---------------
* Single-variable calculus focusing on functions of one variable
* Emphasizes both theoretical understanding and practical problem-solving
* Covers limits, derivatives, integrals, and their applications
* Prepares students for advanced mathematics and scientific applications

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2. FUNCTIONS AND MODELS
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Types of Functions
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Algebraic Functions:
* Polynomial functions: f(x) = aₙxⁿ + aₙ₋₁xⁿ⁻¹ + ... + a₁x + a₀
* Rational functions: f(x) = P(x)/Q(x) where P and Q are polynomials
* Root functions: f(x) = ⁿ√x

Transcendental Functions:
* Exponential functions: f(x) = aˣ, especially f(x) = eˣ
* Logarithmic functions: f(x) = log_a(x), especially f(x) = ln(x)
* Trigonometric functions: sin(x), cos(x), tan(x), sec(x), csc(x), cot(x)
* Inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin(x), arccos(x), arctan(x)
Function Properties
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* Domain: Set of all possible input values
* Range: Set of all possible output values
* Even functions: f(-x) = f(x) (symmetric about y-axis)
* Odd functions: f(-x) = -f(x) (symmetric about origin)
* Periodic functions: f(x + T) = f(x) for some period T
* One-to-one functions: Each output corresponds to exactly one input

Inverse Functions
-----------------
* Function f has an inverse f⁻¹ if f is one-to-one
* f(f⁻¹(x)) = x and f⁻¹(f(x)) = x
* Graphs of f and f⁻¹ are reflections across the line y = x
* Important for understanding logarithmic and inverse trigonometric functions

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3. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
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Intuitive Concept of Limits

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* Limit describes the behavior of a function as the input approaches a particular
value
* Written as: lim[x→a] f(x) = L
* Means: As x gets arbitrarily close to a, f(x) gets arbitrarily close to L
* The limit may exist even if the function is not defined at x = a

Epsilon-Delta Definition of Limits

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* Formal mathematical definition providing rigorous foundation
* For any ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that:
If 0 < |x - a| < δ, then |f(x) - L| < ε
* This means we can make f(x) arbitrarily close to L by making x sufficiently close
to a
* Essential for proving limit theorems and understanding continuity

Limit Laws
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If lim[x→a] f(x) = L and lim[x→a] g(x) = M, then:

* Sum Rule: lim[x→a] [f(x) + g(x)] = L + M

* Difference Rule: lim[x→a] [f(x) - g(x)] = L - M
* Product Rule: lim[x→a] [f(x) · g(x)] = L · M
* Quotient Rule: lim[x→a] [f(x)/g(x)] = L/M (provided M ≠ 0)
* Power Rule: lim[x→a] [f(x)]ⁿ = Lⁿ
* Root Rule: lim[x→a] ⁿ√f(x) = ⁿ√L (when defined)

Special Limits
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* lim[x→0] (sin x)/x = 1
* lim[x→0] (1 - cos x)/x = 0
* lim[x→∞] (1 + 1/x)ˣ = e
* lim[x→0] (eˣ - 1)/x = 1
* lim[x→0] (ln(1 + x))/x = 1

One-Sided Limits
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* Left-hand limit: lim[x→a⁻] f(x) (approaching from the left)
* Right-hand limit: lim[x→a⁺] f(x) (approaching from the right)
* Two-sided limit exists if and only if both one-sided limits exist and are equal

Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity

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* Vertical asymptotes: lim[x→a] f(x) = ±∞
* Horizontal asymptotes: lim[x→±∞] f(x) = L
* End behavior of functions as x approaches ±∞

Continuity
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A function f is continuous at x = a if:
1. f(a) is defined
2. lim[x→a] f(x) exists
3. lim[x→a] f(x) = f(a)

Types of Discontinuities:
* Removable discontinuity: Limit exists but doesn't equal function value
* Jump discontinuity: Left and right limits exist but are different
* Infinite discontinuity: Function approaches ±∞

Intermediate Value Theorem

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* If f is continuous on [a, b] and N is between f(a) and f(b), then there exists c
in (a, b) such that f(c) = N
* Guarantees existence of solutions to equations
* Useful for proving existence of roots

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4. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION RULES
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Definition of the Derivative

