MODULE I: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

The cell: the basic unit of life, Structure, andfunctionsofacell.ThePlantCelland animal cell,
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells, Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules:PropertiesandfunctionsofCarbohydrates,Nucleicacids,proteins,lipids.Importanceofspecia
lbiomolecules; Enzymes (Classification (with one example each), Properties and functions), vitamins,
and hormones.
THE CELL
The cell is the basic unit of Life. The cell provides minimum requirements to perform essential
life properties such as organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movements, and reproduction to
live independently. Hence, it ensures
1. Independent existence
2. Performing the vital functions of life.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek a Dutch microbiologist first observed cell. Robert Brown later
discovered the nucleus. The invention of the microscope and its improvement led to the electron
microscope revealing structural details of the cell.
Cells are built from Biomolecules such as carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic acids. They
exhibit variations in their size (In the Human body,theLargestcellistheovumandthesmallestcell is the
sperm), shape (round, spherical or elongated), life span (white blood cells only liveforabout 13 days,
whereas red blood cells live for about 120 days) and function (Organ specific). Cells that have a
similar structure and function form tissues. A cell can form a whole organism as in unicellulars like
bacteria, or it may be part of the multicellulars like Humans.

Forpreliminaryreference
CELL THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE:
Celltheory is ascientific theory thatstates that allliving organisms aremade of cells.
17th century onwards many curious scientists kept on observing diverse groups of organisms. The
three major contributions brought a comprehensive understanding that Cells act as a basic unit oflife.
They are listed as follows
a. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined many plants and observed thatall
plants are composed of different kinds of cells that form the plant tissues.
b. Theodore Schwann (1839), a British Zoologist, studied different types of animal cells
andreported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as the ‘plasma membrane’.
c. RudolfVirchow(1855)firstexplainedthatcellsdivideandnewcellsareformedfrom pre-existing
cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
Their discoveries led to the formulation of the ‘Cell Theory’.
The three important points of the modified cell theory are as follows:
1. Thecell is the basic functional and structural unit of all living organisms.
2. Alllivingorganismsare madeupof cells.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL
Understandingcellstructureandfunctionsiskeytounderstandinglifeprocesses. Structure:
1. Plasma Membrane: Surrounds the cell, regulating the passage of substances.
2. Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell, containing organelles.
3. Nucleus: Houses genetic material (DNA), controlling cell activities.
 4. Organelles:Specialized structures:
a. Endoplasmic Reticulum:Involved
in protein and lipid metabolism.
b. GolgiApparatus:Modifies, sorts,
and packages molecules.
c. Mitochondria:Generatesenergy
through respiration.
d. Lysosomes:Breakdownwaste
materials.
e. Ribosomes: Sites of protein
synthesis.
f. Centrioles (in animals): Assist in cell division.
g. Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and aids in cell movement.
Functions:
1. Respiration:ConvertsglucoseintoATPforenergy.
2. ProteinSynthesis:Translatesgeneticinformationintoproteins.
3. Storage and Processing: Synthesizes, modifies, and transports molecules.
4. Cellular Communication: Signals between cells via various molecules.
5. WasteManagement:Breaksdownandrecyclescellular waste.

