FUNDAMENTALS

OF
INSTRUMENTATION

BY
NDUBUISI OMEOGA
PGIS TRAINING DEPARTMENT
 TRAINING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this you will be able
 To explain the relationship between
measurement and control.
 To explain a control loop and it’s components.
 To explain basic terms in instrumentation and
control
 To explain the four critical process variable and
their measurement principle.
 To explain/understand the criteria for selecting
appropriate measurement principle for the four
critical process variable.

2
INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation is the
science of automated
measurement and control.
Applications of this science
abound in modern research,
industry, and everyday living.

3
INTRODUCTION CONT’D
From automobile engine
control systems to home
thermostats to aircraft
autopilots to the manufacture
of pharmaceutical drugs,
automation surrounds us..

4
 INTRODUCTION CONT’D

The first step in process

instrumentation and control
naturally, is measurement. If
we can’t measure something,
it is really worthless to try to
control it.

5
INTRODUCTION CONT’D
Once we measure the
quantity we are interested in,
we usually transmit a signal
representing this quantity to
an indicating or computing
device where either human or
automated action then takes
place.
6
INTRODUCTION CONT’D

Industrial process are fitted

with instruments to provide
detection and measurement
of data of process variables
to both process control
systems and process
operations personnel.
7
INTRODUCTION CONT’D
The output signals are
standard signal and can then
be processed by other
equipment to provide
indication, alarms or
automatic control.
8
INTRODUCTION CONT’D
Good control requires
measurements that are
accurate, reliable, responsive
and maintainable. These
factors are influenced by the
choice of principle used for
the measurement, the
9
INTRODUCTION CONT’D
detailed specifications and
features of the instrument
selected and specified, how
well the instrument and its
installation is maintained, and
particularly the installation
details.
10
INTRODUCTION CONT’D

Instruments must provide

reliable data because critical
operating and safety
decisions are based on the
data. Errors in measurement
will lead to errors in process
control and in errors
11
INTRODUCTION CONT’D

in decision making. If the

controlling action is
automated, the computer
sends a signal to a final
controlling device which then
influences the quantity being
measured.
12
INTRODUCTION CONT’D
This final control device
usually takes one of the
following forms:
• Control valve (for throttling
the flow rate of a fluid)
• Electric motor
• Electric heater
13
INTRODUCTION CONT’D
Both the measurement
device and the final control
device connect to some
physical system which we
call the process. As a shown
below

14
INTRODUCTION CONT’D

15
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

CONTROL SYSTEM
A control system is a system
of integrated elements whose
function is to maintain a
process variable at a desired
value or within a desired
range of values
16
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are
devices which are used in
measuring attributes of
process systems.

17
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
SETPOINT
The setpoint is a value for a
process variable that is
desired to be maintained.

18
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
MEASURED VARIABLES
The measured variable is the
condition of the process fluid
that must be kept at the
designated setpoint..

19
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
MANIPULATED VARIABLE
A manipulated variable is the
process variable that is acted
on by the control system to
maintain the controlled
variable at the specified value
or within the specified range..
20
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
SIGNAL:
The signal is the event or
phenomenon that conveys
data from one point to
another.

21
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
ERROR
Error is the difference
between the measured
variable and the setpoint and
can be either positive or
negative

22
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
LOOP:
A Loop is a combination of
one or more interconnected
instruments arranged to
measure a process variable.
It comprises of the whole
chain of Primary element to
Correcting Element.
23
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
OFFSET
Process offset is a sustained
deviation of the process
variable from the setpoint.

24
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
CORRECTING ELEMENTS/FINAL
CONTROL ELEMENTS
The correcting or final control
element is the part of the
control system that acts to
physically change the
manipulated variable.
25
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
CONTROLLER:
A device that operates
automatically by use of some
established algorithm to
regulate process variable(PV)
according to the set point. A
device that receives a process
variable (PV) signal from a
primary sensing element (PSE), .

26
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
or transmitter compares that
signal to the desired value for
that process variable (called the
setpoint), and calculates an
appropriate output signal value
to be sent to a final control
element (FCE) such as an
electric motor or control valve.
,.
27
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

PROCESS:
The physical system we are
attempting to control or
measure.

28
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
Process Variable, or PV:
The specific quantity we are
measuring in a process. It is the
process variable that is
maintained at a specified value
or within a specified range
Examples: pressure, level,
temperature, flow etc
29
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
CLOSED CONTROL LOOP
It is a type of control loop
where the measured process
variable is compared to a
setpoint and action is taken
to correct any deviation from
setpoint, the control action is
dependent on the output.
30
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
OPEN CONTROL LOOP
It is a type of control loop where
the measured process variable
is not compared, and action is
taken not in response to
feedback on the condition of the
process variable, but is instead
taken without regard to process
variable conditions, the
31
control action is independent
of the output.

32
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

MANUAL CONTROL
Control operations that
involve human action to
make an adjustment are
called manual control
systems
33
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
ACCURACY
Accuracy refers to how
closely a measurement
represents a true value.
Accuracy is an essential
factor in instrument
performance.
34
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

ACCURACY
Accuracy is usually
expressed as a percentage of
the instrument's span.

35
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

Mathematically Accuracy
is given as difference
between the true and
measured values divided
by the span

36
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
TRANSMITTER:
A device that translates the signal
produced by a primary sensing
element (PSE) into a standardized
instrumentation signal such as
3-15 PSI air pressure, 4-20 mA DC
electric current,etc.,which may then
be conveyed to an indicating
device, a controlling device or both.