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* Derivative measures instantaneous rate of change
* Definition: f'(x) = lim[h→0] [f(x + h) - f(x)]/h
* Alternative form: f'(x) = lim[x→a] [f(x) - f(a)]/(x - a)
* Geometric interpretation: Slope of tangent line at a point
* Physical interpretation: Instantaneous velocity, acceleration

Notation for Derivatives

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* Leibniz notation: dy/dx, df/dx
* Prime notation: f'(x), y'
* Newton's dot notation: ẋ (for time derivatives)
* Operator notation: D[f(x)]

Basic Differentiation Rules

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Power Rule:
* If f(x) = xⁿ, then f'(x) = nxⁿ⁻¹
* Works for any real number n

Constant Rule:
* If f(x) = c (constant), then f'(x) = 0

Constant Multiple Rule:

* If f(x) = c·g(x), then f'(x) = c·g'(x)

Sum and Difference Rules:

* [f(x) ± g(x)]' = f'(x) ± g'(x)

Product Rule:
* [f(x)·g(x)]' = f'(x)·g(x) + f(x)·g'(x)
* Remember: "First times derivative of second plus second times derivative of
first"

Quotient Rule:
* [f(x)/g(x)]' = [f'(x)·g(x) - f(x)·g'(x)]/[g(x)]²
* Remember: "Bottom times derivative of top minus top times derivative of bottom,
all over bottom squared"

Chain Rule:
* [f(g(x))]' = f'(g(x))·g'(x)
* For composite functions
* Essential for differentiating complex nested functions

Derivatives of Common Functions

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Trigonometric Functions:
* d/dx[sin x] = cos x
* d/dx[cos x] = -sin x
* d/dx[tan x] = sec² x
* d/dx[sec x] = sec x tan x
* d/dx[csc x] = -csc x cot x
* d/dx[cot x] = -csc² x

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:

* d/dx[eˣ] = eˣ
* d/dx[aˣ] = aˣ ln a
* d/dx[ln x] = 1/x
* d/dx[log_a x] = 1/(x ln a)

Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

* d/dx[arcsin x] = 1/√(1 - x²)
* d/dx[arccos x] = -1/√(1 - x²)
* d/dx[arctan x] = 1/(1 + x²)

Higher-Order Derivatives
------------------------
* Second derivative: f''(x) = d²y/dx²
* Third derivative: f'''(x) = d³y/dx³
* nth derivative: f⁽ⁿ⁾(x) = dⁿy/dxⁿ
* Physical interpretation: acceleration, jerk, etc.

Implicit Differentiation
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* Used when y is not explicitly solved for in terms of x
* Differentiate both sides of equation with respect to x
* Remember to multiply by dy/dx when differentiating terms containing y
* Useful for equations like x² + y² = 25

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5. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
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Related Rates
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* Problems involving rates of change of related quantities
* Strategy:
1. Identify given information and what to find
2. Draw diagram if helpful
3. Write equation relating the variables
4. Differentiate with respect to time
5. Substitute known values and solve

Linear Approximation and Differentials

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* Linear approximation: f(x) ≈ f(a) + f'(a)(x - a)
* Differential: dy = f'(x)dx
* Used to estimate function values near known points
* Error analysis and approximation techniques

Maximum and Minimum Values

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Critical Points:
* Points where f'(x) = 0 or f'(x) is undefined
* Potential locations for local extrema

First Derivative Test:

* If f'(x) changes from positive to negative at x = c, then f has a local maximum
at c
* If f'(x) changes from negative to positive at x = c, then f has a local minimum
at c
* If f'(x) doesn't change sign at x = c, then f has no local extremum at c

Second Derivative Test:

* If f'(c) = 0 and f''(c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c
* If f'(c) = 0 and f''(c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c
* If f'(c) = 0 and f''(c) = 0, the test is inconclusive

Absolute Extrema:
* On closed interval [a, b], check critical points and endpoints
* Absolute maximum and minimum must occur at these points

Optimization Problems
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* Strategy for solving optimization problems:
1. Understand the problem and identify what to optimize
2. Draw diagram and introduce variables
3. Write objective function in terms of one variable
4. Find domain of the objective function
5. Find critical points using calculus
6. Evaluate objective function at critical points and endpoints
7. Identify absolute maximum or minimum

Curve Sketching
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* Use derivatives to analyze function behavior:
- Domain and range
- Intercepts
- Symmetry
- Asymptotes
 - Intervals of increase/decrease (first derivative)
- Local extrema (first and second derivative tests)
- Concavity and inflection points (second derivative)

