Compiled by Cornelius

NIGERIAN HISTORY, CULTURE AND ART UP TO 1800 (MAJORITY AND

MINORITY GROUPS AND CULTURE)
1.0 . Introduction
Nigeria has over 250 different ethnic groups, each with distinctive language and heritage. The 3
major ethnic groups are Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo. However, there are other notable ethnic groups
scattered across the country’s two major geographical divides in the North and South. The notable
ethnic groups in the north includes Hausa, Kanuri, Fulani, Tiv, Nupe, Igala, Idoma, Jukun, Igbira,
and Berom. The co-existence of diverse groups with distinctive historical backgrounds, culture,
religions, arts, festivals, language, songs, dressings, cuisines, ceremonies, vocations, occupations,
lifestyles, social outlooks, desires and self-determination, has been both, a source of strength and
weakness in Nigeria’s multi-plural society. On the positive side, the social, economic and political
potentials of the federating cultural groups can be a source of strength and socio-economic
development: this is often described as “unity in diversity,” in Nigeria. Nigerian Government
established institutions like the National Youth Service Corp (NYSC) 1973, the Federal Character
Commission (FCC) 1996 and the National Orientation Agency (NOA) 2005 in its strive to reduce
sectional feelings, and to promote unity among the country’s diverse peoples. On the negative side,
struggles between the major ethnic groups of Hausa, Yoruba and Ibo, on one hand, and the
suspicion, agitation and fear of domination from the numerous minority groups, has been a
recurring barrier to the country’s unity and progress.

First, the European explorers, second, the European Christian Missionaries and, third, the
European traders played very important roles in the chronological sequence of events that led to
the colonization and creation of the Nigerian state. It was the aggressive economic interest and the
contestation for the avaricious acquisition of the natural wealth of the native peoples that
encouraged the convocation of the inglorious Berlin Conference of 1884-85. Arising from the
Berlin Conference, the European interlopers adopted more carefully articulated control
mechanisms to bring their effectively occupied territories under their control. To achieve this, the
British colonial administrators quickly established a colony and protectorate of Lagos and Niger
territories under the administration of the Royal Niger Company through the instrumentality of a
Charter.

The exigencies of the moment ultimately challenged the British colonial administrators to come
up with more viable ways of optimizing their control over the Nigerian territories at the barest
minimum cost. The Niger Committee of 1898, headed by Lord Selbourne was, therefore,
inaugurated by the British colonial administrators to, among other things, find the means for
achieving greater control over the expansive area at the barest minimum cost. As a way out of the
financial deficit in the administration of the expansive areas – the northern and Southern
Protectorates, the Selbourne Committee recommended the use of available funds from the richer
Southern Protectorate to soften the large-scale financial shortfalls of the Northern Protectorate.
Very significantly, the Selbourne Committee recommended gradual amalgamation process, which
eventually took place in three phases. The first phase of the amalgamation took place in 1900, the
second phase was in 1906 and the last and final phase took place on January 1, 1914. It was the
last phase that brought about major challenges in defining the political future of Nigeria in the light
of cultural diversity and ethnic pluralism.

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From the foregoing, it is clear that Nigeria is an amalgamation of various groups with distinctive
cultural and social backgrounds leading to a complex structure in the formation of its nation.
Indeed, the complexity of the Nigerian nation is reflected in the incessant ethnic and religious
intolerance, socio-cultural conflicts, real or imagined domination and maginalisation of the
minority groups by the major groups.

2.0 . Learning Outcomes (Objectives)

By the end of this module. You should be able to:
I. give a detailed definition of culture;
II. classify culture according to its components;
III. analyse the historical evolution of cultural groups in Nigeria;
IV. list and discuss major cultural groups in Nigeria;
V. identify and explain the history of at least five cultural groups in Nigeria; and
VI. explain aspects of strength and challenges in the cultural diversity in Nigeria.

3.0 . Main Body

Unit 1: Definition of Culture
1.0 . Introduction
Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of people, “defined by everything from language,
religion, cuisine, technology, vocations, social habits, music and arts.” Ilesanmi (2004:32) notes
that there is no aspect of a people’s life that cannot be encompassed in their culture.
2.0. Learning Outcome
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
i. Define Culture;
ii. Explain the characteristics of culture; and
iii. Discuss the features of cultures in Nigeria.
3.0. Main Content
3.1. Definition of Culture
The word culture has no univocal definition. Culture derives its semantic origin from the Latin
word “Cultura” which means cultivation of the soil, and by extension, to the cultivation of mind
and spirit. Different scholars define culture in various ways. Taylor (1891) defines culture as” the
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a members of society. “Others see culture as people’s
way of life. These shared patterns identify the members of a culture group while also distinguishing
those of another group.

A people’s culture includes their beliefs, rule of behaviour, language, technology, rituals, art, mode
of dressing, producing, cooking, food, religion, political, and economic systems. Culture is
commonly interpreted to mean the way of life of a people and this could be material or non-
material. To that extent, it becomes plausible to argue that a people’s over-all life patterns are
conditioned by the adherence to a specific order, which forms an implicit code of conduct. Eating
habits, choice of foods, relationship with others, behavioural and attitudinal patterns, among other
things, can be said to be components of culture. Thus, culture is simply the entirety of the ways of
live a people expressed in different aspects of their activities. This goes to explain why culture may
be correctly defined as the totality of a people’s way of life that manifests through the channels of
their belief system, justice system, behavioural patterns, feelings, emotions, morality, possessions

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and institutions. This validates the claim that culture is a social inheritance that gives structure to
people’s lives.

It has been correctly argued that human beings are systematically conditioned to conform to
culturally defined and constructed patterns of behaviour, thought and belief. The process of
learning to fit in or adapt to a culture is referred to as cultural socialization, which implies that a
culture can be learned or adapted to. Perhaps, this explains why E. Nwabueze argues that culture
takes the normative, learned and transmitted dimensions. Whereas the normative aspect of culture
entails the goals to be pursued, how to pursue them, the values to be espoused and what constitutes
morality, the learned culture involves acquired values, belief systems and rules of conduct.
Some scholars view culture as the totality of group expression, a historical process and a
dynamic entity. As a platform of cultural expression, cultural identity manifests through certain
styles of clothing, totems, tattoos and other aesthetic markers. Other channels of group cultural
expression are language, graphic arts, sculpture, drama, dance, music, rituals, etc. The strength of
cultural identity resides in group cultural expression. However, fundamentally it transcends
individual human life. As a historical process, culture is viewed as a factor of development and the
establishment of institutions based on specific historical events. This relates to the interdependence
of cultural and institutional factors in social transformation, political development and economic
growth. To that extent, this historical process views culture as a functionally related system that is
codified within a cybernetic model of featuring some basic functional imperatives.

As a dynamic process, culture changes intermittently in line with the changing social, political
and economic realities of a people. Cultural dynamics constitute the inevitable aspect of human
existence and can take the forms of cultural socialization, cultural adaptation, cross-cultural
encounters or cultural imperialism. While cultural socialization, cultural adaptation and cross-
cultural encounters may take a consciously voluntary process, cultural imperialism essentially
comes in the form of the super-imposition of a ‘superior’ culture over an ‘inferior’ culture. In the
Nigerian experience, the forms of cultural synchronization in the global system with its
concomitant Euro Americanization of the country’s indigenous cultures profoundly illustrate
forced cultural dynamism.

Two components of culture, the material and non-material aspects of culture

Material culture refers to the tangible, physical indices through which the styles and values of a
people are expressed. They include buildings, works of art, tools, clothes, pots, swords, cutlasses
and other artifacts, which are created by man out of the bounty of nature and represent the peculiar
ways of every Nigerian society. These material components of culture help us to reconstruct the
history of past societies and their peoples through the study of the remains of past generations. For
instance excavations at Ile-Ife, Iwo-Eleru, near Akure, Benin, Esie, Igbo Ukwu, Daima and Nok,
have given reliable information about past inhabitants of the Nigerian areas.

The non-material components of culture, on the other hand, are abstract things, which a society
cherishes, and are used to express their culture. These include attitudes and values of a society
such as its religion, philosophy, literature, language, songs, dance, and patriotism.
The Igbo Culture
The Igbo are found in the southeast of Nigeria and are the third largest group in the country.
Traditional Igbo culture emphasizes values such as community, family and respect for elders, life,

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and hospitality. Igbo people are said to be the most dispersed ethnic community in Nigeria. The
Ibo have a seemingly less weighty tradition of origin. Nevertheless, evidence and settlement
patterns suggest that in about 1300 to 1400 A.D, the Ibo began to move south and east from the
region of Awka and Orlu. Later, there semms to have been a second wave of migration to the easter
Isu Ama area to Aba, the Arochuku ridge, and other places. Their migration started in the early
days of the slave trade and continues to be felt to this day. Igbo people are mostly traders, farmers,
and artisans, with agriculture being the most dominant activity. presently, they occur in Imo,
Anambra, Enugu, Abia, Ebonyi, states and parts of Rivers and Delta states, although they are
present in all parts of the country and beyond because of their business interest and quest for
wealth. However, looking at the language of the Igbos, which is called Asusu Igbo, their main
religion is Christianity and few others practise traditional religion. The Igbo culture includes the
various customs, practices and traditions that comprise archaic practices as well as new concepts.
These customs and traditions include the Igbo people’s visual arts, use of language musical, dance
forms, attire, and language dialects. A notable cultural practice by the Igbo is the new yam festival,
which is held annually. Igbo as a nation has the family and its name, sacredness of human life,
chastity, respect for elders and parents, marriage and hospitality. What this portrays is that cultural
values are intrinsically positive and potentially constructive.