37
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

RANGE
The range of an instrument is the
difference between the engineering
high and low limits where a certain
accuracy can be achieved. Instruments
usually have a permissible over-
range, which means they can be
subject to extremes outside their
measurement range without damage.
38
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES

REPEATABILITY
It is how well an instrument
gives the same output for the
same input when the input is
applied in the same way over
a short time period.
39
PROCESS VARIABLES
In every process, the process variables
affect the input and output of the
process.
The most commonly measured and
monitored process variables are:
 Pressure
Temperature
 Flow
 Level

40
PROCESS VARIABLES
PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as a
force per unit area, and can
be measured in units such as
psi (pounds per square inch),
inches of water, millimetres of
mercury, pascals(Pa,or N/m²)
or bar.
41
PROCESS VARIABLES
PRESSURE
Pressure = Force/ Area
The force itself is then
measured either by balancing
it against a known weight or
monitoring the extent to
which it deforms a calibrated
elastic medium..
42
PROCESS VARIABLES
PRESSURE
Pressure is probably
one of the most
commonly measured
variables in the process
industry.
43
PROCESS VARIABLES
PRESSURE
Pressure instruments
are vitally important not
only for direct monitoring
of important parameters
such as process reaction
pressure etc
44
PROCESS VARIABLES
PRESSURE
Many types of industrial
measurements are actually
inferred from pressure, such as:
Flow (measuring the pressure
dropped across a restriction)
Liquid level (measuring the
pressure created by a vertical
liquid column)
45
PROCESS VARIABLES
Liquid density (measuring the
pressure difference across a
fixed-height liquid column)
 Weight (hydraulic load cell)
Even temperature may be
inferred from pressure
measurement, as in the case of
a fluid-filled chamber
46
PROCESS VARIABLES
where fluid pressure and fluid
temperature are directly
related..
As such, pressure is a very
important quantity to
measure, and measure
accurately
47
PROCESS VARIABLES
Although there are many types
of mechanical and electrical
sensors, all pressure sensors infer
pressure by measuring a physical
change within the sensor when
exposed to changes in pressure.

48
PROCESS VARIABLES
This physical change can be
capacitance, resistance, or
frequency.

49
PROCESS VARIABLES
GAUGE PRESSURE
Most industrial pressure gauges
measure the difference between
the measured fluid pressure and
local atmospheric pressure. The
pressure measurement
obtained in this way is known as
the “gauge pressure” and is
measured in units such as psig
or bar g.. 50
PROCESS VARIABLES

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Absolute pressure is the
difference between the
measured fluid pressure and a
complete vacuum. It is
expressed in units such as psia
or bar a.
51
PROCESS VARIABLES
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
METHOD
1.The pressure measurement
range (including possible out-of-
range pressure excursions which
might damage the instrument, eg
from the water hammer effect).
2.The corrosive properties of the
process fluid.
52
PROCESS VARIABLES
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
METHOD
3.The physical properties of the
process fluid (such as temperature,
viscosity, solids contents).
4. The accuracy, repeatability and
reliability required.

53
PROCESS VARIABLES
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
METHOD
5.The consequences (toxic or
flammable) of the release of
process fluid in case of gauge
element failure.

54
PROCESS VARIABLES

Bourdon’s Tube Pressure

Gauge.

55
PROCESS VARIABLES
Basic Principle of Bourdon tube
pressure gauge:
when an elastic transducer
(bourdon tube in this case ) is
subjected to a pressure, it
defects. This deflection is
proportional to the applied
pressure when calibrated.
56
PROCESS VARIABLES
Main parts of Bourdon tube
pressure gauge:
The bourdon tube(An elastic
transducer) which is fixed and
open at one end to receive the
pressure which is to be
measured. The other end of the
bourdon tube is free and closed.
57
PROCESS VARIABLES
Main parts of Bourdon tube
pressure gauge:
The cross-section of the
bourdon tube is elliptical. The
bourdon tube in a bent form
look like a circular arc. To the
free end of the bourdon tube is
attached an adjustable link,
58
PROCESS VARIABLES
Main parts of Bourdon tube
pressure gauge:
which is in turn connected to a
sector and pinion as shown in
diagram. To the shaft of the
pinion is connected a pointer
which sweeps over a pressure
calibrated scale.
59
PROCESS VARIABLES
Operation of Bourdon tube:
The pressure to be measured is
connected to the fixed open end
of the bourdon tube. The
applied pressure acts on the
inner walls of the bourdon tube

60
PROCESS VARIABLES
Operation of Bourdon tube:
Due to the applied pressure, the
bourdon tube tends to change
in cross – section from elliptical
to circular. This tends to
straighten the bourdon tube
causing a displacement of the
free end of the bourdon tube.
61
PROCESS VARIABLES
Operation of Bourdon tube:
This displacement of the free
closed end of the bourdon tube is
proportional to the applied
pressure. As the free end of the
bourdon tube is connected to a
link – section – pinion
arrangement, the displacement is
amplified and converted to a
rotary motion of the pinion.
62
PROCESS VARIABLES
Operation of Bourdon tube:
As the pinion rotates, it makes
the pointer to assume a new
position on a pressure
calibrated scale to indicate the
applied pressure directly. As the
pressure in the case containing
the bourdon tube is usually
atmospheric, the pointer
indicates gauge pressure.
63
PROCESS VARIABLES
Applications of Bourdon Tube
pressure gauge:
They are used to measure
medium to very high pressures.

64
PROCESS VARIABLES
Advantages of Bourdon tube pressure gauge:
These Bourdon tube pressure gauges give
accurate results.
Bourdon tube cost low.
Bourdon tube are simple in construction.
They can be modified to give electrical
outputs.
They are safe even for high pressure
measurement.
Accuracy is high especially at high
pressures.
65
PROCESS VARIABLES
Limitations of bourdon tube pressure gauge:
They respond slowly to changes in
pressure
They are subjected to hysteresis.
They are sensitive to shocks and
vibrations.
Amplification is a must as the
displacement of the free end of the
bourdon tube is low.
It cannot be used for precision
measurement.