Concavity and Inflection Points

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* Concave up: f''(x) > 0 (graph curves upward)
* Concave down: f''(x) < 0 (graph curves downward)
* Inflection point: Point where concavity changes
* Occurs where f''(x) = 0 or f''(x) is undefined (and concavity actually changes)

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6. INTEGRALS AND THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS
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Antiderivatives
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* Function F is an antiderivative of f if F'(x) = f(x)
* General antiderivative: F(x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant
* Indefinite integral: ∫f(x)dx = F(x) + C

Basic Integration Rules

-----------------------

Power Rule for Integration:

* ∫xⁿ dx = xⁿ⁺¹/(n+1) + C (n ≠ -1)
* ∫x⁻¹ dx = ∫(1/x) dx = ln|x| + C

Constant Multiple Rule:

* ∫k·f(x) dx = k∫f(x) dx

Sum and Difference Rules:

* ∫[f(x) ± g(x)] dx = ∫f(x) dx ± ∫g(x) dx

Common Integrals:
* ∫eˣ dx = eˣ + C
* ∫aˣ dx = aˣ/ln a + C
* ∫sin x dx = -cos x + C
* ∫cos x dx = sin x + C
* ∫sec² x dx = tan x + C
* ∫sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

Definite Integrals
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* ∫[a to b] f(x) dx represents the signed area under curve from x = a to x = b
* Geometric interpretation: Net area between curve and x-axis
* Properties:
- ∫[a to a] f(x) dx = 0
- ∫[a to b] f(x) dx = -∫[b to a] f(x) dx
- ∫[a to b] f(x) dx + ∫[b to c] f(x) dx = ∫[a to c] f(x) dx

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

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Part 1 (FTC1):
* If f is continuous on [a, b], then F(x) = ∫[a to x] f(t) dt is continuous on [a,
b], differentiable on (a, b), and F'(x) = f(x)
* Shows that integration and differentiation are inverse operations
Part 2 (FTC2):
* If f is continuous on [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of f, then ∫[a to b]
f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a)
* Provides practical method for evaluating definite integrals
* Often written as [F(x)]ᵇₐ = F(b) - F(a)

Integration Techniques
----------------------

U-Substitution:
* Used when integrand contains a function and its derivative
* Let u = g(x), then du = g'(x) dx
* Transform ∫f(g(x))g'(x) dx into ∫f(u) du
* Best attempted first when facing complex integrals

Integration by Parts:
* Formula: ∫u dv = uv - ∫v du
* Used when integrand is product of two functions
* Choose u and dv strategically:
- u should become simpler when differentiated
- dv should be easily integrable
* LIATE rule for choosing u: Logarithmic, Inverse trig, Algebraic, Trigonometric,
Exponential

Trigonometric Integrals:
* Integrals involving powers of sin x, cos x, tan x, etc.
* Use trigonometric identities to simplify
* Half-angle formulas, double-angle formulas, Pythagorean identities

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7. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
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Area Between Curves

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* Area = ∫[a to b] |f(x) - g(x)| dx
* When f(x) ≥ g(x) on [a, b]: Area = ∫[a to b] [f(x) - g(x)] dx
* Find intersection points to determine limits of integration
* May need to split into multiple integrals if curves cross

Volumes of Solids
-----------------

Disk Method:
* Volume = π∫[a to b] [R(x)]² dx
* Used when solid is formed by rotating region about x-axis
* R(x) is radius function

Washer Method:
* Volume = π∫[a to b] [R(x)]² - [r(x)]² dx
* Used when solid has hollow center
* R(x) is outer radius, r(x) is inner radius

Shell Method:
* Volume = 2π∫[a to b] x·f(x) dx
* Used when rotating about y-axis
* Often easier than disk/washer method for certain problems

Average Value of a Function

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* Average value = (1/(b-a))∫[a to b] f(x) dx
* Represents the constant height that gives same area as original function
* Mean Value Theorem for Integrals: There exists c in [a, b] such that f(c) equals
the average value

Arc Length
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* Length = ∫[a to b] √(1 + [f'(x)]²) dx
* Formula for length of curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b
* Requires function to be differentiable with continuous derivative

Work and Physics Applications

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* Work = ∫[a to b] F(x) dx
* Used when force varies with position
* Applications: springs, pumping liquids, gravitational work