The structure and kinship ties in a conventional Igbo family differ a little from those found in most
other societies. According to Ejiofor, the typical Igbo family consist of father, mother and children.
The father is the accepted head of the family and the traditional Igbo family normally lives in a
walled compound, consisting of at least two houses; one for the father and the other for the mother.
Adult sons’ share the father’s house, while daughter and juvenile son’s live with their mother.
The family therefore, is indispensable for the continuity of the Igbo. It is from this point of view
that the intimate and personal bond between members of Igbo community could be said to have
an ontological dimension. In other words, the bond gets its ontological dimension from the fact
that there is a natural relationship between the living members of the community and their
ancestors. The Igbo community denotes first and foremost… ontological equality of human
relations. It is ontological in so far as all members of the community are believed to descend from
a common ancestor. Everyman is linked to his parents on the natural level. He receives life from
them, depends on them to grow up. His parents in turn are bound to their grandparents, etc this
link which binds all members of the community or clan who are believed to be descendants of the
same ancestors. Every one considers himself as members of a definite community and as a part of
the whole.

The Ibo thrived on egalitarian society in the precolonial period. Her culture revolved around
communal living in village assembly system, respect for elders, a catalogue of trade networks, and
a strong belief in tradition tied to a deities and oracles believed to guide their society and determine
their affairs. The Ibo have several deities considered as inferior gods. Most of the deities are
restricted to specific territories. In fact, virtually every Igbo village has a peculiar deity for its
people. However, few deities have transcultural significance in Igboland. These include:
i. Anyawu, the Eye of the Light. This has insight and foresight; the ability to see things
as they really are.
ii. Amadioha, the god of thunder and lightning. Amadioha stands for the collective will of
the people. When lightning strikes a person or object, it is believed as the handiwork
of Amadioha.

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iii. Ahiajoku, the god of agriculture.

iv. Ala, earth goddess – it is seen across Igboland as the guidian of Igbo morality.
v. Ibini Ukpabi, the Long Juju of Arochuku. The deity Ibini Ukpabi is highly respected
for settling conflicts and adjudicating on complex issues.
The Yoruba
The term Yorùbá refers to a people and the language spoken largely by the Yorùbá group of
Southwestern Nigeria. The mobility of the Yorùbá people, due to the trans-Atlantic slave trade,
commerce, and other forms of migrating factors have spread the people and their language to other
West Africa countries, such as Togo, Ghana, Republic of Benin, Gambia and Sierra Leone. The
Yorùbá people are also found across North America, the Caribbean, United Kingdom and South
America, particularly in Cuba and Brazil. The Yoruba are the Second largest group in Nigeria,
after the Hausa of northern Nigeria.

The Yorùbá culture is connected to social order in her society and the larger Nigerian society. The
order of the society rests on the interconnection between the social institutions and the people in
the society. In the Yorùbá society, the individual behavior is guided by the Yorùbá culture, be it
tangible or intangible. However, the intangible aspect brings out of an individual a perfect
gentleman usually referred to as an ọmọlúàbí. In essence, the making of an ọmọlúàbí stabilized
order of the society. The agents of making an ọmọlúàbí are Yorùbá oral traditions, in forms of
songs, proverbs, poetry, folktales, and Yorùbá social, political, economic, and religion institutions.

The Yoruba live in compound, referred to as Agbo-Ile (a flock of buildings) that houses the
extended family and promotes the spirit of solidarity among members. The compound system also
promotes traditional education and discipline among the Yoruba. The children are also trained
collectively in the family compound, in addition to the trainings received directly from the parents.
The Yoruba also use the compound system to inculcate important indices of their culture such as
greetings, respect for elders, dialogue, dressing and decency in the younger members.

The Yoruba accords great respect to traditional beliefs attached to Olodumare, the Supreme Being,
believed to ordain all things. They revere the ancestors and deities, who they believe are
intermediaries between the living and Olodumare. the Yoruba attach great significance to ifa
divinations in their daily activities including trade, vocations, festivals, warfare, migration,
settlement in new area, , selection of a leader, naming of towns, people and events. The Yoruba
have taboos, rules and restrictions that guide their society in the form of conventions. Yoruba
names are symbolic – attached to events, jobs, vocations or circumstance around the birth of the
newborn. They have a unique dress culture dictated by the concept of decency (the omoluabi)
spirit. Part of Yoruba cultural practices is the tradition of tribal incision comprising facial and body
marks, which give different meanings and identities to various Yoruba sub-groups.

Culture of the Yoruba People

The Yoruba people stand out as a deeply religious group with great respect for superiors and
elderly people. The Oni of Ife is regarded as the spiritual ruler of all Yoruba’s. They have a
tradition of living in large towns, the largest of which include Ibadan, Ogbomosho, Oshogbo,
Ilorin, Abeokuta, Ilesha and Ede. They are the most urbanized group in Nigeria. The growth of
these large urban centres derived in part from the need for defenses but also largely because of the
highly centralized political organization of the people. The extended family is the basic social unit

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of the Yoruba. In addition, since they live together, each extended family has a territorial existence
(the large traditional compound) within the town as well as a distinct area of farmland in the rural
areas. They worshipped several deities such as the San’go (god of thunder) and other festivals such
as Osun festivals. The people are reputed for their artisanship, they excel in woodcarving and other
crafts such as bronze working, iron smelting. The famous terracotta and bronze heads of Ife, which
are reputable in Nigerian cultural history were produced by the Yoruba. They have several dances,
rituals and myths, which display their rich culture.

Economy of the Yoruba People

Like the economy of other forest people in Nigeria, the Yoruba are predominantly an agricultural
people. They cultivate crops such as yams, sweet potatoes, cassava and other tuber crops. They
are also hunters and engaged in lumbering as an economic activity because of the presence of trees.
They are wood carvers and sculptors and also specialized in iron working. They exchange these
products both within and outside their locality through long distance trade.

The Hausa Group

Hausa is the largest ethnic group in northern Nigeria and by extension the whole country. The term
Hausa also refers to a language spoken indigenously by Savannah peoples across the far North
from Nigeria’s Western boundary Eastward to Borno State and into much of the territory of central
Nigeria. Hausa influence has spread to most parts of West Africa and beyond. Next to Swahili, the
Hausa language is more widely spoken than any other single indigenous language throughout the
continent of Africa.

There are conflicting legends about the origin of the Hausa States in Nigeria. However, the most
popular account traced their origin to a certain Bayajida who emigrated from Baghdad to Kanem
Bornu and married the daughter of the Kanuri ruler. Bayafida who was forced to flee Kanem Bornu
due to squabbles relocated to Biramta-Gabas, where his wife bore him a son. He left his family for
Daura where he killed a sacred snake “sarki” which had for years deprived the people of water
from a well, except on Fridays. In appreciation of the great feat achieved by Bayajida, the Queen
of Daura married him and later gave birth to a son called Bawo. It was Bawo’s seven (7) children
that became the founders of the original Hausa states known as Hausa Bokwai. The original 7
states are Biram, Daura, Katsina, Zaria, Kano, Rano and Gobir. With the passage of time another
7 states emerged known as the Banza Bokwai. These states are Kebbi, Zamfara, Nupe, Gwari,
Yauri, Ilorin and Kwararafa. The various Hausa States emerged as city states and developed well
structured centralized political system headed by the King, Sarki and other principal officials. An
elaborate judicial department was also put in place, headed by the Alkali and the qadi.

The earliest form of worship in Hausa land was animism i.e pagan idol worship. It was not until
the 14th century that Fulani missionaries from Mali started serious work of conversion of people
from paganism to Islam in Hausa land. However, the people continued to mix paganism with Islam
until the advent of the Islamic Jihad of the early 19th century led by Usman Dan Fodio. This
development transformed Hausa land into a theocratic state governed by Islamic law. With this
development the peoples social life such as marriage and education became highly influenced by
Islamic and Arabic culture. Hence in marriage, the women were put in purdah and were compelled
to wear veil in public. The Hausa architectural style and building design was heavily influenced

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by the Arabic world. The major occupation of the Hausa is farming. The people also engaged in
handicraft such as weaving and dyeing of clothes.
The Fulani Group
The Fulani originated in the upper Senegal and were believed to have descended from the union
between Tuculor women and Berber traders. By the 7th century A.D the Fulani had firmly
established themselves in West Africa. The Fulani were among the first people to embrace Islam
in West Africa. However, for centuries the Fulani were scattered throughout West Africa and
belong to no identifiable kingdom. By 14th century, Fulani scholars of Islam and pastoralists began
to settle in Northern Nigeria. They helped in propagating Islam while discouraging the Hausa from
idol worship. By early 19th century the Fulani in Northern Nigeria led by Usman Dan Fodio, an
Islamic scholar launched a Holy War, Jihad on Hausa states with the purpose of converting the
people to islam and putting an end to paganism. Usman Dan Fodio’s campaigned received wide
spread support from his kinsmen and even Hausa who were fed up with the corrupt leadership
style and high handedness of their leaders. The Jihad dramatically altered the political equation of
Hausa land as Fulani’s who supported Usman Dan Fodio in his campaign took over the seat of
powers across the land. Ever since, the entire Hausa land was brought under the rulership of the
Fulani with Sokoto being the headquarter of the Islamic caliphate.