66
Capacitance Pressure Sensor

67
Capacitance Pressure Sensor
A capacitance pressure sensor is
basically a large capacitor formed by
one fixed plate and one movable plate
linked to the mechanical output of a
diaphragm (via fill fluid). Between the
plates is a dielectric material. The
sensor also has an oscillator circuit to
energize the capacitor and a
capacitance detector circuit.
68
Capacitance Pressure Sensor
When the capacitor is energized,
changes in pressure at the process
diaphragm are hydraulically
transferred to the moveable plate
causing the distance between the
plates to change. This change in
distance changes the capacitance
between the plates.
69
Capacitance Pressure Sensor

The capacitance detector

circuit senses the change in
capacitance. The circuitry in
the sensor is characterized to
know that a Y change in
capacitance equals an X
change in pressure.
70
Capacitance Pressure Sensor
The output signal from this type of
sensor is small and analog. The
capacitance detector circuits are
carefully designed to weed out the
effects of stray capacitance. Being
an analog signal, an A/D convertor
is used to convert the signal to
digital, to be used by the
transmitters’ process circuitry.
71
Capacitance Pressure Sensor
Advantages
Good low pressure performance
Good vacuum range performance

72
Capacitance Pressure Sensor
Disadvantages
Electronically complex
Measures only one process variable
 Produces an analog output signal
(requires A/D converter)
 Low signal-to-noise ratio
 Does not handle overpressure events
well
It is a passive sensor

73
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor

74
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
This sensor type uses Piezoresistive
Effect to measure pressure. First
discovered by Lord Kelvin in 1856,
Piezoresistive Effect states that the
resistance of a semiconductor
changes as mechanical stress
changes. This mechanical stress is
caused by process pressure changes.
75
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
During operation, changes in
pressure at the process diaphragm
are hydraulically transferred via
fill fluid to the sensor diaphragm.
The circuitry in the sensor is
characterized to know that a Y
change in resistance equals an X
change in pressure
76
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor

Although there are different

types of semiconductors that
can be used, a single crystal
silicon is the most widely used
due to its excellent
performance.

77
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor

These sensors use four

piezoresistors that are
connected to form a
Wheatstone Bridge circuit to
maximize the output of
the sensor and to reduce
sensitivity errors.
78
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor

The output signal from this

type of sensor is analog, so an
A/D convertor must be used
to convert the signal to digital
format to be used by the
transmitters’ process circuitry.

79
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor

Advantages
Good response time
Easy to manufacture

80
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor

Disadvantages
Negatively affected by high
temperature
Negatively affected by high
static pressures
Measures only one process
variable
81
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor

Disadvantages
Produces an analog output
signal(requires A/D converter)
Does not handle
overpressure events well
Low signal-to-noise ratio
82
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor

Disadvantages
Does not have a
temperature sensor for
temperature compensation
(RTD must be located outside
the sensor)
 It is a passive sensor
83
Silicon Resonant Sensor

84
Silicon Resonant Sensor
Silicon resonant sensors are
fabricated from a single crystal
silicon using 3D semi-conductor
micromachining techniques. Two
“H” shaped resonators are
patterned on the sensor, each
operating at a high frequency
output
85
Silicon Resonant Sensor
As pressure is applied, the bridges
are simultaneously stressed, one in
compression and one in tension.
The resulting change in resonant
frequency produces a high
differential output (kHz) directly
proportional to the applied
pressure.
86
Silicon Resonant Sensor
This simple time-based function
is managed by a microprocessor.
The microprocessor can receive
the digital signal directly from
the sensor without having to
go through an A/D converter.

87
Silicon Resonant Sensor

This improves the overall

accuracy of the transmitter
since, though small, there
is a certain probability for
error in each stage of
conversion.
88
Silicon Resonant Sensor

In a DP application, the
microprocessor can also use
the two frequencies to
determine the Static Pressure.
Therefore, this sensor can
measure two different process
attributes with a single sensor.
89
Silicon Resonant Sensor

Advantages
Very stable repeatable
output (eliminating
hysteresis)
Highly accurate output
 Total digital signal
90
Silicon Resonant Sensor
Advantages
Very low temperature effect
 High signal-to-noise ratio
 Temperature sensor build into
sensor
 Predictable
It is an active sensor
91
Silicon Resonant Sensor
Disadvantages
Relatively expensive to
manufacture.
Cannot be used on ‘hot’ side
of the process.

92
FLOW MEASUREMENT

93
FLOW MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
Flow is one of the most
commonly monitored and
measured process variables in a
process industries. Accurate flow
measurement ensures that the
proper amount of substance are
being produced or used.
94
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
The technologies used to
monitored and measured flow
can vary from simple devices
that provides local indication to
complex instruments that
analyze and provide input
information to process control
system
95
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION

The measurement of fluid

flow is arguably the single
most complex type of process
variable measurement in all of
industrial instrumentation.
Not only is there a
unfathomable array of
technologies
96
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
one might use to measure fluid
flow – each one with its own
limitations and peculiarities .
Flow is defined as the
movement of liquid or gas from
one point to another. – but the
very nature of the variable itself
lacks a singular definition.
97
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION

Fluid flow may be measured

volumetrically or by mass.In
terms of volumetric flow “Flow”
may refer to (the number of
fluid volumes passing by per
unit time), in terms of mass flow
(the number of fluid mass units
passing by per unit time)
98
FLOW MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
Flowmeters configured to
work with gas or vapor flows
often are unusable on liquid
flows. The dynamic properties
of the fluids themselves
change with flow rates.
99
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
Most flow measurement
technologies cannot achieve
expected measurement linearity
from the maximum rated flow
all the way to zero flow, no
matter how well matched they
might be to the process
application.
100
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
The performance of most
flowmeter technologies
critically depends on proper
installation. One cannot simply
install a flowmeter at any
location in a piping system and
expect it to function as
designed.
101
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
What might be considered
excellent piping layout from
the perspective of process
equipment function and
economy is often poor (at
best) for good flow
measurement.
102
FLOW MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
In many cases the flowmeter
equipment gets installed
improperly and the instrument
technicians have to deal with the
resulting measurement problems
during process unit start-up and
operation.
103
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
Even after a flowmeter has
been properly selected for the
process application and
properly installed in the piping,
problems may arise due to
changes in process fluid
properties (density, viscosity,
conductivity),
104
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION

or the presence of impurities in

the process fluid. Flowmeters are
also subject to far more “wear
and tear” than most other
primary sensing elements, given
the fact that a flowmeter’s
sensing element(s) must lie
directly in the path of potentially
abrasive fluid streams.
105
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION

Given all these complications, it

is imperative for instrumentation
professionals to understand the
complexities of flow
measurement. What matters
most is that you thoroughly
understand the physical
principles upon which each
flowmeter depends .