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6. CellDivision:Replicatescellsforgrowth,repair,andreproduction.
7. Movement: Supports cell movement and shape changes.
PROKARYOTICANDEUKARYOTICCELLS
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are two major types of cells, each with distinct characteristics.
Though they perform functions of life, structurallyandEvolutionarilytheydiffer.Understandingthe
differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is essential in studyingthediversityoflifeand the
complexity of cellular organization and functions.
Prokaryotic Cells: Prokaryotic cells, the ancestral and less evolved cellular form, constitute
organisms known asProkaryotes.ExamplesincludeBacteria,Blue-greenalgae,Mycoplasma,and
PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms). They possess several unique characteristics:
Size and Multiplication Rate: Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and replicate more rapidly
than eukaryotic cells.
Cellular Organization: Despite their diverseshapesandfunctions,prokaryotesshareafundamental
cellular organization. Bacterial shapes range from bacillus (rod-like), coccus (spherical), and vibrio
(comma-shaped), to spirillum (spiral).
CellWall:AllprokaryotesexceptMycoplasmahaveacellwallsurroundingthecellmembrane.
Cytoplasm: The fluid matrix within prokaryotic cells is called cytoplasm.
Nucleus: Prokaryotes lack a well-defined nucleus; their genetic material is naked, not enclosed
within a nuclear membrane.
Plasmids: Besides genomic DNA, many bacteria carry small circular DNA molecules called
plasmids, conferring unique phenotypic traits like antibiotic resistance.
Organelles: Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles except for ribosomes, which are
associated with the cell's plasma membrane.
Ribosomes: Prokaryotic ribosomes are of 70S type, comprising 50S and 30S subunits.Theyarethe
sites of protein synthesis and can form chains called polyribosomes or polysomes.
Reserve Materials: Prokaryotic cells store reserve materials in inclusion bodies within the
cytoplasm, such as phosphate, cyanophycean, and glycogen granules. Gas vacuoles are also present
in some photosynthetic bacteria.
Mesosomes: A specialized form of cell membrane, mesosomes, are characteristic of prokaryotes.
These extensions aid in cell wall formation, DNA replication, distribution to daughter cells,
respiration, and secretion processes. In cyanobacteria, chromatophores are membranous extensions
containing pigments.
Understanding the unique features of prokaryotic cells provides insight into their functions and
evolutionary significance.
Eukaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells and are found in
organismsbelonging to the domain Eukarya which includes all the protists, plants, animals and fungi.
Here's an account of their structure:
1. Nucleus: Enclosed within a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. Contains genetic
material (DNA) organized into linear chromosomes. The nucleolus within the nucleus is the site of
ribosome synthesis. Nuclear Pores are openings in the nuclear envelope that control the passage of

Forpreliminaryreference
molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
2. Cell Membrane: Surrounds the cell, regulating the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
Composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
3. Cytoplasm:Jelly-likesubstance fillingthe cell,containing organellesand cytosol.
4. Organelles:
● Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
○ Rough ER studded with ribosomes involved in protein synthesis.
○ Smooth ER is involved in lipid metabolism and detoxification.
● Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipidsforsecretionordelivery to
other parts of the cell.
● Mitochondria:Powerhouseof thecell, generatingenergy throughcellular respiration.
● Lysosomes:Containenzymesforintracellulardigestionandwasteremoval.
● Ribosomes:Siteofproteinsynthesis,foundfreeinthecytoplasmorattachedtothe endoplasmic
reticulum. They are of 80S type; made of two subunits - 60S and 40S units.
● Chloroplasts(inplant cells):Siteof photosynthesis,containing chlorophyll.
● Vacuoles(inplantandfungalcells):Storewater,nutrients,andwasteproducts.
5. Cytoskeleton:Networkofproteinfilamentsprovidingstructuralsupport,aidingincellmovement, and
facilitating intracellular transport.
6. CellWall(inplant,fungal,andsomeprotistcells):Rigidstructureoutsidethecellmembrane, providing
support and protection.
7. Centrioles (in animal cells): Involved in cell division, forming the spindle fibers during mitosis.
8. Flagella and Cilia: Extensions of the cellmembraneinvolvedincellmovementorthemovement of
the surrounding fluid.
9. Inclusions: Storage granules containing reserve materials such as starch, glycogen, or lipids.
10. SpecializedJunctions(inanimalcells):Tightjunctions,desmosomes,andgapjunctions facilitate
cell-to-cell adhesion and communication.
Eukaryoticcellstructureishighlyorganizedandcompartmentalized,allowingfordiverseand specialized
functions necessary for the survival and functioning of complex multicellular organisms. Differences
between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Forpreliminaryreference
Feature ProkaryoticCell Eukaryotic Cell

Nucleus Absent Present

Naked DNA dispersed in the Enclosed within a nuclear

Genetic Material
cytoplasm (nucleoid region) envelope

Contain membrane-bound
Organelles Lack membrane-bound organelles
organelles

Size Generally smaller and simpler Largerandmorecomplex

Examples Bacteria, Archaea Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists

Ribosomes 70S type 80S type

Present in most, except Present in plants, fungi, and some

CellWall
Mycoplasma protists

Membrane Complex lipid bilayer with

Simple lipid bilayer
Structure embedded proteins
 Mitosis (for somatic cells)or
Division Binary fission
meiosis (for gametes)

Asexual reproduction through Asexual (e.g., budding inyeast)or

Reproduction
binary fission sexual reproduction

Present, providing structural

Cytoskeleton Absent or simpler
support and cell shape

Examples of Bacillus(rod),Coccus (spherical), Morediverseshapes,including

Shapes Spirillum (spiral) spherical, elongated, etc.

