CONTENT

✓ INTRODUCTION

✓ THEORY
✓ KEY CONCEPTS
✓ MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION
✓ EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
✓ OBSERVATION
✓ APPLICATION
✓ CONCLUSION
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that HARSHITA PATIDAR a

student of class 12th has successfully
completed the investigatory project titled
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR under the
guidance of MR. SUBHAM RATHOD this
project has been completed as per the
guidelines prescribed by the CBSE BOARD
and is a reflection of the students hard work
and research
INTERNAl SIGNATURE
EXTERNAL SIGNATURE
PRINCIPAL SIGNATURE
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I Would like to express my sincere gratitude

to Mr. SUBHAM RATHOD for his valuable
guidance, support, and encouragement
throughout the completion of this project.
His expert knowledge and constructive
feedback greatly contributed to my
understanding of the topic. I would also like
to thank my school for providing the
necessary resources and a conducive
environment for research. Finally, I am
grateful to my family and friends for their
constant support and motivation.
 INTRODUCTION

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), also

known as a photoresistor, is an important
electronic component whose resistance
changes based on the intensity of light falling
on it. It is made of high-resistance
semiconductor materials like cadmium
sulfide (CdS) or cadmium selenide (CdSe),
which are sensitive to light. The principle
behind its operation is the photoelectric
effect, where the number of free electrons
increases with the intensity of incident light,
causing a decrease in resistance. In the
absence of light or in low-light conditions, the
resistance of an LDR is very high, often in the
range of several megaohms. However, as the
light intensity increases, its resistance drops
significantly, sometimes to just a few
hundred ohms.

LDRs find applications in various fields due

to their unique property of light sensitivity.
For instance, they are widely used in
automatic lighting systems, such as
streetlights and garden lights, which turn on
automatically at night. They are also used in
light meters for cameras, where they help
measure the intensity of light for proper
exposure settings. Additionally, they are used
in security systems where an interruption in
light triggers alarms.
This component is commonly studied in
physics and electronics to demonstrate how
environmental factors like light can influence
the behavior of a circuit, making it a vital tool
in both theoretical understanding and
practical applications.
 THEORY

A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is a

component whose resistance varies with the
intensity of light falling on it. It operates on
the photoelectric effect, where photons of
light free electrons in a semiconductor
material like cadmium sulfide, increasing
conductivity and reducing resistance as light
intensity rises. In darkness, the resistance is
very high, often in the megaohm range, while
in bright light, it drops to a few hundred
ohms. This non-linear behavior makes LDRs
ideal for applications such as automatic
lighting systems, light meters in cameras,
and security alarms. They are widely used to
study how light influences electrical
properties in circuits
 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION

The resistance of an LDR is inversely

proportional to the light intensity . This
relationship can be expressed as:

Where:

R : Is the resistance of the LDR (in ohms, )

I : Is the intensity of light (in lux or similar
units),

K : Is a constant depending on the specific

LDR material,

n: Is an exponent, typically between 0.7 and 1

(depends on the material of the LDR).

Explanation:

As the light intensity increases, the

resistance decreases.

The exponent shows the rate at which

resistance decreases with increasing light
intensity. A typical value of is between 0.7
and 1, meaning the decrease is not linear but
follows a power law.
This equation describes the core behavior of
an LDR: a decrease in resistance as light
intensity increases.
 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Materials:
1. LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
2. Power Supply (5V DC)
3. Ammeter and Voltmeter
4. Fixed Resistor
5. Light Source (e.g., flashlight or lamp)
6. Rheostat (for adjusting light intensity)
7. Connecting Wires

Procedure:

1. Circuit Setup: Connect the LDR in series

with a fixed resistor to form a voltage
divider. Use the ammeter to measure
 current and the voltmeter to measure
voltage across the LDR.

2. Varying Light Intensity: Adjust the

distance between the light source and
the LDR or use a rheostat to change the
light intensity.

3. Measurements: For each light intensity,

measure the voltage, current, and
calculate resistance .

4. Analysis: Plot the resistance against

light intensity to observe the inverse
relationship between them
DIAGRAM
1. Basic Components:

LDR: The light-sensitive component.

Resistor: Often used in series with the LDR to

form a voltage divider.
Power Supply: Provides voltage to the circuit.