106
FLOW MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
If the “first principles” of
each technology are
understood, the appropriate
applications and potential
problems become much
easier to recognize and
understand.
107
FLOW MEASUREMENT
IMPORTANCE OF FLOW
MEASUREMENT
Measurement of the flow of a
fluid, either liquid or gas, is
commonly a critical parameter in
many processes. In most
operations this can be linked to
the basic “recipe” of the process
108
FLOW MEASUREMENT

IMPORTANCE OF FLOW
MEASUREMENT
knowing that the right fluid is
at the right place and the right
time. Equally, it can be linked
to asset management

109
FLOW MEASUREMENT
IMPORTANCE OF FLOW
MEASUREMENT
keeping the fluid in motion or even
simple tank balancing. Some
applications, however, require the
ability to conduct accurate flow
measurements to such an extent
that they influence product quality,
Health & Safety.
110
FLOW MEASUREMENT
IMPORTANCE OF FLOW
MEASUREMENT
and ultimately can make the
difference between making a
profit or running at a loss. In
other cases, the inaccurate
measurement of flow, or even
the failure to take such
measurements,
111
FLOW MEASUREMENT

IMPORTANCE OF FLOW
MEASUREMENT
can cause serious or even
disastrous results. Hence flow
measurement is important for
the following reasons,

112
FLOW MEASUREMENT
IMPORTANCE OF FLOW
MEASUREMENT
Provision of vital information
for production planning
Product quality
Control of process operations
Fiscal transfer
Statutory requirement
113
FLOW MEASUREMENT
FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
There are three different flow
quantities that we measure:
The Velocity of the fluid at a
given point (measured in m/s)
The Volume rate of flow
(measured in m3/min)
The mass flow rate (measured
in Kg/s)
114
FLOW MEASUREMENT
TYPES OF FLOW MEASUREMENT
We shall been looking at
four broad types of flow
measuring devices.
1.Pressure based Flow meters
2.Mechanical Flowmeters
3.Electronic Flowmeters.
4.Mass Flowmeters
115
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Gases and liquids prefer to

flow in straight lines. Any
obstruction, which disturbs
the fluid flow path, creates a
differential pressure or
“Head” in the fluid
116
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

By measuring the differential

pressure generated by fluid
flowing through a known
(calibrated) obstruction, the
flowrate can be calculated.

117
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

One of the most commonly
method of measuring flow rate is
the measurement of differential
pressure. In a typical differential
flowmeter arrangement, there
are two elements
118
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

1.The primary element, which is
some type of restriction that is
placed inside the pipe to cause a
difference in pressure and
2. The secondary element which is
usually a differential pressure
transmitter or differential pressure
cell.
119
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

The operation of the DP
Flowmeters are based on the
principle that as fluid flows through
a restriction, its velocity increase
and its pressure decreases, thus the
pressure on the upstream side of
the restriction is higher than the
pressure on the down stream side.
120
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

The flow rate through the
restriction is proportional to the
square root of the differential
pressure across the restriction. The
DP cell measures the difference in
pressure or delta P and converts
the output that can be used by a
signal conditioning equipment to
indicate flow. Delta P = .
121
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

The pipe restriction that was just
described is referred to an orifice
plate. An orifice plate is
essentially a flat plate with a
hole or bore in that is mounted
between flanges in the process
pipe.
122
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Orifice plate

123
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Typical Orifice Installation

124
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Typical Orifice Installation

125
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Typical Orifice Installation
For gas flows, the hole should be
offset downward, so any liquid
droplets or solid particles may
easily pass through.

126
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

For liquid flows, the hole should be
offset upward to allow gas bubbles
to pass through and offset
downward to allow heavy solids to
pass through.

127
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

1.Concentric Orifice plates

128
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Types Orifice plates
1.Concentric.
It is suitable single phase liquid and
gas product in conjuction with
flange tap. where the Reynold
number ranges from 10000 to 10

129
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

2.Segmental Orifice plate

130
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Types Orifice plates
2.Segmental.
It is suitable for fow
measurement of light slurries and
fluid with high concentration of
solids.

131
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Types Orifice plates
2.Segmental.
This avoids build up in front of
the orifice plate. The orifice hole
is placed at the bottom for gas
service and top for liquids.
132
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

3.Eccentric Orifice plate

133
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Types Orifice plates
3.Eccentric.
It is suitable were process
material contains foreign matter
that may block the orifice of a
concentric configuration,
134
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Types Orifice plates
3.Eccentric.
but has higher degree of
uncertainty as compared to
concentric orifice

135
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

4.Quadrant edge Orifice plate

136
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Types Orifice plates
4.Quadrant Edge..
Recommmended for viscous
flow which have reynolds
numbers below 10,000 &
(Reynolds number between 2000 to
10000).
137
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

The shape and location of the bore
in the orifice plate can vary
depending on the type of fluid
being measured. Concentric orifice
plates are the most common. They
are typically used with clean liquids.
Orifice plate are reliable and
138
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

relatively inexpensive but are
subject to erosion. Also they
must be properly installed in
straight piping runs to work
correctly. If the inlet side of an
orifice plate is accidentally
installed falling down an
139
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

accurate flow measurement
cannot be determined. A
primary element that is similar to
an orifice plate is an integral
orifice assembly. It is basically an
orifice plate that is integrated a
DP Transmitter.
140
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Integral orifice assembly are

typically used for small bore
pipe that range from one half
inch to about two inch.