THE PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

Both plant and Animal cells are Eukaryotic cells. Their comparative analysis is as follows

Organelle Function Plant Cell Animal Cell

Regulatespassageof
Cell Membrane Present Present
substances in and out

Provides structural support Pre sent

For prelim ina ry ref erence

CellWall Ab sen t
(madeofcellulose)
andprotection

Storesgeneticinformation and
Nucleus Present Present
controls activity

Chloroplasts Site of photosynthesis Present Absent

Storeswater,nutrients,and Present
Central Vacuole Small or absent
waste products (largeandpermanent)

Generatesenergythrough
Mitochondria Present Present
cellular respiration

Endoplasmic Involvedinproteinandlipid Present Present

Reticulum(ER) metabolism (rough&smoothER) (rough&smoothER)

Modifies,sorts,andpackages
Golgi Apparatus Present Present
proteins and lipids

Containsenzymesfor
Lysosomes Rarely present Commonly present
intracellular digestion

Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis Present Present

 Breaks down fatty acids and
Peroxisomes Present Present
detoxifies harmful substances

Present Present
Provides structural support
Cytoskeleton (microtubules, (microtubules,
andfacilitatescellmovement
microfilaments) microfilaments)

Centrioles Involved in cell division Absent Present

Present Present
Storeswater,nutrients,and
Vacuoles (small (small
waste products
membrane-boundsacs) membrane-boundsacs)

Facilitatescell-to-cell
Plasmodesmata Present Absent
communication

Channelsbetweenanimal cells
Gap Junctions Absent Present

Formsimpermeablebarriers
TightJunctions Absent Present
between cells

Forpreliminaryreference

DifferencesbetweenPlantandAnimalCells

Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell

CellWall Present, composed of cellulose Absent

Chloroplasts Present, site of photosynthesis Absent

 Central Vacuole Present,largeandpermanent Small or absent

Shape Often rectangular or polygonal Variable,roundorirregularinshape

Centrioles Absent Present, involved in cell division

Oftencontainstarchgranules or May contain glycogen granules orlipid

Storage Organelles
plastids droplets

Lysosomes Rarely present Commonly present

Plantcellsmayhaveflagella or
Movement Structures Animal cells have flagella or cilia
cilia

Plasmodesmata facilitate Gap junctions or tight junctions

Specialized Organelles
cell-to-cell communication facilitate cell-to-cell communication

STEM CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATION

StemCells:Stemcellsareundifferentiatedcellswiththeremarkableabilitytodifferentiateinto specialized
cell types. They possess two main characteristics:
1. Self-Renewal:Theabilitytodivideandproducemorestemcells,maintaininga renewable source
for further differentiation.

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2. Differentiation:Thepotentialtodifferentiateintovariouscelltypesdependingontheir environment
and the signals they receive.
Stemcellsare classifiedbasedon theirpotencyor potentialtodifferentiate intodifferentcell types:
1. Totipotent:Candifferentiateintoallcelltypes,includingembryonicandextraembryonic tissues.
Examples include cells in the early embryo.
2. Pluripotent:Candifferentiateintocellsofallthreegermlayers:ectoderm,endoderm,and mesoderm.
Examples include embryonic stem cells (ESCs).
3. Multipotent: Can differentiate into a limited range of cell types withinaparticularlineageor
tissue. Examples include adult stem cells.
Applications of Stem Cells:
Stem cells hold immense potential forengineeringapplicationsduetotheiruniqueproperties.Here's how
stem cells are utilized in engineering:
Application Description

Stemcellscombinedwithbiomaterialscanengineertissuesandorgans for
transplantation. This approach holds promise for creating replacement
TissueEngineering
tissues and organs, addressing the shortage of donor organs, and
reducing the risk of rejection.

Biomaterial Stemcellscanbeintegratedintovariousbiomaterialscaffolds,
Integration providingaplatformfortissueregenerationandrepair.Engineers
 design and optimize these scaffolds to mimic the natural
microenvironment and guide stem cell differentiation.