There are two categories of Fulani, the Fulani Bororo whose main occupation is cattle rearing and
the Fulani Gida i.e. town dwellers who engaged in urban crafts and trade. The Fulani’s over the
years have emerged as critical element in the politics of Northern Nigeria and the country at large.
The Fulani has blended so well with the Hausa that it is today difficult for an outsider to distinguish
between these two sets of people.

The Kanuri Group

They are also known and referred to as Beri Beri by their Hausa neighbours. The Kanuri’s are
predominantly found in Borno and Yobe State. A substantial number of them are also found in
Kano and Nasarawa State. They are predominantly farmers and fishermen and are known for their
long facial marks. The Kanuri’s have their kiths and kins across the borders of Nigeria in Chad,
Cameroun an Niger. Most Kanuri’s are sunni moslems, while a few are animists The Kanuri’s
speaks variety of dialects such as Manga, Tumari and Bilma.

The Kisra legend or tradition of origin traced the founder of the earliest known Kanuri kingdom
to a prince called Kisra who migrated with his followers to the east of Lake Chad from eastern
Africa as a consequence of the destruction of the city of Meroe (in the present day Sudan) by the
people of Axum in about A.D. 350. By the 9th century, Kanuri kingdom had fused with several
petty states and developed into a great empire known as Kanem at the east of Lake Chad. However,
by the 15th century, the seat of government was relocated to Bornu in the west of Lake Chad.

Ali Ghaji and Idris Alooma were two great leaders who contributed so much to the fortune of the
Kanem – Bornu empire. The Kanuri empire lasted for over a thousand years (A.D 774 – 1810),
placing it as one of the longest lasting dynasties in world history. It was the sacking of Mai Ahmad,
the last Kanuri ruler of the Sefawa dynasty in 1808 from the seat of power at Ngazargamu by
Fulani Jihadists and the subsequent death of Mai Ahmad in 1810 that closed the chapter of the
Sefawa dynasty.

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 However, Muhammad Al-Kanemi, a devout Islamic scholar and warrior rally support for Bornu
with his troops from Kanem by dislodging the Fulani jihadist. Al-Kanemi argued that it was wrong
of Usman dan Fodio to launch Jihad against a fellow Islamic state which had all along been
practicing the purest form of the Islamic faith. Following the death of Mai Ahmad in 1810, Al-
Kanemi became the Sheik or Shehu of Bornu and ruled the territory until his own death in 1835.
The new line of leadership he established replaced the Sefawa dynasty and persisted till date. Thus,
the throne of the paramount ruler of Bornu, the Shehu stool is the exclusive preserve of the
descendants of Muhammad Al-Kanemi. The people of Bornu had continued with the practice of
Islam as the dominant faith within their domains. The Kanuri because of the environment of the
Lake Chad basin were basically farmers, traders, salt producers and fishermen. The encroachment
of the Sahara desert and the shrinking of the Lake Chad had negatively impacted on the economy
of Kanuri land coupled with the ongoing Boko Haram insurgency which had displaced most of the
populace and stifle economic activities in the area.

Nupe
The Nupe speaks the language generally classified as Nupoid group which is identified with the
sub-family group of languages of the Benue-Congo. The Nupe ethnic stocks are found in 3 states
of Nigeria, Niger, Kwara and Kogi. Bida, the seat of the Etsu Nupe the paramount ruler of Nupe
people is regarded as the traditional headquarters of Nupeland. The formation of Nupe Kingdom
was largely attributed to Tsoede, also known as Edegi. Tsoede who was born in 1465 was the son
of a Nupe mother and an Igala father who was raised at the Palace of Attah Igala in Idah. Having
being equipped with charm and magical power by his father, he eventually returned to his mother
place to establish the Nupe Kingdom through force of arms and conquest of other neighbouring
areas. Those he conquered include the Yoruba in the south and the Kamberi and Kamuku in the
North. He ruled the entire Nupeland from his administrative headquarters of Nupeko until his death
in 1591 during one of his military expansionist missions north of the Nupe Kingdom. Long before
the 19th century, the Nupe people had historical links with the Hausas of Katsina, Kano and Borno
people, who pioneered the establishment of some of their towns such as Abaji, Eggan, Kutigi and
Enagi. In terms of culture, the Nupe borrowed substantially from their neighbours across the River
Niger such as Yoruba, Igala, Gwari and Borgu.

It is pertinent to state, that the Nupe did not only borrow culture from her neighbours but also
donated some aspect of her culture to them. For instance, while they borrowed the kingship system
of Igala land, they in turn introduced the Egugu masquerade in Yoruba land. It was also from Nupe
land that Islam spread to the neighbouring Yoruba towns like Offa and Ibolo communities. By the
early 19th century the existing political structure in Nupeland was altered due to the outbreak of
the Fulani Jihad. The Nupe indigenous rulers were dislodged from their offices by Fulani Jihadists
who took over their positions. Mallam Dendo, a Fulani Jihadist emerged on the seat of the
paramount ruler of Nupe in Bida in 1804 and declared himself as the leader of the people. Mallam
Dendo who derived his flag of authority from the Emir of Gwandu presided over the affairs of
Nupe people under the supervision of Gwandu emirate. By 1832, Dendo’s son mounted the stool
of his father and was installed as the first Etsu Nupe. Ever since, the Fulani’s has continued to
preside over the Nupe people. The economy of N upeland, though largely agrarian is supplemented
with fishing and cottage industries such as traditional soap making, blacksmithing, brass work,
wood work and tailoring.

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Jukun
The Jukun who speak six dialects, Wukari, Donga, Kona, Gwana and Pindiga, Jibu and Wase Tofa
are located in Taraba, Benue, Nassarawa, Plateau, Adamawa and Gombe States, and some parts
of northwestern Cameroon. The Jukun states presided over chunks of Gongola and Benue river
basins over a long period of time stretching from the 14th to the 18th century A.D. One of their
traditions of origin claims that they are of the same stock with the Kanuri of Borno. It is, thus,
stated that they migrated with the Kanuri to Borno where they left them and then continued their
movement southwards before settling along the Gongola and Benue river basins. Whereas between
the 14th century and the 15th century, Jukun suffered so much in the hands of Kano and Zaria who
occasionally raided her territories and exerted much tributes, as from the 16th century up to the 18th
century Jukun became a formidable military force that posed serious threat to Borno, Kano, Zaria,
the surrounding areas of Jos Plateau and to some parts of the Cross River basin.
As Jukun became very influential, many communities in the central parts of Nigeria area from
the upper Benue to the middle Niger adopted the Jukun institutions in one way or the other. Thus,
the Tiv, Idoma, Igala and Igbira derived so much from the Jukun traditional belief system,
economic activities and act of governance. By the turn of the 18th century, internal wrangling and
intrigues coupled with constant raids from the Chambas had weakened the Jukun Kingdom and
rendered her vulnerable to the Fulani Jihadists who greatly plundered her territories in the 19th
century. However, the robust centralised political system of the Jukun, represented by the Aku of
Wukari survived the Islamic Jihadist onslaught and is still thriving till date.

The Jukuns are divided into two major groups, the Jukun Wanu and Jukun Wapa. The Jukun Wanu
are fishermen residing along the banks of the river Benue and Niger where they run through Taraba
State, Benue State and Nassarawa State. The Jukun Wapa are the homeland Jukun that lives around
Wukari. Even though the traditional stool of Aku of Wukari was able to survive after the Fulani
conquest of Jukun, the initial cohesiveness of the people were disrupted as shown in the case of
the Jukun in Adamawa State who were brought under the rulership of the Fulani emir of Muri.
Prior to the advent of colonialism, Jukuns were predominantly traditional worshipers. The coming
of Christianity has significantly altered the people’s belief system, as most Jukuns, including their
paramount ruler have embraced the Christian faith.

Ebira
The Ebira also known as Igbira are heavily concentrated in the central senatorial district of Kogi
State, not far from the NigerBenue Confluence. People of Ebira ethnic group are also found in
other Nigerian states such as Kwara, Ondo, Oyo, Osun, Nassarawa, Edo, Benue and the Federal
Capital Territory. Ebira Tao is the largest of the several Ebira groups. The other sister groups are
Ebira Koto and Ebira Ozum (Kogi State), Ebira Fulani (Kogi State), Ebira Etuno (Edo State), Ebira
Agatu (Benue State) Ebira Oloko (Ondo, Oyo and Osun States)
The earliest homeland of the Ebira according to oral traditions was around Wukari in the defunct
Kwararafa empire. The Ebira along side with the Igala and Idoma were believed to have migrated
out of Wukari following a chieftaincy dispute in the area at about 1680 A.D. The Ebira in the
course of their migration later split into various groups and settled in different locations as
discussed earlier between 1680 and 1750 A.D. The Ebira are known for their cultural festivals
such as “Echane” an annual masquerade festival dedicated to women, “Eche Ori”, a new yam
festival, and “Eknechi” a night masquerade festival that marks the end of the Ebira calendar year
and the beginning of a new one. The throne of the paramount ruler of Ebiraland known as the

9
Ohonoyi of Ebira land is located in Okene, a hilly and rocky terrain which served as a fortress for
the Ebira people against enemies incursion especially in the 19th century. The Ebira are
predominantly moslems and well verse in agriculture and crafts such as pottery, dyeing and
blacksmithing.