141
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

Vena contracta is the point in

a fluid stream where the
diameter of the stream is the
least, and fluid velocity is at
its maximum

142
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOWMETERS

143
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

Installation requirements for orifice plates

Installation in vertical lines
 Upwards for all liquids
 Downwards for gasses
 No vent or drain hole
required

144
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

Installation requirements for orifice plates

Horizontal lines
All orifice plates to be
provided with a vent or
drain hole
Note corner tappings
always horizontal
145
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

Installation requirements for orifice plates

Position of the transmitter
Under tapping: clean
liquids hot climate
Above tapping: clean
liquids cold climate,
slurries, gasses
146
PRESSURE BASED FLOW MEASUREMENT

Other type of primary element

for pressure based flowmeters
are the Venturi, the Flow
Nozzle, Pitot Tube.

147
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Positive Displacement flowmeters

Volumetric flowrate is basically
the volume of a fluid that is
passing through a pipe during a
given time period, expressed in
units such as cubic meters per
hour or gallons per minute.
148
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Positive Displacement flowmeters

One type of flowmeter that
measures volumetric flowrate is a
positive displacement flowmeter.
The Nutating Disc and the tails
oval Gear meters are examples
of positive displacement meters.
149
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Positive Displacement flowmeters

Nutating Disc Meters

150
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Positive Displacement flowmeters

Nutating Disc Meters

151
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Positive Displacement flowmeters

During operation a positive
displacement meters divides the
flow into individual amount of
know volume. The meter counts
the individual amount multiple
that number by the volume to
determine the total fluid flow.
152
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Positive Displacement flowmeters

It then displays the flow
measurement on a counter or
provide an output signal to a
local indicator or a control
system. Common applications of
positive displacement meters
include batching operations,
153
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Positive Displacement flowmeters

Bleeding processes and custody
transfer. As a general rule ,
positive displacement meters
work best with clean liquids that
have high viscosities, they do not
work well with gases.
154
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeters
A Turbine flowmeter is a type of
mechanical flowmeter that does
work well for measuring the
volumetric flow of gas as well as
clean low viscosity liquids . It is a
velocity based flowmeter, it has
155
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeters
a set of blades that are mounted
on a rotor. The rotors spins
freely in the fluid path. The
rotation of the blades is directly
proportional to the velocity of
the fluid. A pick devices sense
the rotation of the blades.
156
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeters
Different pickup devices are
used, but common a
arrangement used a coil with a
permanent magnet.

157
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeter

158
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeter

159
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeter
As each turbine blade passes
by the pickup devices an
electrical pulse is generated in
the coil. Such pulses represents
a specific volume of fluid.

160
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeter
The electrical pulses are
converted to a frequency output
that is proportional to the flow
rate of the fluid. As with positive
displacement flowmeters, turbine
flowmeters are commonly used
in custody transfer applications .
161
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeter
The are accurate flow measuring
devices that work particularly
well with low viscosity fluids.
They are not recommended for
high viscosity fluids, fluids with
suspended solids or turbulent
flow applications.
162
MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS

Turbine flowmeter
Also turbine flowmeters must be
calibrated for the specific
application and because of the
moving parts, they are
susceptible to wear and damage.

163
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Three types of flowmeters that
use electronics in one way or
another are the Magnetic
flowmeters, vortex flowmeter
and the ultrasonic flowmeters.

164
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
A magnetic flowmeter is
sometimes called electromagnetic
flowmeter or simply magmeter.
The operation of the
Electromagnetic flowmeter is
based on the Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction,
165
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Which basically says that a
voltage will be induced in a
conductor that is moving
through a magnetic field . In a
magnetic flowmeter, the
conductor is the fuild being
measured.
166
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
This of course means that the
magnetic flowmeter can only be
used for fluids that are
electrically conductive. The
magnetic flowmeter consist of a
non magnetic pipe that is lined
with an insulating materials,
167
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
A pair of magnetic coils and a
pair, of electrode that penetrates
the pipe. As the fluid flows
through the pipe the voltage that
is induced is proportional to the
velocity of the flow.
168
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
A transmitter uses the signal from
the magmeter to provide a flow
indication. Magnetic flowmeters
provides measurement without
using obstruction in the fluid path
which makes them suitable for
highly corrosive liquids and slurries.
169
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter

170
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter

171
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Electromagnetic flowmeters are
essentially unaffected by changes
in the fluid properties such as the
temperature, density and
viscosity. But since magmeters
can only be used with fluids that
172
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
They are aren’t suitable for
petroleum based fluid.

173
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Vortex Flowmeter
A vortex flowmeter measures
flow based on the phenomenon
called vortex shedding. Vortex
shedding occurs when a non
streamlined object or “bluff
body” is placed in a fluid flow
path causing the fluid to seperate
174
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Vortex Flowmeter
and form vortices or eddies that
are repeatedly shed on
alternating sides of the body.
The alternating vortices causes
areas of fluctuating pressure. A
sensor inside the vortices
flowmeter detects these pressure
175
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Vortex Flowmeter
Fluctuations and a transmitter
converts that information to an
output that is proportional to
the volumetric flowrate. As with
magmeters, vortex flowmeters
are basically unaffected by the
changes in the fluid temperature,
176
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Vortex Flowmeter
Pressure or density. The usually
cause a minor pressure loss in the
system. But because the
information of the vortices in the
flow, they aren’t suitable for low
flowrate application or high
viscosity fluids.
177
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Vortex Flowmeter
.

178
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter
As the name implies, an ultrasonic
flowmeter uses sound to measure
fluid flowrate. There are basically
two basic types of ultrasonic
flowmeters
The Doppler meter
 The transit time meters

179
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS
Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Doppler
meter.
The relies on a frequency shift know
as the doppler effect. Doppler
flowmeters exploit the Doppler
effect, which is the shifting of
frequency resulting from waves
emitted by or reflected by a moving
object,
180
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Doppler

meter.
Doppler flowmeters bounce sound
waves off of bubbles or particulate
material in the flow stream, measure
the frequency shift, and infer fluid
velocity from the magnitude of that
shift.
181
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Doppler

meter.