Stem cell-based bioprinting involves the precise deposition of stem

cells and biomaterials to create complex three-dimensional structures.
Bioprinting
This technology enables the fabrication of tissue constructs with
defined architectures, suitable for transplantation.

Stem cell-based models can be used for drug screening and

development, providing a more accurate representation of human
DrugScreeningand
biology than traditional cell lines. Engineers develop high-throughput
Development
platforms for screening potential drugs and assessing their safety and
efficacy.

Engineers design stem cell-based gene delivery systems for gene

therapy applications. Stem cells can serve as vectors for delivering
Gene Therapy
therapeutic genes to target tissues, offering potential treatments for
genetic disorders and other diseases.

Stemcellsareusedtomodeldiseasesinthelaboratory,providing

el iminar y referenc e
insights intodiseasemechanismsand testing personalizedtherapies.
Engineersdevelopsophisticatedplatformsforculturing and analyzing

For pr
Disease Modeling stemcells, facilitating disease modeling and drug discovery.

Stem cells exist in embryonic tissues as well as adult or fetal tissues such as bone marrow (bone
marrow stem cells, BMSCs), fat (adipose-derived stem cells,ADSCs),dentalpulp(dentalpulpstem
cells, DPSCs), blood (hematopoietic stem cells, HSCs), amniotic fluid (amniotic fluid stem cells,
AFSCs), umbilical cord (umbilical cord stem cells, UCSCs) and even other tissues. Stemcellsarea
class of undifferentiated cells with high potential for self-renewal, proliferation, and mono- or
multidirectional differentiation. A totipotent stem cell (asinglefertilizedegg)candevelopintomore than
250 cell types (depending on the definition of cell types) throughout human or animal life.
Organisms persist as a resultofcell-cellrenewalandcontinuousgrowththroughthedivisionofstem
cells.Humanstemcellscanspontaneously(orbeinducedto)causeregenerationinthecaseofinjury, aging,
and deletion to maintain the function of tissues and organs and thus maintain the regular operation of
the entire organism.
Regenerativemedicineusingstemcellsisoneof the most remarkable fields in the life sciences of the
21st century. Stem cells have great scientific significance and excellent practical application
prospects in medical technology innovation. The study of stem cell proliferation, differentiation,
migration, and signal transduction can contribute to the trauma repair and regeneration of body
tissues, leading to the discovery of new ways to promote the self-repair and renewal of patients.
Ultimately, the use of stem cells to build new tissues and organs for restorative treatment of organ
injury and diseases has been achieved.
In addition to drugs and surgery, regenerative medicine, with stem cell therapy as the core
technology, is becoming a new disease treatment option. The field of regenerative medicine using
stem cells needs to be advanced by fundamental knowledge of molecular biology, cell biology,
developmental biology, information science, and systems biology. What factors initiate the
regeneration of tissues? What factors inhibitregeneration?Wheredostemcellscomefrom?Howdo stem
cells proliferate,migratetoaspecifiedlocation,anddifferentiateintospecifictissuecells?How are these
mechanisms different from those of fibrosis? Regenerative medicine explores these regenerative
mechanisms to treat tissue damage,stimulatefunctionalregeneration,andrepairtissues and organs that
cannot spontaneously regenerate or have low regenerative capacity.
The repair and reconstruction of missing or dysfunctional tissues and organs are still significant
problems in biomedicine. The clinical approach is mainly to use surgery for organ transplantation.
Although autologous transplantation is not immunogenic, such organ transplantation surgeries are
costly and essentially repair damage at the cost of further injury. Allogeneic transplantation is
immunogenic and there is a limited organ source. The immune response to xenografts is high, and
xenogenic tissues and organs are at risk of carrying viruses or other pathogenic microorganisms.
Artificial alternatives made of mechanical, electronic, and physical materials also have significant
defects, such as poorbiocompatibilityandshortlifespan.Artificialtissuesandorgansregeneratedby
tissueengineering techniques using stem cells, which have structures and functions similar to those of
natural tissues and organs, may solvetheseproblemstoalargeextent.Therefore,itispossiblefor stem cell

