FRICTION

Whenever there is a contact between two mating surfaces, a tangential force is developed by
virtue of the roughness of the surfaces that always act opposite to the direction of motion; this resisting
force is called friction force

Dry Friction: This type of friction is encountered between the surfaces of two rigid bodies when there
exists a sliding motion or there is a tendency of motion in the absence of any oil or lubrication in
between. It is also called Coulomb friction

The dry friction is present even if there is no motion, under the condition of impending motion and
when there is motion.

Fluid Friction: Fluid Friction is developed when adjacent layers in a fluid (gas or liquid) are moving at
different velocities. This motion gives rise to frictional forces between fluid elements and such type of
friction is termed as fluid friction.

This flow phenomenon and the friction characteristics depend on several parameters like velocity
gradient, surface roughness of the conduit, viscosity of the fluid, cross-section of the conduit, etc.

MECHANISM OF FRICTION:

Consider a block of weight W resting on a horizontal surface as shown in fig. The contacting
surface possesses a certain amount of roughness. Let P be the horizontal force applied which will vary
continuously from zero to a value sufficient to just move the block and then to maintain the motion. The
free-body diagram of the block shows active forces P and W and reactive forces (normal reaction N and
tangential frictional force F)

Frictional force F has the remarkable property of adjusting itself in magnitude equal to the applied force
P till the limiting equilibrium condition.

LIMITING FRICTIONAL FORCE (Fmax): It is the maximum frictional force developed at the surface
when the block is at the verge of motion or impending motion.
 By composition of forces, the normal reaction N and the frictional force F can be replaced by
their resultant R. The block is therefore in equilibrium under the action of three intersecting coplanar
forces W, P and R. Thus the number of forces acting on the block is now reduced from 4 to 3. Hence
these forces will form a closed triangle.

By experimental evidence it is proved that limiting frictional force is directly proportional to normal
reaction

It is interesting to note that experimental results show that the magnitude of limiting friction
Fmax bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction N between the two surfaces and this ratio is called
coefficient of Friction (m).

Thus mathematically, µ = F Nmax.

Further from Fig. tan (Øs) = F Nmax . Thus tan (Øs) = µ.

 So, the coefficient of friction is equal to the tangent of the angle between the normal reaction
and the resultant. This angle Øs is called angle of limiting friction or angle of static friction.

This observation leads to the conclusion that when ɵ assumes its maximum value = Ø,
F becomes Fmax, which corresponds to the condition of limiting friction.

Thus Fmax = µs N. ms is called coefficient of static friction. Its value is less than 1 and for common
materials its range varies between 0.2 and 0.5.

Once the block attains its motion due to further increase in P, the friction force is found to be
lower than that of its static counterpart. However, it still maintains proportionality with the normal
reaction.

Under such condition, friction force is quantified by F k = µk N, where µk is called coefficient of

kinetic friction and µk = tan Øk. Angle Øk is called angle of kinetic friction.

The value of friction force Øk remains more or less constant over a wide range until the block
attains reasonably high velocity, when it drops marginally.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY FRICTION

As a result of experiments that pertain to the foregoing discussion, the following rules which apply to
bodies subjected to dry friction may be stated:

1. The frictional force acts tangent to the contacting surfaces in a direction opposed to the relative
motion or tendency for motion of one surface against another.
2. The maximum static frictional force Fs that can be developed is independent of the area of
contact, provided the normal pressure is not very low nor great enough to severely deform or
crush the contacting surfaces of the bodies.
3. The force of friction depends upon the materials and the degree of roughness/smoothness
of the surfaces.
4. Till the condition of limiting friction is satisfied, the magnitude of friction is exactly equal
to the force which tends to move the body
5. The maximum static frictional force is generally greater than the kinetic frictional force Fk for any
two surfaces of contact. However, if one of the bodies is moving with a very low velocity over
the surface of another, Fk becomes approximately equal to Fs i.e. μs ≈ μk.
6. When slipping at the surface of contact is impending (about to occur), the maximum static
frictional force is proportional to the normal force N, such that Fs = μsN.
7. When slipping at the surface of contact is occurring, the kinetic frictional force is proportional to
the normal force N, such that Fk = μkN.
 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF AREAS