182
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Doppler

meter.
During operation a transducer
sends a constant frequency
sound wave into the fluid,
entranced bubbles and
suspended particles in the fluid,
183
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Doppler

meter.
Reflect the sound back to the
transducer. Since the bubbles and
the particles are moving, the
frequency of the reflected wave is
different from the original
frequency. The amount of frequency
184
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Doppler

meter.
Difference is proportional to the
velocity of the fluid, the meter uses
this information to calculate the
flow rate of the fluid. In for the
doppler meter to function properly,
the fluid being measured must have
185
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Doppler

meter.
A certain amount of impurities, such
as entrained bubbles or suspended
particles. The exact amount that are
needed depends on the specific
meter being used. Doppler meters
are often used for fluids like slurries,
186
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Doppler

meter.
Sludge and waste water, clean flow
or those with very low flow rates
won’t adequately reflect the sound
wave.

187
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Transit Time

meter.

188
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Transit Time

meter.
For clean fluids and for fluids with
lower flowrate a “Transit Time
meter is more suitable type of
ultrasonic meter. A typical “Transit
time meter” uses two transducers-
one mounted upstream on one side
189
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Transit Time

meter.
Of the pipe and one mounted
down stream on the other side.
During operation each transducer
transmits a sound wave towards the
other one. The fluid flow slows
down the signal travelling in the
190
ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS

Ultrasonic Flowmeter- Transit Time

meter.
Upstream direction and speed up
the signal travelling in the down
stream. The difference in the transit
time ie the elapsed time between
receipts of the two signals is
proportional to the flowrate of the
fluid.
191
MASS FLOWMETERS

Introduction.
Mass flowmeters measures the mass of
fluid that is moving through a pipe
within a given period of time. The units
of measurements for mass flowrate are
the kilograms per hour, unlike the
volumetric flow, mass flow is not
affected by changes in a fluid
temperature, pressure, density or
viscosity.
192
MASS FLOWMETERS

Introduction
This makes mass flowmeters suitable for
many applications. Two types of
flowmeters that provides mass flow
measurements are
The coriolis and
The thermal flowmeters.

193
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
The operation of the Coriolis flowmeter
is based on an accelerating force know
as the Coriolis effect. The coriolis effect
was discovered by a french
mathematician in the 1800. It is basically
the tendency of any body moving at a
constant speed with respect to the earth
surface to be deflected to the right in
194
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
northern hemisphere. An artificial
version of this inertia effect is created in
a coriolis flowmeter. In a typical
arrangement a transmitter is used to
cause two curved tubes to oscillate up
and down in opposing directions. On
each side leg of one tube is a magnet
and on each side of the opposing tube is
195
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
Is a wire coil.

196
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.

197
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
As the tubes oscillates, a voltage is
generated in each coil and magnet set.
As long as no fluid is flowing through
the tubes the inertial force of the flow
cause the tube to twist or deflect. The
amount of deflection is proportional to
the flowrate of the fluid. The deflection
of the tubes causes the voltage
198
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
Generated by the coil and magnet sets
to go out of phase. A sensor measures
the phase change and provides input
information to the transmitter. The
transmitter processes the information
and provides an output to some type of
flow indicator or control system. The
coriolis flowmeter are among the most
199
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
Accurate flowmeter available, so they
are often used in applications that
requires tight control or precise
measurement. They are typically factory
calibrated for specific needs and are
suitable for measuring a wide variety of
liquids, gases and slurries.

200
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
Every Coriolis flow element is
factory-tested to determine the
flow tubes’ mechanical
properties, then the electronic
transmitter is programmed with
the various constant values
describing those properties.
201
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
This means every Coriolis flowmeter
element (the tube and sensor
assembly) and transmitter (the
electronics package outputting the
process variable signals) are a
matched pair.

202
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
You cannot interchange elements
and transmitters without re-
programming the transmitters
with the new elements’ physical
constant values.

203
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
Coriolis flowmeters are
equipped with RTD
temperature sensors to
continuously monitor the
process fluid temperature.

204
MASS FLOWMETERS

Coriolis Flowmeter.
Fluid temperature is
important to know because it
affects certain properties of
the tubes (e.g. spring constant,
diameter, and length).

205
THERMAL FLOWMETERS

Introduction.
Another type of flowmeter that
measures mass flowrate is the thermal
flowmeter. Basically thermal flowmeter
works on one of the two ways.
1.They either introduce a known
amount of heat into a fluid and
measures the temperature changes that
takes place in the fluid.
206
THERMAL FLOWMETERS

2.Or they measure the amount of

energy needed to maintain a constant
temperature in a probe that is inserted
into the fluid flow.
In a typical arrangement a thermal mass
sensing element that contains two
resistance detector detectors(RTD’s) is
inserted into the fluid flow path, one

207
THERMAL FLOWMETERS

RTD is heated, the other RTD

measures the fluid temperature. The
temperature difference or delta T
between the RTD’s corresponds to
the flow flowrate because they rely
on the thermal properties of a fluid.
Thermal flowmeters are commonly
used with clean , low density gases,
even those of
208
THERMAL FLOWMETERS

low flowrate. They are also

suitable for monitoring and
controlling chemical reaction
processes.

209
THERMAL FLOWMETERS

While coriolis flowmeters and

thermal flowmeter both
measures mass flow directly , it is
also possible to infer a mass flow
using a volumetric flow value.
Basically this involves taking
volumetric flowrate and

210
THERMAL FLOWMETERS

Multiplying that value by the

density of the material.
Ie inferred mass flowrate =
Volumetric flowrate multiply by
the density of the material.