Igala
People of Igala ethnic group though largely domiciled in Kogi State are also found in Delta,
Anambra and Edo States. Various traditions link the Igala with the Yoruba, Benin and Jukun.
Similarities as well as differences in the institution of divine kingship, methods of succession,
royal regalia; and languages among the Igala, Yoruba, Benin and Jukun have led, amongst other
things, to a controversy about the origin of Igala kingship and political institutions.
However, it is incontrovertible that the present dynasty ruling in Igala is of Jukun origin. C. A.
Temple in his compilation on the ethnic groups of Northern Nigeria observed that the Igala
descended from the Apa who had lived in the neighbourhood of Ibi for many years but have to flee
from the Jukun in canoe down the Benue in about 1490 A.D under their Chief Idoko. It was Idoko
son, Ayegba Om’ Idoko who joined forces with the head of Akpoto Omeppa to defeat the Jukun
near Idah after sacrificing her daughter Inikpi. Ayegba Om’ Idoko who emerged as the first Attah
of Igala ruled the Igala Kingdom from Idah while his elder brother Atiyele migrated east word to
establish Ankpa Kingdom. However, Idah has since continued to serve as the traditional
headquarters of Igalaland. The traditional Igala society is largely agrarian, although fishing is also
a mainstay of the people’s economy especially the Igalas of the riverine Idah area. Igala practice a
number of different religions, including African traditional religion, Christianity and Islam. The
people through their culture and language are closely related to the following ethnic groups, Idoma,
Igbo, Itsekiri, Bini, Yoruba and Nupe.

Birom
The Birom are largely located in Plateau State but are also found in Bauchi and Kaduna States.
They speak the Birom language which belongs to the large Niger-Congo family of languages. The
Birom ethnic group which currently constitute the largest indigenous group on the Jos Plateau
migrated into their present abode from Central Africa as Bantu migrants who took their journey
from Ethiopia through Sudan to Chad, and then to Niger before settling down at Gobir close to
Sokoto from where they moved before finally settling down at Riyom from where they eventually
spread to Xwang, Forom Zawan, Kuru, Gyel, Haipan, Fan and Gashish. The Birom are
predominantly farmers and hunters who celebrate their occupations through series of cultural
festivals such as Mandyang (rain festival – usually marked between March – April), Nshor
(hunting festival – usually marked between April – May) Nzem Berom (music, dance, arts cultural
day mandatory marked every first week of April). The Birom political system prior to the advent
of colonialism functioned more as a chieftain under the Gwoms (village heads) and Da Gwoms
(village heads) until the establishment of the stool of the paramount ruler for the entire Birom land
known as Gbong Gwom Jos in 1935.

The Idoma
People of Idoma ethnic group are largely found in Benue State and other states such as Cross River,
Nassarawa, Enugu and Kogi State. The Idoma legend of origins and ethnicity is about the most
complex aspect of their pre-colonial history. Different accounts abounds on the peoples origin and
migrations. However, it is evident that the evolution of an Idoma ethnicity begun in the 16th century

10
 Compiled by Cornelius

from Apa in Kwararafa empire to various places within the Lower Benue. This migration was in
waves and phases. The first wave of Idoma migrations which involved the Ugboju, Adoka and
Otukpo people occurred between 1535 – 1625. The second wave which involved the core of
western Idoma districts such as Otukpa, Orokam, Owukpa and Ichama took place between 1685 –
1751. While the first wave was instigated by the Tiv migrants who dislodged the Idoma from their
first settlement in Benue valley Apa I, the second wave of migrants to enter Idoma land came in
through Igalaland following intensed chieftaincy tussles in Idah.

By about the last quarter of the 19th century, the process of the consolidation of new territories in
which the Idoma found themselves had been completed. This consolidation was however at the
expense of other numerically smaller ethnic groups like the Igede, Akweya and Ufia on whose
territories the Idoma settled while the Igede were pushed to the eastern fringes of the Idoma
territories, the Ufia and Akweya were encircled by the Idoma and today constitute a bilingual
micro-nationality in the heart of Idomaland. The people operated a decentralised and communal
based system of government throughout the precolonial period. However, the British colonial
government which firmly announced its presence in Idomaland following the suppression of the
Ogbuloko revolt in 1928, introduced chieftaincy institution in Idomaland, first at the district level
before the creation of the seat of the paramount ruler of Idomaland, Och’Idoma in 1946 at Otukpo.
This political innovation was not established essentially to engender unity among the people but
for administrative convenience, especially for the enhancement of the British indirect rule system.
The major occupation of Idoma people over the years is farming, supplemented with fishing and
hunting. The people are also verse in handicraft such as blacksmithing, wood work, basketing and
cloth weaving. Since the advent of colonialism and the spread of Christian activities in the area,
most of the people have embraced Christianity at the expense of African traditional religion.

The Tiv
The Tiv ethnic group, though predominantly domiciled in Benue state are also found in Nassarawa,
Taraba, Plateau and the Federal Capital Territory. The Tiv which form part of the Bantu continuum
lived within the Cameroun – Obudu complex between 1475 and 1505 before moving down the
hills into the Benue Valley through four waves of migration that lasted between 1475 – 1900. The
migration of the proto Tiv into the Lower Benue Valley was not spontaneous but occurred in
phases and periods. The phases lasted as follows, the first phase 1475 – 1535, the second phase
1535 – 1595, the third phase 1595 – 1775 and the fourth phase 1775 – 1900. The reason for
migration from Swem around the Cameroon – Obudu Plateau has been attributed to diverse factors
such as inter and intra ethnic hostilities, population explosion and the gradual decline of the
Kwararafa military efficacy in the Lower Benue Valley. The migrations of the Tiv into the Benue
Valley was accompanied with series of war fare against the Jukun, Chamba, Idoma, the Alago, the
Hausawa/Katsinawa and the Kamberi.
The Tiv in their interaction with their neighbours had imbibed so much in terms of farming
techniques and technology, cultural practice and political system. The Tiv who emerged from
Swem as an egalitarian society by the 19th century instituted a political system, Tor Agbande
(Drum chief) which they copied from the Jukun. The Tor Agbande held sway at the kindred level
where they offered both political and military leadership to their people. With the advent of
colonialism, the British in their attempt to implement the indirect rule system created the offices
of district heads and subsequently that of the paramount ruler of Tivland, Tor Tiv by 1945. The

11
seat of the Tor Tiv is in Gboko, which in contemporary time is regarded as the traditional
headquarter of Tivland.
The Tiv are predominantly farmers. A significant portion of the population are also engaged in
trading and merchandise. The advent of Christianity in Tivland has significantly altered the
people’s belief system in favour of the Christian faith. Nongu u Kristu u i ser u sha Tar (Universal
Reformed Christian Church) NKST one of the largest indigenous Christian Mission in Nigeria is
a proof of the tremendous impact of Christianity in Tivland.
Culture Zones in Nigeria
Prior to British amalgamation, the Nigerian area comprised different chiefdoms, kingdoms and
empires with different cultural forms and features as dictated by their peculiar geographical
environments. Notable political entities are the Borno Empire, the Hausa States, and the Sokoto
Caliphate in the North, the Igbo segmentary societies in the East, Benin Kingdom and the Oyo
Empire in the West and several ethnic identities in the Benue Valley. There are major and minor
ethnic groups in each zone in Nigeria. In Northern part of Nigeria which comprises of North-West,
North-East, and North-Central Geo-political zones, the major ethnic groups are the Hausa, Fulani,
Kanuri, Tiv, Jukum, Nupe, Idoma etc. Most minor ethnicities are found in the North-Central
region, also known as the Middle Belt Region. The Southern part of Nigeria on the other hand is
made up of South-West, SouthEast and South-South. The major ethnic groups in this part of the
country are; the Yoruba, Igbo, Ijaw, Urhobo, Itsekiri and Bini etc.

Impact of Environment on Culture Variation

The environment has a significant influence on culture progress and its expression. Toyin Falola
emphasizes the role of geography in the settlement pattern of the peoples of the Nigerian area. He
underscores how environmental conditions influenced the culture of the people including
economic, social and political settings. He states that the distribution of ethnic groups in the
country is geographical in outlook. Areas that could support life were well occupied while people
avoided environments that were hostile. For instance, there was a large concentration of small
groups in Central Nigeria. Several of these groups enjoyed a large measure of political autonomy.
This concentration and political pattern have been attributed to the rugged topography, hostility of
more powerful neighbours and rampant slave raid. Today, central Nigeria is noted as an area of
dense population. Other similar areas are the Northeast, especially around the Chad and to some
extent, the Niger Delta. Whereas, the Southeast and South-West are heavily populated.

The location of the groups also determined their exposure to the outside world and the categories
of people they met, which in turn, influenced the progress of their culture. For instance, groups in
northern Nigeria had a long history of relation with the people of Sudan, North Africa and the
Middle East as indicated by their participation in the Trans Sahara Trade and early acceptance of
Islam and Arab culture, while groups in southern Nigeria related with the Europeans that came
through the Atlantic beginning from the 15th century.

In addition, natural features such as rivers, mountains, valleys and forests also defined the cultural
activities of the people of Nigeria. Indeed, Rivers Niger and Benue enabled inhabitants in the
middle zone to engage in fishing, farming, canoe-building, net making and other water related
occupations. The farming systems and the types of crops planted also depended on the rainfall
patterns, and the climatic conditions, and this created a culture of specialization on specific crops

12
 Compiled by Cornelius

in each of the geographical zones. The emergence of economic specialization also led to the
interdependence of groups on one another through long distance trade and commercial exchange.