Forpreliminaryreference
tissue engineering to promotethetransformationoforgantransplantationtechnologyinthe future.
Stem cells are currently the ideal seeding cells for tissue engineering. Stem cells can theoretically
induce, differentiate, and grow into any kind of human cell, tissue, or organ under artificial
conditions through histological engineering techniques. With the increasing maturity of stem cell
transplantation technology, the use of stem cells in vivo will surely advance regenerative medicine
and the regeneration and repair of tissues and organs.
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules, also known as biological molecules, are chemical compounds found in living
organisms that are essential for the survival of living cells and all life processes. They are the
building blocks of life and perform important functions in living organisms, such as reproduction,
growth,andsustenance.Biomoleculesincludelargemacromoleculessuchasproteins,carbohydrates,
lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small molecules such as vitamins and hormones.
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that serve as essential macronutrients and
biomolecules in living organisms. They consist of carbon, hydrogen, andoxygenatoms,typicallyina
ratio of 1:2:1, respectively. The term "carbohydrate" originates from the chemical formula Cn(H 2O)n,
reflecting this composition.
Carbohydrates play diverse roles in biological systems. They serve as a primary source of energy,
providing fuel for cellular processes through processes like glycolysis and cellular respiration.
Additionally, carbohydrates contribute to structural support in organisms, forming components ofcell
walls, exoskeletons, and connective tissues.
These molecules vary in complexity, ranging from simple sugars such as glucose and fructose to
complex polysaccharides like starch and cellulose. Monosaccharides, the simplest form of
carbohydrates, can combine to form disaccharides and polysaccharides through dehydrationsynthesis
reactions.
In addition to their roles in energy metabolism and structure, carbohydratesplaycrucialrolesincell
signalling, recognition, and adhesion processes. For example, they serve as recognition markers on
cell surfaces and participate in the immune response.
Overall, carbohydrates are fundamental to life, contributing to various biological functions and
serving as key components of the diet in both plants and animals.
Propertiesof Carbohydrates

Property Description

Chemical Composedofcarbon,hydrogen,andoxygenatomsinaratioof1:2:1,
Composition respectively.

Structure Consists of chains or rings of sugar molecules.

Dividedintothreemaingroups:monosaccharides,disaccharides,and
Types
polysaccharides.

For preliminary referenc e

Mostcarbohydratesaresolublein water dueto theirhydrophilicnature,except
Sol ubility for some larger polysaccharides.

Monosaccharidesanddisaccharidesaregenerallysweet-tasting,while
Sweetness
polysaccharides are not.

The primary source of energy for living organisms, providing 4 calories

EnergySource
per gram upon digestion.

Storage Storedas glycogenin animalsand as starchin plantsfor energy reserves.

Structural Actasbuildingblocksforcellwallsinplants(cellulose)andexoskeletons in
Function arthropods (chitin).

Biological Essential for cellular processes such as metabolism, cell signalling,

Significance andimmune system functioning.

Functions of Carbohydrates

Function Description

Carbohydrates serve as the primary source of energy for the body,

EnergySource providing fuel for various physiological processes. Glucose, derived from
carbohydrates, is particularly vital for brain function and muscle activity.
 In organisms, carbohydrates play a crucial role in providing structural
Structural support. Forinstance,cellulose,acomplexcarbohydratefoundinplantcell
Support walls, offers rigidity and strength, contributing to the overall structural
integrity of plants.

Carbohydrates are stored in the body as glycogen intheliverandmuscles.

Storageof When energy demand increases, glycogen is broken down into glucose to
Energy meet the energy requirements, maintaining blood glucose levels within a
normal range.

Dietary fibers, a type of carbohydrate found in plant-based foods, aid in

Facilitate
digestion bypromotingregularbowelmovements,preventingconstipation,
Digestion
and supporting a healthy digestive system.

Carbohydrates on cell surfaces play a crucial role in cell recognition and

Cellular communication. They help cells identify and interact with each other,
Communication facilitating various physiological processes such as immune responsesand
tissue development.

Carbohydratescontributetothetaste,texture,andappearanceoffoods.

For preliminary referenc e

Theyenhancetheflavorof foods,provide sweetness, and contributeto thetextureo
Flavorand
Texture fbakedgoods,makingthempalatableandappealingto
consumers.

Carbohydrates participate in metabolic regulation by influencing insulin

Metabolic secretion andbloodglucoselevels.Maintainingpropercarbohydrateintake and
Regulation metabolism is essential for preventing metabolic disorders such as diabetes.