211
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

212
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
Level is one of the most
commonly measured process
variable. The level of a liquid
or solid is the position of that
material surface above or
below a fixed reference point..
213
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
That is the position of the
material’s surface relative to a
reference point. If the reference
point is at the top of the
container, the level measurement
is taken from that point to the
material surface
214
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
The technologies used to
measure level vary from
simple device that provide a
local indication to complex
instruments that analyze and
provide input information to
process control system.
215
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
In some application it may
only be necessary to know
when the level of a material
reaches a certain point while
in other case it may require to
monitor the level
continuously.
216
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
To meet different need of level
measurement , level
measuring devices are
available for “point” level or
“continuous” level
measurement. One example
of a point level measurement
is a level switch
217
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
mounted at a predetermined
point at the point of a tank. As
long as long as level of the
liquid remains below the switch,
the switch is off. But when the
liquid reaches the switch , the
switch turns on and activate
218
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
A high alarm. Since the level
switch only has two output-off
and on. It is referred to as a
discrete device. Example of a
continuous level measurement
is a sight glass. It operates on
the principle that liquid level
equalizes
219
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
in a containers that are
connected together. So the level
that is visible in the glass is the
same as the level in the tank, the
sight glass is direct level
measurement in addition to
being a continuous level
measurement

220
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
Device. The sight glass level
measurement device is as shows below.

221
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
There are basically two broad categories
of level measurement methods
The direct and
The indirect level measurement
methods.
In the direct level method, level changes
are measured either directly while in the
indirect (inferential methods) some
physical or electrical property of the
liquid are measured which can then be
related to its level.
222
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Factors that determines type of level
measurement device selection
1.Type of level measurement required
Point or continuous measurement-
which is more adequate?
2.Can the level be measured directly or
does it need to measured indirectly
using pressure, electrical, conductivity
or some other material property.

223
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

3.The process being monitored

4.Physical characteristics of the
material being monitored
5.Maintenance needs
6.Industrial standard
7.Familarity

224
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

The basic requirement for

level measurement often
depend on the process and
the physical characteristics of
the material being measured,
for instance is the material a
solid or liquid?
225
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Often the temperature,

pressure , PH or toxicity of
the material will limit the
type of instruments that
will be used. Maintenance
is another consideration, if
the instruments fails,.
226
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

will you need to disrupt or

shut down the process to
service/repair the device?
Typically the level
measurement device that is
used should be the standard
type of instrument being used
elsewhere in the industry.
227
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Pressure based level measurement

This method obtains a level
indication indirectly by
monitoring the pressure exerted
by the height of the liquid in the
vessel.

228
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Pressure based level measurement

This is based on the principle
that pressure at the base of a
vessel containing liquid is
directly proportional to the
height of the liquid in the vessel.
This is referred to as hydrostatic
pressure
229
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Pressure based level measurement

As the level in the vessel rises,
the pressure exerted by the
liquid at the base of the vessel
increases linearly.

230
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Pressure based level measurement
Mathematically, P = S⋅H
where
P = Pressure (Pa)
S = Weight density of the liquid (N/m3)
= ρg
H = Height of liquid column (m)
ρ = Density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81
m/s2)
231
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Pressure based level measurement

With installation of Differential
pressure transmitter the level of
liquid inside a tank can be
determined from the pressure
reading if the weight density of
the liquid is constant
232
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Displacement based level

measurement
When a body is immersed or
partly immersed in a liquid, it
loses weight equal to the
liquid weight displaced.

233
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Displacement based level

measurement
This is Archimedes’ principle
which states that a body
immersed in a liquid will be
buoyed up by a force equal to
the weight of the of the liquid it
displaces.
234
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Displacement based level measurement

Displacement based level
measurement is based on
Archimedes’ Principle to detect
liquid level by continuously
measuring the weight of a rod
immersed in the process liquid.

235
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Displacement based level

measurement
As liquid level increases, the
displacer experiences a
greater buoyant force making
it appear lighter

236
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Displacement based level measurement

to the sensing instrument,
which interprets the loss of
weight as an increase in level
and transmits a proportional
output signal.

237
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Displacement based level measurement

238
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Capacitance based level measurement

These devices operate on the
fact that process fluids generally
have dielectric constants,
significantly different from that of
air, which is very close to 1.0.
Oils have dielectric constants
from 1.8 to 5.
239
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Capacitance based level measurement

Pure glycol is 37; aqueous
solutions are between 50 and
80. The Capacitive level
sensors measure the change in
capacitance between two plates
produced by changes in level.
240
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Capacitance based level measurement
This technology requires a
change in capacitance that
varies with the liquid level,
created by either an insulated
rod attached to the transmitter
and the process fluid, or an
uninsulated rod attached to the
transmitter
241
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Capacitance based level measurement

and either the vessel wall or a
reference probe. As the fluid
level rises and fills more of
the space between the plates,
the overall capacitance rises
proportionately..
242
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Capacitance based level measurement

An electronic circuit called a
capacitance bridge measures
the overall capacitance and
provides a continuous level
measurement.

243
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Capacitance based level measurement.

Two versions are available,
one for fluids with high
dielectric constants (A) and
another for those with low
dielectric constants (B)as
shown in the diagram below
244
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Capacitance based level measurement

245
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Echo based level measurement.

Example the Ultrasonic level
transmitter. Ultrasonic level
instrument use the speed of
sound to calculate level by
measuring the distance between
the transducer and the surface
using the time required for an
ultrasound pulse to
246
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Echo based level measurement.

travel from a transducer to
the fluid surface and back
(TOF). The time-of-flight for a
sound pulse indicates this
distance, and is interpreted
by the transmitter electronics
as process level
247
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Echo based level measurement.

These transmitters may
output a signal corresponding
either to the fullness of the
vessel (fillage) or the amount
of empty space remaining at
the top of a vessel (ullage).
248
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Echo based level measurement.

249
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Radar based level measurement

Radar level instruments carry
out level measurement in the
same way as ultrasonic level
instruments by measuring the
time-of-flight of a traveling wave.