Nigerian Culture and Globalisation

From another perspective, Nigeria need to strengthen her social systems to forestall the erosion of
aspects of her cultural identities like language, dressing, greeting, education, family ties and other
values, which are being adversely affected by the forces of westernization under the guise of
globalization. While globalisation offers opportunity for closer tie and interaction between people,
Nigeria should be wary of cultural colonialism to forestall losing her peculiar values, which could
turn her people to permanent followers in the global village. Indeed, Nigeria has made reasonable
progress in this direction of social and cultural rebirth particularly in the entertainment industry
where indigenous music and movies. For instance the Nollywood, which is Nigeria’s popular
brand of the home movie, has become a household name with great followership not only in Africa
but also in the diaspora. There has also been appreciable progress in aspect of collaboration among
African actors, particularly in West Africa, where Nigerian and Ghanaian film makers have formed
a synergy in producing movies, which have been showcasing the cultures of the two countries.
Furthermore, African native languages have become strengthened through movies. African
languages like Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Twi, and Kiswahili have gained popularity in the movie
industry, especially with the patronage of satellite Television Stations across Africa. In recent time,
there has been the translation of movies in other foreign languages like English, French and Latin
America, into native languages for better understanding. In the same vein, African musicians, in
recent times, have also been able to break foreign dominance through the use of native languages
for their songs. This has been an effective strategy in combating the domination of the continent
through songs and also in making her more relevant in the global stage.

Indigenous languages have found effective application in musical genre like Hip-hop, Reggae,
Gospel, Rhythm and Blues, Rap, to mention but a few, which has enhanced their acceptability and
popularity unlike when they were composed with only English or French, which had limited
audience among the indigenous population. Nigerian musicians like 9ice, Ruggedman, Mr. Raw,
Davido, Baddo, Teni, Adekunle Gold and Ghanian star, Sakodie, have all distinguished themselves
in using music to bring salient aspects of African culture to the world stage. There has also been
several collaborations between African artiste and foreign musicians in which African values are
show-cased. Furthermore, African languages like Hausa, Kiswahili, and Yoruba have also found
their place in the international broadcast stations like the British Broadcasting Company (BBC),
Voice of America (VOA), AJAZEERA, China Radio International, and German Radio
Dutchervella.
An option open to Africa especially Nigeria, is to turn to her cultural and traditional capabilities
as our evolutionary base for our economic development. In this direction, there are vast array of
traditional skills and technologies, for which Nigeria is well known in history that are still waiting
to be upgraded and modernized. The Benin Bronze Arts, Abuja Pottery arts, Yoruba “Aso-Oke”
production technique and “Agatu Dane Gun” production to mention but a few.

13
References
C. S. Orngu, “Cultural Imperialism and the Dilemma of Cultural Diplomacy in Africa,” Paper
presented at the 4 th International Toyin Falola Annual Conference (TOFAC), Durban, South
Africa, 3-5, July, 2014, p.3.
H. I. Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination, New York, International Arts and
Science Press, 1976.
E. E. Ayandele, “External Relations with Europe in the Nineteenth Century: Explorers,
Missionaries and Traders,” in O. Ikime (ed),Groundwork of Nigerian History, Ibadan, Heinemann
Educational Books (N ig) Ltd, 1980; also see C. S. Orngu, Socio-Political Conflicts and Nigeria’s
External Relations, 1953-2005, Lagos, Bahiti and Dalila Publishers, 2014. Armstrong Matiu
Adejo, Reparations: Africa’s New Charge in a Changing World, Makurdi, Peach Global
Publications, 2004. See particularly Chapter Three.
C. S. Orngu, “Ethnicity, Identity Politics: Challenges for Nigerian Federalism,” in V. Egwemi, T.
Wuam and C. S. Orngu (eds), Federalism, Politics and Minorities in Nigeria: Essays in Honour
of Professor G. N. Hembe , Lagos, Bahiti and Dalila, 2014, pp326-27.
H. I. Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination, New York, International Arts and
Science Press, 1976.
See E. Nwabueze, Democratization and the Dialectics of Culture in Contemporary Nigeria ,
Abuja, N ICO, 2011, p.8
C. S. Orngu, “Cultural Imperialism and the Dilemma of Cultural Diplomacy …,” p.4.
E. N wabueze, Democratization and the Dialectics of Culture in Contemporary Nigeria , Abuja,
N ICO, 2011, p.8.
O. O. Okpeh, Jr. and S. I. Ugbegili, Themes on Nigerian History, Peoples and Cultures , Ibadan,
Vast Publishers, 2013, p.4.
F. B. Fiapshev, L. M. Tsikanova and A. A. Fiapshev, “Culture as a Source of Historical Process
and a Factor of Economic Development,” Journal of National Interests, Priorities and Security,
11 (248), March 2014, pp.45-50
N . Nunn, “Culture and Historical Process,” Economic History of Developing Regions, Vol. 27,
2012, pp.108-125.
Tebellini Guido, “Culture and Institutions: Economic Development in the Regions of Europe,”
Journal of the European Economic Association, No. 4, 2008, pp. 677-716
F. K. Buah, West Africa since A.D 1000, Macmillan, 1973 p.103
T. Falola et al, History of Nigeria I, Longman, Lagos 1989, p.46
Igala Traditions of Origin “Post-graduate lecture by C. C. Jacobs, Department of history, Benue
State University 2001.
O. O. Okpeh Jn “Origin, migrations and settlement of the Idoma in Y. A. Ochefu et al, A History
of the peoples of Benue State, Aboki Publisher, Makurdi 2007, p.67
Joe Iyo “The Origin, Early Migrations and Settlement Patterns of the Tiv in the Lower Benue
Valley of Nigeria, C. 1475 – 1900 A.D” in Y. A. Ochefu et al, A History of the peoples of Benue
State, Aboki Publisher, Makurdi 2007, p.37
T. Faolola, et al, Nigeria before 1800, Ibadan, Longman Nigeria limited, pp. 17-19.

14
 Compiled by Cornelius

Lecturer: Olalekan Raymond Ajayi. ajayi.or@unilorin.edu.ng

Department of History and International Studies, Faculty of Arts.
Course Title: Nigeria People and Culture
Topic: Nigeria Under Colonial Rule [Advent of Colonial Rule in Nigeria; Colonial
Administration]
Course Code: GST 112

Course Description;
This course examines the historical development of colonial rule in Nigeria, focusing on its
advent, administrative structures, and the impact on Nigerian societies. It explores key events,
policies, and the socio-economic and political consequences of colonial rule.

Course Objectives
1. Explain the circumstances leading to the advent of colonial rule in Nigeria.
2. Analyze the methods of colonial conquest and consolidation.
3. Examine the structure of colonial administration and governance in Nigeria.
4. Evaluate the impact of colonial policies on the Nigerian economy, politics, and society.
5. Critically assess Nigerian responses to colonial rule, including resistance movements and
nationalist struggles.

Course Outline
MODULE 1: Introduction to Colonial Rule in Nigeria
Definition of Colonialism and Imperialism
The Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
British Expansionist Policies and Justifications for Colonial Rule
Early European Contacts and Trade Relations with Nigeria

MODULE 2: The Advent of Colonial Rule in Nigeria

British Strategies of Conquest: Diplomacy, Trade, and Force
Phases of British Occupation and Resistance
The Royal Niger Company and Its Role in Colonial Expansion
Military Conquest and Resistance (Benin Expedition 1897, Aro War 1901-1902)
Establishment of British Protectorates: Northern, Southern, and Lagos Colony
The Amalgamation of 1914: Causes, Process, and Implications

MODULE 3: Colonial Administrative Structures and Policies

British Indirect Rule System: Concept, Application, and Challenges
Colonial Political Structure:
Governor-General and the Colonial Bureaucracy
Legislative and Executive Councils
Colonial Policies and Their Implications:
Native Administration System and Its Effects
The Colonial Judicial System and Customary Laws
MODULE 4: Colonial Economic Policies and Their Impact
Cash Crop Economy and Forced Labour
The Role of the Colonial Economy in the Global Market
Colonial Taxation and Its Consequences
The Development of Infrastructure and Its Link to Economic Exploitation
The Impact of Colonial Economic Policies on Traditional Industries

MODULE 5: Colonial Social and Educational Policies

British Missionary Activities and the Introduction of Western Education
Colonial Health and Sanitation Policies
Social Stratification and the Impact of Colonial Rule on Nigerian Cultures
Emergence of Urbanization and Colonial Town Planning

MODULE 6: Nigerian Responses to Colonial Rule

Early Resistance Movements (Aba Women's Riot 1929, Ekumeku Resistance)
The Growth of Nationalism and Anti-Colonial Movements
Formation of Political Organizations (NNDP, NYM, NCNC, NPC, AG)
Struggles for Independence and the Road to Self-Governance

This course provides a critical and comprehensive study of colonial rule in Nigeria, highlighting
its legacies and historical significance.

Module One: The Advent of Colonial Rule in Nigeria

Introduction

The advent of colonial rule in Nigeria was not an abrupt event but rather a gradual process
influenced by European economic interests, political ambitions, and strategic considerations. The
British, like other European powers, pursued colonial expansion in Africa under the pretext of
economic trade, missionary activities, and the so-called "civilizing mission." However, the real
driving forces behind colonialism in Nigeria were economic exploitation, territorial control, and
political dominance.

This module examines the key factors that led to colonial rule, the mechanisms through which
Britain established control, and the impact of this period on Nigeria’s historical development.