CENTRE OF GRAVITY: It is the point where the total weight of the body can be assumed
to be concentrated.
CENTRE OF MASS: It is the point where the entire mass of the body can be assumed
to be concentrated.
CENTROID: It is the point where the entire area can be assumed to be concentrated.
It is considered as the geometrical centre of the area.
 The first moment of area about its centrid is equal to the algebraic sum of the
moments of elemental areas about the same point

 The first moment of area about its centrid is equal to zero ( ∫ x dA=0,

∫ y dA=0 ) where x and y are the distances from thecetroid to the elemntal
areas.
For the bodies which are symmetric, homogenious and subjected to same
gravitational force, all these central points, Centre of Gravity, Centre of Mass and
Centroid are identical (same).
PAPPUS – GULDINUS FIRST THEOREM:
The area of a surface of revolution is equal to the length of the generating curve times
the distance travelled by the centroid of the generating curve while the surface is
generated.
PAPPUS – GULDINUS SECOND THEOREM:
The volume of a body of revolution is equal to the generating area times the distance
travelled by the centroid of the area while the body is generated.

MOMENT OF INERTIA

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A BODY: The concept which gives a quantitative estimate of

the relative distribution of area and mass of a body with respect to some reference axis
is termed as the moment of inertia of a body.
AREA MOMENT OF INERTIA: The moment of inertia of an area is called the area
moment of inertia or the second moment of area.
MASS MOMENT OF INERTIA: The moment of inertia of a mass of the body is called the
mass moment of inertia.
RADIUS OF GYRATION: It is defined as the distance from the reference axis at which the
given area is assumed to be compressed and kept as a thin strip, such that there is no
change in its moment of inertia.

In SI system, the moment of inertia has unit of m4.

PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM: It states that the moment of inertia of an area with
respect to an axis perpendicular to the x-y plane and passing through origin will be equal
to the sum of moment of inertia of the same area about x-x and y-y axis.
It is also termed as the polar moment of inertia.

PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM: It states that the moment of inertia of a plane area with
respect to any reference axis in its plane is equal to the sum of moment of inertia w.r.t.
a parallel centroidal axis and product of the total area and the square of the distance
between the two axes.
IAB = ICG + Ah2
Where, IAB = Moment of inertia of the given area about any axis AB
ICG = Moment of inertia of the given area about its centroidal axis
h = Distance between Axis AB and the centroidal axis
8.

9.
 KINEMATICS

KINEMATICS: It is the study of the motion of the bodies without reference to the cause of the
motion
KINETICS: It is the study of the relation existing between the forces acting on a body, the
mass of the body, and the motion of the body.

The motion of the body can be classified based on (a) Nature of the Motion
(b) Dimensionality of the Motion
Classification based on (a) Nature of the Motion:

Classification based on (b) Dimensionality of the Motion:

DISPLACEMENT: It is the shortest distance between the initial and final position of the particle or
rigid body.
It is a vector quantity. Its units are metres (m) in S.I. System
VELOCITY: The rate of change of displacement with respect to time is called velocity.
It is a vector quantity. Its units are metres per second (m/s) in S.I. System
If s is the displacement in time t, then the average velocity
s
v=
t

ACCELERATION: The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called acceleration.
It is a vector quantity. Its units are metres per Second Square (m/s2) in S.I. System
If dv is the change in velocity in time dt, then the acceleration
dv
a=
dt

UNIFORM VELOCITY: If a body undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time then the
body is said to have uniform velocity (constant velocity)
The body undergoing uniform velocity does not have any acceleration.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION:

Where, u = initial velocity

V = final velocity
t = time
s = displacement
a = uniform acceleration