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8. KEY MATHEMATICIANS AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
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Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

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* English mathematician and physicist
* Developed calculus independently around 1665-1667
* Called his method "method of fluxions"
* Motivated by physics problems: motion, gravity, optics
* Published "Principia Mathematica" (1687)
* Used calculus to derive laws of planetary motion

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)

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* German mathematician and philosopher
* Developed calculus independently around 1674-1676
* Introduced much of modern calculus notation: dx, dy, ∫
* Published first paper on calculus (1684)
* Emphasized symbolic manipulation and formal rules
* His notation system is still used today

Historical Context
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* Both built upon work of earlier mathematicians:
- Pierre de Fermat: Tangent lines and maxima/minima
- Bonaventura Cavalieri: Method of indivisibles
- John Wallis: Infinite series and area calculations
* Initial controversy over who "invented" calculus
* Modern view: Both deserve credit as co-inventors
* Their approaches were complementary rather than competitive

Impact of Calculus
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* Revolutionized mathematics and science
* Enabled advances in:
- Physics: Mechanics, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics
- Engineering: Design and optimization
- Economics: Marginal analysis, optimization
- Biology: Population dynamics, epidemiology
- Computer Science: Algorithms, machine learning
Other Important Contributors
----------------------------
* Augustin-Louis Cauchy: Rigorous foundations of calculus
* Karl Weierstrass: Epsilon-delta definition of limits
* Bernhard Riemann: Theory of integration
* Joseph-Louis Lagrange: Mean value theorem
* Leonhard Euler: Notation and techniques

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9. PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES AND STUDY TIPS
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General Problem-Solving Approach

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1. Read the problem carefully and identify what's given and what to find
2. Draw diagrams when helpful
3. Identify which calculus concepts apply
4. Set up equations using appropriate formulas
5. Solve step by step, showing all work
6. Check your answer for reasonableness
7. Verify units and signs are correct

Common Mistakes to Avoid

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* Forgetting the constant of integration in indefinite integrals
* Confusing derivative and integral formulas
* Sign errors in trigonometric derivatives
* Forgetting to use chain rule when needed
* Not checking domain restrictions
* Arithmetic errors in algebraic manipulation

Study Strategies
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* Practice regularly - calculus requires consistent work
* Master basic techniques before moving to complex problems
* Understand concepts, don't just memorize formulas
* Work through examples step by step
* Form study groups to discuss difficult concepts
* Use multiple resources: textbook, online videos, tutoring
* Keep a formula sheet for quick reference

Test-Taking Tips
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* Review derivative and integral formulas before exams
* Practice timed problem-solving
* Show all work clearly
* Check answers when time permits
* Start with problems you're most confident about
* Don't spend too much time on any single problem

Connecting Concepts
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* Understand relationships between limits, derivatives, and integrals
* See how Fundamental Theorem connects differentiation and integration
* Recognize when to use different techniques
* Apply calculus to real-world situations
* Build intuition through graphical interpretations
Resources for Further Study
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* Khan Academy Calculus courses
* MIT OpenCourseWare
* Paul's Online Math Notes
* Stewart Calculus textbook
* Spivak's "Calculus" for theoretical approach
* Practice problems from multiple sources

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FORMULA REFERENCE SHEET
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Limits:
* lim[x→0] (sin x)/x = 1
* lim[x→0] (1 - cos x)/x = 0
* lim[x→∞] (1 + 1/x)ˣ = e

Derivatives:
* Power Rule: d/dx[xⁿ] = nxⁿ⁻¹
* Product Rule: d/dx[fg] = f'g + fg'
* Quotient Rule: d/dx[f/g] = (f'g - fg')/g²
* Chain Rule: d/dx[f(g(x))] = f'(g(x))·g'(x)

Common Derivatives:
* d/dx[sin x] = cos x
* d/dx[cos x] = -sin x
* d/dx[eˣ] = eˣ
* d/dx[ln x] = 1/x

Integration:
* Power Rule: ∫xⁿ dx = xⁿ⁺¹/(n+1) + C
* ∫eˣ dx = eˣ + C
* ∫sin x dx = -cos x + C
* ∫cos x dx = sin x + C

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

* ∫[a to b] f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a), where F'(x) = f(x)

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END OF CALCULUS I NOTES
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