1.1 The Concept of Colonialism and Imperialism

Definition of Colonialism
Colonialism refers to the practice where a powerful nation establishes control over a weaker
territory, often for economic gain, political expansion, and cultural domination. It involves:
The subjugation of indigenous people.
The establishment of foreign administrative structures.
The exploitation of local resources for the benefit of the colonizer.

Definition of Imperialism
 Compiled by Cornelius

Imperialism is the broader ideology that drives colonialism. It involves the extension of a
nation’s power and influence through diplomacy, economic pressure, or military conquest.
Colonialism is a direct manifestation of imperialist policies.

1.2 The Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference (1884-1885) The colonization of Nigeria
was part of a larger European competition for African territories in the late 19th century. This
period, known as the Scramble for Africa, led to the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, where
European powers formally divided Africa into spheres of influence to prevent inter-European
conflicts.

Key Outcomes of the Berlin Conference

Established guidelines for colonial claims based on the principle of effective occupation (a
European power had to demonstrate actual governance over a territory).

Partitioned Africa without considering indigenous political, ethnic, or cultural boundaries.

Strengthened European economic and political dominance over African societies.

Impact on Nigeria
Britain intensified its activities in Nigeria to consolidate control, leading to treaties with local
rulers and military interventions against resistant groups.
The establishment of British control over trade routes, particularly along the Niger River, was
formalized through chartered companies like the Royal Niger Company (RNC).

1.3 British Expansionist Policies and Justifications for Colonial Rule

Britain’s colonization of Nigeria was driven by multiple factors, including economic interests,
political strategies, and ideological justifications.

1.3.1 Economic Factors

Raw Materials: The demand for resources such as palm oil, rubber, and cotton for European
industries.
New Markets: Britain sought new markets for its manufactured goods as industrial production
increased.
Trade Monopoly: The British wanted to eliminate foreign competition, particularly from
Germany and France, in West Africa.

1.3.2 Strategic and Political Factors

Control of Trade Routes: The Niger River was a crucial economic and transportation corridor.
Prevention of Rival Expansion: Britain acted to prevent Germany, France, and other European
rivals from gaining influence in Nigeria.

1.3.3 The "Civilizing Mission" Justification

The British justified their colonial rule under the ideology of the "civilizing mission", arguing
that they were bringing progress through:

Christianity and Western education.

Modern governance structures.
Infrastructure development (railways, telegraph lines, and roads).

However, this was largely a pretext for economic exploitation and political control.

1.4 Early European Contacts and Trade Relations with Nigeria

Before the establishment of formal colonial rule, European interactions with Nigeria were
primarily commercial, involving trade in slaves, spices, textiles, and later, agricultural products.

1.4.1 Pre-Colonial Trade Relations

The Portuguese: First European traders in Nigeria (15th century), primarily engaged in slave
trade.
The British, Dutch, and French: Established trading posts along the coast, focusing on slaves and
palm oil.

1.4.2 The Transition from the Slave Trade to Legitimate Trade

The abolition of the transatlantic slave trade in the 19th century led to a shift towards trade in
palm oil, ivory, and textiles.
The British government encouraged legitimate trade as a means to replace the economic void left
by the end of the slave trade.

1.4.3 British Trade Monopoly and Expansion

The Royal Niger Company (RNC), led by Sir George Goldie, played a crucial role in
consolidating British economic dominance in Nigeria.
The RNC imposed high tariffs on African traders, controlled the export of palm oil, and
established treaties with indigenous leaders to formalize British presence.

1.5 British Methods of Colonial Conquest in Nigeria

Britain employed multiple strategies to establish and consolidate colonial rule in Nigeria:

1.5.1 Diplomatic Treaties

British officials signed treaties with local rulers, often through coercion or deception
These treaties were later used as legal justifications for British annexation of Nigerian territories
1.5.2 Military Conquest
The Anglo-Aro War (1901-1902): Britain defeated the Aro Confederacy, a powerful commercial
and religious network in southeastern Nigeria.
The Fall of Benin (1897): British forces sacked the Kingdom of Benin, looted its treasures, and
exiled its ruler.
The Sokoto Caliphate Conquest (1903): The British overthrew the Fulani ruling class and
imposed colonial rule.

1.5.3 Divide and Rule Strategy

The British exploited ethnic and religious differences to weaken indigenous resistance.
They favored certain ethnic groups in administration while marginalizing others.
The advent of colonial rule in Nigeria was not a single event but a prolonged process driven by
economic, political, and strategic interests. The British used diplomatic, economic, and military
strategies to assert control over Nigerian territories, often justifying their actions under the guise
of civilization and modernization. The consequences of this period, including political
restructuring, economic exploitation, and cultural transformations, continue to shape Nigeria’s
historical trajectory.

Module Two: Colonial Adminisration in Nigeria

The British colonial administration in Nigeria was characterized by a combination of political
restructuring, economic exploitation, and social transformation. The system of governance
introduced by the British was designed to maintain control over the vast and diverse territories of
Nigeria while minimizing administrative costs. This module critically examines the structure,
policies, and impacts of British colonial administration in Nigeria.

2.1 Objectives of British Colonial Administration in Nigeria

The British had several objectives in establishing colonial rule in Nigeria:

1. Economic Exploitation
To extract and control Nigeria’s natural resources, such as palm oil, cocoa, and rubber.
To create a market for British manufactured goods.
To introduce taxation systems that would generate revenue for the colonial government.

2. Political Control
To ensure Nigeria remained under British sovereignty with minimal resistance.
To prevent rival European powers from gaining influence.
To create administrative structures that facilitated British dominance.

3. Social and Cultural Transformation

To introduce Western education and Christianity to reshape Nigerian societies.
To suppress indigenous political institutions and replace them with British-influenced
governance.
To foster a class of educated Nigerians who could assist in administration but remain loyal to
British interests.

2.2 Phases of British Colonial Rule in Nigeria

British rule in Nigeria developed in phases, corresponding to the gradual annexation of different
regions:

1. The Lagos Colony (1861-1914)

Lagos was annexed in 1861 due to its strategic location and commercial significance.
Became a Crown Colony in 1865, directly governed by a British-appointed governor.

2. The Protectorate of Southern Nigeria (1900-1914)

Formed by merging the Niger Coast Protectorate and territories under the Royal Niger Company
in 1900.
Administration involved British officials and appointed local leaders to enforce colonial laws.
3. The Protectorate of Northern Nigeria (1900-1914)
Created after the defeat of the Sokoto Caliphate and other Northern emirates.
Administered through Indirect Rule, using existing traditional authorities.

4. The Amalgamation of 1914

Lord Frederick Lugard unified Northern and Southern Nigeria into one administrative entity.
The primary reasons for amalgamation:
Economic: The North was not self-sufficient, and Britain needed Southern resources to sustain it.
Administrative convenience: One centralized government was easier to manage.
Political stability: To reduce potential inter-regional conflicts.

2.3 System of British Colonial Administration in Nigeria

The British adopted different administrative systems across Nigeria, primarily Indirect Rule, but
also direct rule in some areas.

2.3.1 Indirect Rule System

This system, introduced by Lord Lugard, allowed the British to govern through existing
traditional rulers.

Features of Indirect Rule:

1. Retention of Traditional Institutions: Chiefs, Emirs, and Obas continued to rule under British
supervision.
2. Taxation and Revenue Collection: Traditional rulers were responsible for tax collection.
3. Judicial System: Customary courts were maintained but had to follow British colonial laws.
4. Minimal British Interference in Daily Affairs: British officials only intervened in major
decisions.

Success of Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria

The hierarchical structure of the Sokoto Caliphate made Indirect Rule easier to implement.
Emirs retained significant influence but were subordinated to British officials.
The existing Islamic judicial system was incorporated into colonial administration.

Failure of Indirect Rule in Southern Nigeria:

In the East, the Igbo society was acephalous (lacking centralized authority), making Indirect
Rule ineffective.
The British created a new class of "Warrant Chiefs," who were often corrupt and unpopular.
The Aba Women’s Riot of 1929 was a direct protest against the abuses of Indirect Rule.

2.4 Colonial Economic Policies

British economic policies were designed to benefit Britain at the expense of Nigeria.

2.4.1 Introduction of Cash Crop Economy

Encouraged large-scale production of cocoa, groundnut, palm oil, and cotton.
Discouraged industrial development to ensure Nigeria remained dependent on British
manufactured goods.
2.4.2 Taxation and Forced Labour
Introduction of hut tax, direct tax, and poll tax to generate revenue.
Forced labor policies required Nigerians to work on colonial projects, such as railway
construction.

2.4.3 British Trade Monopoly

Britain controlled all major trade routes and export industries.
Nigerian traders were restricted from engaging in direct international trade.

Impact of Colonial Economic Policies

Dependence on agriculture and cash crops led to underdevelopment of Nigeria’s industrial
sector.
Economic disparity widened between regions due to different colonial economic policies.
Nigerian indigenous businesses struggled against British firms.

2.5 Colonial Judicial and Legal System

The British introduced a dual legal system in Nigeria:

1. Customary Courts: Allowed local rulers to adjudicate minor disputes based on indigenous
laws.
2. Colonial Courts: Operated under British law and handled major legal issues.
3. Native Authority Police: Traditional rulers were given power to enforce colonial laws.

Impact of Colonial Legal System

Erosion of indigenous legal traditions.
Introduction of British concepts of justice, such as imprisonment instead of traditional
reconciliation.
Legal disparities between the North and South due to different levels of British intervention..