250
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Radar based level measurement

The fundamental difference
between a radar instrument and
an ultrasonic instrument is the
type of wave used: radio waves
instead of sound waves. Radio
waves are electromagnetic
251
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Radar based level measurement
in nature (comprised of
alternating electric and
magnetic fields), and very high
frequency (in the microwave
frequency range – GHz). Sound
waves are mechanical
vibrations (transmitted from
molecule to molecule in a fluid
or solid substance)
252
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Radar based level measurement

and of much lower frequency
(tens or hundreds of kilohertz
– still too high for a human
being to detect as a tone)
than radio waves.

253
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Radar based level measurement

Some radar level instruments
use waveguide “probes” to
guide the radio waves into the
process liquid while others
send radio waves out through
open space to reflect off the
process material.
254
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Radar based level measurement

255
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Magnetostrictive based level

measurement.
Magnetostrictive level
transmitters use the speed of a
torsional wave in a wire to
produce a level measurement.

256
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Magnetostrictive based level

measurement.

257
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Magnetostrictive based level

measurement.
In a magnetostrictive level
measurement system the float
carries a series of permanent
magnets. Instead of mechanical

258
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Magnetostrictive based level

measurement.
links, magnetostrictive
transmitters use the speed of a
torsional wave along a wire to
find the float and report its
position.
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LEVEL MEASUREMENT

A sensor wire is connected to a

piezoceramic sensor at the
transmitter and a tension fixture
is attached to the opposite end
of the sensor tube. The tube
either runs through a hole in the
center
260
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

of the float or is adjacent to the

float outside of a nonmagnetic
float chamber. To locate the float,
the transmitter sends a short
current pulse down the sensor
wire, setting up a magnetic field
along its entire length.
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LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Simultaneously, a timing circuit

is triggered ON. The field
interacts immediately with the
field generated by the magnets
in the float. The overall effect is
that during the brief time the
current flows,
262
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

a torsional force is produced in

the wire, much like an ultrasonic
vibration or wave. This force
travels back to the piezoceramic
sensor at a characteristic
speed. When the sensor detects
the torsional wave,
263
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

it produces an electrical signal

that notifies the timing circuit that
the wave has arrived and stops
the timing circuit. The timing
circuit measures the time interval
(TOF) between the start of the
current pulse and the wave's
arrival
264
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

From this information, the float's

location is very precisely
determined and presented as a
level signal by the transmitter.

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LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Key advantages of this

technology are that the signal
speed is known and constant
with process variables such as
temperature and pressure, and
the signal is not affected by
foam, beam divergence, or false
echoes
266
LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Another benefit is that the only

moving part is the float that
rides up and down with the
fluid's surface.

267
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
IMPORTANCE OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT
To compute tank inventories.
To protect equipment such as
columns, compressors, turbines and
pumps from damage.
Protect operating and maintenance
personnel against injury resulting
from hydrocarbon, corrosive of toxic
liquid spillages.
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LEVEL MEASUREMENT
IMPORTANCE OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Protect the environment from

the release of hazardous
process fluid.
Control phase separation
processes and product loading
operations
269
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

270
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
Temperature is fundamentally a
very important variable in process
industries, many process chemical
reactions usually require certain
temperature to occur, some
reaction generate heat that must
be monitored and control.
271
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
Physical changes of state from solid to
liquid, liquid to vapor and back again
also depend on temperature such as
distillation, drying, tempering etc. The
temperature of air and other gases,
fluids, solid and surfaces often has to
be monitored in multiple locations
within the process.
272
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
Temperature is defined as a
measured of the hotness or coldness
of a body and is quoted in terms of
some arbitrary numerical scale.
Heat is not the same as temperature.
The quantity of heat is related not
only to its temperature but also to its
mass and its material composition.

273
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
For process purposes,
temperature is best regarded as
the driving force, which causes
heat energy to flow from a hot
body to a colder one. It is,
therefore, comparable with
electrical potential difference,
274
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
which causes current to flow
along a conductor or to fluid
head, which causes a liquid or
gas to flow along a pipeline from
the high pressure end to the low
pressure end.
275
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Temperature measuring
methods can be classified into
three broad types according to
the specific effect produced by
changes of temperature on the
sensing element of the
instrument.
276
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

ELECTRICAL
Temperature change causes
the sensing element to
generate a voltage, which is
indicated as a temperature on
a calibrated scale as in
thermocouple
277
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

ELECTRICAL
A thermocouple consist of
two dissimilar metals
joined at one end and the
other end connected to a
measuring device. Current
would flow when the
junctions are at different
temperatures.
278
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

ELECTRICAL
This is called the Seebeck
Effect. They provide means
of temperature measurement
by developing a voltage in
response to a change in
temperature.

279
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

ELECTRICAL
The mV output from the
current flow is directly
proportional to the
temperature of the measuring
junction.

280
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

ELECTRICAL
Or Temperature change
causes the sensing
element to generate a
change in Resistance

281
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

ELECTRICAL
which is then measured in an
electrical circuit and finally
indicated as temperature on a
calibrated scale. The sensing
element can be a metal, a
combination of metals or a
semi-conductor.
282
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

ELECTRICAL
Resistive temperature
devices capitalize on the fact
that the electrical resistance
of a material changes as its
temperature changes.

283
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

ELECTRICAL
As their name indicates,
RTDs rely on resistance
change in a metal, with the
resistance rising linearly with
temperature.

284
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

EXPANSION
Temperature change causes
the sensing element to
expand or contract thus
producing a force, which can
mechanically move an
indicator on a temperature
scale. The sensing element
can be mercury
285
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

EXPANSION
a metal, a combination of
different metals, a liquid or
a combination of liquid and
its vapour or a gas.

286
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
RADIATION
The sensing element measures
the visible radiation emitted
from a glowing hot body,
matches it optically with a
variable intensity source of light
and converts the reading into a
voltage which is indicated on a
temperature scale.
287
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

RADIATION
Radiation instruments have
somewhat limited and
specialized applications, for
example in furnace and gas
turbine, combustion chamber
temperature measurements.
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TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

This is where we stop due time

constrain, the remaining
complete training(temperature
measurement) will be taken care
of in subsequent training.

289