Output Device: Could be a microcontroller,

LED, or other components to use the signal
generated.

2. Working Principle:
In Light: When light falls on the LDR, its
resistance decreases. This causes more
current to flow through the circuit, changing
the voltage across the LDR.

In Darkness: When there is no light, the

resistance of the LDR increases, reducing the
current flow and altering the voltage.

3. Voltage Divider Configuration:

LDRs are often used in a voltage divider

circuit.

Configuration: The LDR and a fixed resistor

are connected in series. The voltage across
the LDR (or the resistor) changes based on
the LDR's resistance.

Output Voltage: The voltage at the junction

between the LDR and the resistor serves as
the signal that indicates light intensity.
 OBSERVATION

1. Light Sensitivity
The LDR's resistance is inversely proportional
to light intensity.
Resistance can drop to a few hundred ohms
in bright light and rise to several megaohms
in complete darkness.

2. Voltage Response in Circuit

In a voltage divider, the output voltage
increases with decreasing light and
decreases with increasing light intensity.
3. Response Time
LDRs take a noticeable time to respond to
sudden changes in light levels, typically
slower than photodiodes or phototransistors.

4. Temperature Dependency
LDR performance can be influenced by
temperature, as resistance values may vary
slightly with temperature changes.

5. Material Dependency
Made of cadmium sulfide (CdS) or similar
materials, which determine their sensitivity
range and response spectrum (most
sensitive to visible light).
6. Applications Suitability
Best for applications requiring simple light
detection and slow response, such as
ambient light sensing or automatic controls.
 APPLICATION

1. Automatic Street Lighting

LDRs are used in street lighting systems to

automatically turn lights on at night and off
during the day, based on ambient light levels.
When it gets dark, the resistance of the LDR
increases, activating the lighting system.

2. Light Metering in Photography

LDRs are used in light meters to measure
light intensity in photography, helping
photographers determine the optimal
exposure settings for their cameras.

3. Solar Tracking Systems

In solar power systems, LDRs are used to

track the position of the sun and adjust the
angle of solar panels to maximize energy
absorption throughout the day.

4. Burglar Alarms

LDRs are used in security systems to detect

changes in light levels, which can signal
unauthorized activity, such as someone
passing by or tampering with the system.

5. Brightness Control in Displays

LDRs are integrated into devices like

smartphones, televisions, and monitors to
automatically adjust screen brightness
according to the surrounding ambient light,
improving visibility and energy efficiency.

6. Consumer Electronics
LDRs are commonly used in toys and gadgets
that react to changes in light, such as
interactive toys that light up or respond to
movement based on the light levels.

7. Dimming Systems

LDRs can be used in home lighting systems

to adjust the brightness of lights based on the
amount of natural light available, ensuring a
comfortable indoor lighting level without
waste.

8. Industrial Applications
LDRs are used in various industrial
applications to monitor light levels in
manufacturing processes or to detect the
presence of objects or materials by
measuring changes in light reflection.
These applications highlight the versatility of
LDRs in everyday devices and systems,
making them crucial for both consumer and
industrial uses.
 CONCLUSION

LDRs (Light Dependent Resistors) are widely

used in various electronic applications due to
their ability to change resistance in response
to light intensity. The main advantage of LDRs
is their simplicity and cost-effectiveness,
making them an ideal choice for basic light
detection needs. They work on the principle
that their resistance decreases with
increasing light intensity and increases in
darkness. This characteristic allows them to
be used in light-sensitive applications, such
as automatic streetlights, light meters, and
solar-powered devices.

However, LDRs do have some limitations.

Their response time is relatively slow
compared to other light sensors like
photodiodes or phototransistors, which may
not be suitable for high-speed applications.
They are also sensitive to temperature, and
their performance can degrade with
prolonged exposure to intense light.
Additionally, LDRs are mainly sensitive to
visible light, limiting their use in some
specific applications.

Overall, LDRs are best suited for low-speed,

non-critical light detection tasks where
accuracy is not a primary concern, such as in
automatic lighting systems, ambient light
sensing, and light-controlled toys. Their
versatility and ease of integration into simple
circuits make them an essential component
in many basic electronic systems.