2.6 Social and Cultural Impact of Colonial Administration

The British administration significantly altered Nigerian society.

2.6.1 Impact on Education

Western-style education was introduced, leading to the emergence of a literate elite.
Education was concentrated in the South, leading to regional disparities.

2.6.2 Impact on Religion

Christianity spread in Southern Nigeria, leading to the decline of traditional religious practices.
Islamic influence remained strong in the North, where Christian missionary activities were
restricted.

2.6.3 Urbanization and Social Change

Cities like Lagos, Ibadan, and Kano grew due to colonial economic activities.
A new class of educated Nigerians began to emerge, demanding political reforms.
British colonial administration in Nigeria was primarily designed to serve British interests rather
than Nigerian development. The system of Indirect Rule was effective in the North but failed in
the South. Colonial economic policies fostered dependency and underdevelopment, while
judicial and social systems disrupted traditional ways of life. However, colonial rule also
introduced Western education and political consciousness, which later contributed to the struggle
for independence.

Module Three: The Advent of Colonial Rule in Nigeria

Introduction

The advent of colonial rule in Nigeria marked a major shift in the political, social, and economic
landscape of the region. British interests in West Africa led to the gradual imposition of colonial
dominance, with the eventual consolidation of Nigeria as a British colony. This module critically
examines the early phases of colonial entry, the factors that led to British intervention, and the
establishment of formal colonial rule in Nigeria.

3.1 Factors Leading to the Advent of Colonial Rule

1. Economic Interests
Trade and Resources: By the early 19th century, European nations, particularly Britain, had
established trade routes along the West African coast, with Nigeria being central to the
transatlantic slave trade. After the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, British merchants turned
to legitimate commerce, especially in palm oil, which was used in the production of soap,
candles, and lubricants during the Industrial Revolution.

Strategic Location: Nigeria’s proximity to other parts of West Africa and its access to the
Atlantic Ocean made it an ideal location for British imperial expansion. The British were keen on
establishing control over this region to facilitate trade and prevent French and Portuguese
encroachment.

2. The Abolition of the Slave Trade

Humanitarian Ideals: The abolition of the transatlantic slave trade in 1807 by Britain, followed
by its prohibition in 1833, led to new British economic interests in Nigeria. With the end of
slavery, the British sought alternative resources, particularly in agricultural products like palm
oil.
Moral Superiority: The British promoted their colonial presence as part of a "civilizing mission,"
claiming that their rule would bring progress, education, and Christianity to the indigenous
populations.

3. Rivalry with Other European Powers

Imperial Competition: During the late 19th century, European powers, particularly France,
Portugal, and Spain, were expanding their influence in Africa. Britain sought to secure its
interests in Nigeria to prevent these rivals from gaining control over vital trade routes and
territories in West Africa.

4. Internal Conflicts and the Collapse of Traditional Kingdoms

Decline of Traditional Political Systems: The internal conflicts among the various Nigerian
states, such as the disintegration of the Oyo Empire in the early 19th century and the weakening
of the Sokoto Caliphate by British military forces, created political vacuums that the British were
able to exploit. British officials and military commanders capitalized on the opportunities for
expansion by using both diplomacy and force to gain control over fragmented regions.

3.2 Early British Encounters in Nigeria

1. The Establishment of the Lagos Colony (1861)

The Annexation of Lagos: Lagos was a vital port city for British interests, serving as a base for
trade and the suppression of the slave trade. The British first established a protectorate over
Lagos in 1861 and formally annexed it in 1865. Lagos was intended to serve as a strategic point
for British dominance in the region.
British Administration in Lagos: After annexation, Lagos became a crown colony, directly
governed by Britain. The British implemented a system of governance based on European
models, which included the appointment of a British governor and the establishment of courts to
enforce colonial rule.

2. The Niger Coast Protectorate (1884-1899)

British Protectorates in the Niger Delta: Before the full establishment of a colony, Britain began
to assert its control over various parts of Nigeria by creating protectorates in the Niger Delta
region. The Royal Niger Company, under the leadership of Sir George Goldie, dominated the
trade of palm oil and other goods in the Niger region.
The Role of the Royal Niger Company: The Royal Niger Company acted as the de facto
government, administering territories along the Niger River. The British government officially
assumed control of the Niger Coast in 1899, formalizing its protection of British commercial
interests.

3. The Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900)

Sokoto Caliphate and British Expansion: The British extended their control to the northern part
of Nigeria by defeating the Sokoto Caliphate and other Islamic emirates. This process was slow
and involved both diplomacy and military force.
Indirect Rule in the North: The British adapted the Indirect Rule system to the North, allowing
traditional rulers (Emirs) to maintain their power while functioning under British supervision.
This system was seen as more suitable for the North due to its pre-existing centralized political
structures.

3.3 Consolidation and Expansion of British Rule

1. The Amalgamation of 1914

Lord Lugard’s Role: The most significant event in the establishment of British rule in Nigeria
was the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates in 1914, under the governance
of Lord Frederick Lugard. The amalgamation was primarily driven by economic and
administrative considerations, as the South was wealthier and more developed, while the North
was resource-dependent and required Southern revenue.
Political Implications of Amalgamation: The amalgamation created one united colony but also
exacerbated regional tensions due to differences in governance, religion, and culture. The
Northern region, with its Muslim majority, was under a different system (Indirect Rule)
compared to the Southern region, which had more exposure to Western education and
Christianity.

2. Expansion of Administrative Structures

Creation of Colonial Institutions: Following the amalgamation, the British established a unified
administrative system for the entire country. This included the establishment of a legislative
council, a system of courts, and a taxation system that allowed the colonial government to raise
revenue from the indigenous population.
Centralization of Power: British colonial officials centralized power in Lagos, with appointed
British governors overseeing the administration of both the Northern and Southern regions.
However, due to the differences between the regions, each region maintained some level of
autonomy in governance.

3.4 Impact of the Advent of Colonial Rule

1. Economic Transformation
Economic Exploitation: British rule in Nigeria introduced cash crop farming, primarily for
export, and integrated Nigeria into the global capitalist economy. The economy became largely
dependent on the production of goods for export, with minimal investment in infrastructure that
would have supported domestic industries.
Infrastructure Development: Despite the focus on exploitation, the British built railways, roads,
and ports primarily to facilitate the extraction of resources. These infrastructure projects,
although beneficial to British economic interests, laid the foundation for future economic
development.

2. Social and Cultural Changes

Introduction of Western Education: The British colonial government established schools that
promoted Western education, which led to the creation of a small but growing educated elite.
Religious Transformation: Christianity spread rapidly in Southern Nigeria, with the British
missionaries playing a significant role. In the North, Islam remained dominant, but British
influence led to greater interaction between Christian and Muslim communities.
Urbanization: The growth of towns and cities, particularly Lagos and Port Harcourt, saw the
emergence of a new urban working class and the development of modern infrastructure.

The advent of colonial rule in Nigeria was driven by economic interests, geopolitical
considerations, and the pursuit of British imperial dominance. Through a combination of military
conquest, diplomacy, and strategic alliances, the British consolidated their control over the
region, leading to the formal establishment of the colony in 1914. The legacies of British
colonial rule in Nigeria, including economic exploitation, political fragmentation, and social
change, continue to influence the nation’s development to this day.

Module Four: Colonial Administration in Nigeria

The colonial administration in Nigeria was established to enforce British policies, maintain
order, and exploit resources for economic gains. The British introduced various administrative
systems, including indirect rule, to govern different regions. This module explores the structures,
methods, and impacts of colonial administration in Nigeria.

4.1 British Administrative Systems in Nigeria

1. Direct and Indirect Rule
Colonial rule in Nigeria was implemented through direct rule in some areas and indirect rule in
others.

A. Direct Rule (Southern Nigeria and Lagos Colony)

In Lagos and parts of Southern Nigeria, the British established a direct administrative system,
with British officials governing directly.
The British appointed governors and district officers to enforce colonial policies.
Traditional rulers had limited authority and were often bypassed in decision-making.

B. Indirect Rule (Northern Nigeria and Parts of the South)

Introduced by Lord Frederick Lugard, indirect rule relied on traditional rulers to administer their
own people under British supervision.
This system was successfully implemented in the North, where the Sokoto Caliphate had a well-
structured administrative system.
In the South, indirect rule faced resistance, especially among the Igbo, who had decentralized
political structures.
British officials provided oversight while local chiefs collected taxes, maintained law and order,
and enforced colonial policies.

4.2 Features of British Colonial Administration

1. The Governor and Executive Council

The governor was the highest-ranking British official, representing the British Crown.
He was assisted by the Executive Council, which comprised senior British officials and colonial
administrators.

2. The Legislative Council

Created in 1861 for Lagos and later extended to the rest of Nigeria.
Initially composed of British officials, but later included Nigerian elites after constitutional
reforms.

3. Provincial and District Administration

Nigeria was divided into provinces, each headed by a Resident.
Provinces were further divided into districts, headed by District Officers (DOs), who
implemented policies at the local level.

4.3 Colonial Policies and Their Impact

1. Taxation and Forced Labor

The British introduced taxes to generate revenue for colonial administration.
The 1929 Aba Women’s Riot was a direct response to unfair taxation.
Forced labor was used for infrastructure projects, including roads and railways.

2. Land Policies and Resource Exploitation

The Land and Native Rights Ordinance of 1910 placed land ownership under British control,
dispossessing local communities.
Cash crops like cocoa, palm oil, and rubber were cultivated for export.

3. Social and Cultural Changes

The British promoted Western education, leading to the emergence of an elite class.
Missionary activities introduced Christianity in Southern Nigeria but had little impact in the
North.
Colonial rule disrupted traditional leadership structures, replacing indigenous governance with
British legal and administrative systems.

4.4 Resistance to Colonial Rule

1. Armed Resistance
Several Nigerian communities resisted British conquest, including:
Sokoto Caliphate (1903) – defeated by the British.
Aro Confederacy (1901-1902) – crushed after the Anglo-Aro War.
Ekumeku Movement (1898-1911) – Igbo resistance against British rule.

2. Protests and Nationalism

The Aba Women’s Riot of 1929 protested against taxation and colonial policies.
Early nationalist movements, such as the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) and National
Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), advocated for independence.

The British colonial administration in Nigeria introduced systems of governance that shaped
Nigeria’s political, economic, and social structures. While indirect rule was effective in the
North, it faced opposition in the South. Colonial policies led to resistance and the rise of
nationalist movements, which eventually led to Nigeria’s independence.

Module Five: Nationalist Movements and the Struggle for Independence in Nigeria

Nationalism in Nigeria was a response to British colonial rule. It emerged as an organized effort
to achieve political, economic, and social independence from British domination. Various
nationalist movements played crucial roles in demanding self-governance and ultimately
securing Nigeria’s independence in 1960.
This module critically examines the origins, phases, and impact of nationalist movements in
Nigeria, highlighting key figures, events, and strategies used in the struggle for independence.
5.1 Origins and Phases of Nigerian Nationalism

1. Early Nationalism (Pre-1920s – 1930s)

Early nationalism was largely elite-driven, led by educated Nigerians influenced by Western
education and ideas of self-determination.
Newspapers and literary works played a significant role in challenging colonial rule.
Herbert Macaulay was a key figure, founding the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
in 1923, the first political party in Nigeria.

Key Features of Early Nationalism:

Criticism of British policies through newspapers like Lagos Daily News.
Formation of cultural and political organizations, such as the Lagos Youth Movement (LYM).
Demands for greater representation in government, rather than outright independence.

2. Radical and Militant Nationalism (1930s – 1945)

A shift from elite-driven nationalism to mass-based activism.
The Great Depression (1929) exposed the economic exploitation of Nigerians under colonial
rule, fueling resentment.
Nigerian soldiers who fought in World War II (1939-1945) returned with new political
awareness, demanding rights and independence.
Formation of radical groups like the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) in 1934.

Notable Developments:
The Nigerian Union of Teachers (NUT) and trade unions became politically active.
Political activism was led by figures such as Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo, and Ahmadu
Bello.
Newspapers like West African Pilot (founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe) became major nationalist
platforms.

5.2 Political Movements and the Rise of Nationalist Parties

1. Political Parties and Their Contributions

A. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) – 1923

Founded by Herbert Macaulay.
Advocated for greater Nigerian participation in governance.

B. Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) – 1934

Led by Ernest Ikoli, Samuel Akinsanya, and H.O. Davies.
First political organization with a nationwide agenda.
Fought for improved education and employment opportunities.

C. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) – 1944

Founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe to unite Nigerians in the fight for independence.
Used newspapers and mass mobilization to challenge colonial rule.
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D. Action Group (AG) – 1951

Led by Obafemi Awolowo, primarily representing the Yoruba in Western Nigeria.
Advocated for federalism as the best system for Nigeria.

E. Northern Peoples Congress (NPC) – 1949

Led by Ahmadu Bello and Tafawa Balewa.
Focused on preserving northern interests and gradual political transition.

5.3 Key Events in the Struggle for Independence

1. The 1946 Richards Constitution

Introduced a regional structure (North, East, and West) but kept real power in British hands.
Nationalists rejected it for failing to grant real autonomy.

2. The 1951 Macpherson Constitution

Introduced regional legislatures and ministerial roles for Nigerians.
First real step towards self-governance.

3. The 1954 Lyttleton Constitution

Created a federal system of government.
Gave Nigerians more control over internal affairs.

4. The 1957 and 1958 Constitutional Conferences

Laid the foundation for full independence.
Nigeria was granted self-governance on a regional basis:
The Western and Eastern Regions became self-governing in 1957.
The Northern Region achieved the same in 1959.

5.4 Achieving Independence (1960)

After years of protests, political negotiations, and constitutional developments, Nigeria finally
gained independence on October 1, 1960.
Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa became Nigeria’s first Prime Minister.
Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe became Nigeria’s first Governor-General and later its first President in
1963 when Nigeria became a republic.

Factors That Led to Independence:

Mass Political Mobilization – Trade unions, students, and political parties pushed for freedom.
Media Influence – Newspapers played a key role in shaping nationalist consciousness.
Global Influence – The end of World War II and the independence of India (1947) inspired
African nationalist movements.
British Willingness to Negotiate – Due to economic and political pressures, Britain opted for a
gradual transition to independence.

The Nigerian nationalist movement evolved from elite-driven protests to mass mobilization. The
struggle for independence was marked by constitutional changes, political party formation, and
protests against colonial policies. Nigeria’s independence in 1960 was the result of decades of
organized resistance, negotiation, and constitutional evolution.

Module Six: Colonial Economy and Its Impact on Nigeria

The colonial economy in Nigeria was structured to serve the interests of Britain rather than foster
indigenous development. It was characterized by exploitation of natural resources, forced labor,
taxation, cash crop production, and limited industrialization. The British established an economic
system that ensured Nigeria remained dependent on the colonial economy, providing raw
materials while relying on Britain for finished goods.
This module critically examines the features, policies, and consequences of the colonial economy
in Nigeria, including its effects on agriculture, trade, labor, and industrial development.

6.1 Features of the Colonial Economy

The British designed the colonial economy to maximize profits for Britain while limiting
Nigeria’s economic development. The main features included:

1. Cash Crop Production and Agricultural Exploitation

The British shifted Nigeria’s agricultural economy from subsistence farming to cash crop
production to meet the needs of British industries.

Major cash crops included:

Groundnuts and cotton (Northern Nigeria).
Cocoa (Western Nigeria).
Palm oil and palm kernels (Eastern Nigeria).

Peasant farmers were forced to abandon food production, leading to periodic food shortages.

2. Exploitation of Natural Resources

Nigeria’s mineral resources were extracted to benefit Britain:
Tin was heavily mined in Jos.
Coal was extracted from Enugu.
Gold and limestone were also exploited.
The British controlled mining industries, preventing Nigerians from benefitting from their
natural wealth.

3. Foreign Trade and Economic Dependence

Nigeria was forced into a mono-economy, relying on raw material exports to Britain.
The country became a dumping ground for British manufactured goods, which destroyed local
industries.
Nigeria’s economy became externally controlled, preventing internal economic growth.
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4. Introduction of Monetized Economy and Taxation

The British introduced currency-based transactions to replace the traditional barter system.
Taxation (e.g., poll tax, income tax) was enforced to increase revenue for colonial
administration.
The imposition of forced labor and cash taxes disrupted traditional economic systems.

5. Development of Infrastructure for British Economic Interests

Railways and roads were built mainly to transport raw materials from the hinterland to coastal
ports for export.
The development of seaports (Lagos, Port Harcourt) was crucial for exporting Nigerian
resources.
Infrastructure was not designed for national development but for British economic interests.

6.2 Colonial Economic Policies and Their Impact

1. The Dual Economic Structure

The colonial economy was divided into two sectors:
The British-controlled modern sector (cash crop production, mining, foreign trade).
The traditional sector (subsistence farming, local trade, handicrafts).
The modern sector was privileged, while the indigenous economy remained underdeveloped.

2. Exploitative Trade Policies

British companies like United Africa Company (UAC) and John Holt dominated trade.
Colonial policies restricted local industries from producing finished goods.
Protective tariffs prevented Nigerian entrepreneurs from competing with British imports.

3. Introduction of Forced Labor

The colonial government introduced forced labor policies, compelling Nigerians to work on
public projects (roads, railways, plantations).
African chiefs were used to enforce compulsory labor laws, causing hardships for many
communities.

4. Limited Industrialization
The British deliberately discouraged industrialization to ensure Nigeria remained a supplier of
raw materials.
Local industries (e.g., blacksmithing, cloth weaving) declined due to British competition.
Nigeria’s economy remained agriculture-based, with no major industrial sectors by the time of
independence.

6.3 Economic Sectors Affected by Colonialism

1. Agriculture
The British shifted emphasis from food production to cash crop farming.
Consequences:
Decline in local food production, leading to food insecurity.
Over-dependence on cash crops caused economic instability.
2. Trade and Commerce
Traditional trade routes were disrupted and replaced by European-controlled trade networks.
British firms monopolized major trade routes and markets.

3. Labor and Employment

Traditional labor systems were destroyed.
The colonial system created a class of wage laborers who worked for low wages in mines,
railways, and plantations.
Urban migration increased, leading to overcrowding in cities like Lagos and Kano.

4. Banking and Finance

British banks (e.g., Barclays Bank, British Bank of West Africa) controlled finance and trade.
Indigenous Nigerian businesses had limited access to credit, restricting economic growth.

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Usman, Aribidesi, and Toyin Falola. The Yoruba from Prehistory to the Present. Cambridge UP,
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COMPILED BY CORNELIUS

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