During physical activity, carbohydrates provide the necessary energy to

sustain muscle contractions and endurance. Athletes often rely on
Fuel for Exercise
carbohydrate-rich foods to fuel their performance and enhance recovery
after exercise.

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, play diverse and fundamental roles in the functioning of
living organisms. As the carriers of genetic information, DNA molecules encode the instructions
required for the development, growth, and reproduction of organisms, while RNA molecules
participate in protein synthesis and gene expression regulation. Beyond their roles in genetic
processes, nucleic acids also contribute to energy transfer through molecules like ATP, catalyze
biochemical reactions as ribozymes, and participate in immune responses and chemical signaling
pathways within cells. Understanding the multifaceted functions of nucleic acids provides insights
into their significance in biological systems and their implications for health and disease.
Nucleic acids possess distinctive properties that contribute to their structural stability, functional
specificity, and biochemicalbehavior.Thepolarityofnucleicacidmolecules,characterizedby5'and 3'
ends, influences their orientationandinteractionswithothermolecules.Thedoublehelixstructure of
DNA provides a stable frameworkforgeneticinformationstorageandtransmission,facilitatedby specific
base pairing rules and hydrogen bonding between complementary nucleotide bases. The acidic
nature of nucleic acids, stemming from phosphate groups, affects their overall charge and molecular
interactions. Additionally, nucleic acids exhibit unique absorbance properties in the UV range,
allowing for their detection and analysis in biochemical assays. Understanding theseproperties is
essential for elucidating the structure-function relationships of nucleic acids and their roles in
biological processes.
PropertiesofNucleicAcids

Property Description

Nucleic acids exhibit polarity, with distinct 5' (five-prime) and 3'(three-prime)ends.
This polarity arises from the orientation of the sugar-phosphate backbone, wherethe
Polarity
5'endcontainsaphosphategroupattachedtothe5'carbonofthesugarmolecule,and the 3'
end terminates with a hydroxyl group on the 3' carbon.

DNA molecules possess a double helix structure, characterized by two

Double complementarypolynucleotidestrands winding aroundeachotherinaright-

For cpereliminary referen

Helix handedmanner.Thisstructureprovidesstabilityandprotectiontothegeneticinformation
Structure
encodedwithintheDNAmoleculeandfacilitatesreplicationandtranscription processes.

Nucleic acids exhibit specific base pairing rules, where adenine (A) pairs with
Base thymine(T)inDNAoruracil(U)inRNAviahydrogenbonds,andcytosine(C)pairs with
Pairing guanine (G). This complementary base pairing ensures the accurate replication and
transmission of genetic information during cellular processes.

Hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in stabilizing the structure of nucleic acids.
Within the double helix ofDNA,hydrogenbondsformbetweencomplementarybase
Hydrogen
pairs, contributing to the structural integrity and specificity of the molecule. These
Bonding
bonds are relatively weak individually but collectively provide stability to the DNA
double helix.

Nucleic acids are acidic molecules due to the presence of phosphate groups in their
Acidic structure. The negativelychargedphosphategroupsconferanoverallnegativecharge to
Nature the nucleic acid molecule, influencing its interactionswithothermoleculesandits
behavior in biochemical processes.
Functions of Nucleic Acids

Function Description

Nucleic acids, particularly DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), serve as the primary

Genetic
carrier of genetic information in living organisms. DNA contains the instructions
Information
necessary for the development, growth, functioning, and reproduction oforganisms.
Storage

Nucleic acids, specifically RNA (ribonucleic acid), play a crucial role in protein
Protein synthesis. RNA molecules, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
Synthesis (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), are involved in various stages of protein
production, from transcription to translation.

Nucleic acidsparticipateintheregulationofgeneexpression,controllingwhenand how

Gene
genes are turned on or off. This regulatory role is essential for orchestrating the
Expression
precise timing and levels of protein production required for various cellular
Regulation
processes.

Nucleicacids,particularlyadenosinetriphosphate(ATP),functionas carriers of
Energy chemicalenergywithincells.ATPmoleculesstoreandtransferenergygenerated

preliminary reference
during cellular metabolism,providingthenecessaryenergyforcellularactivitiessuch as

For
Tra nsfer muscle contraction, biosynthesis, and transport processes.

Some nucleic acids, such as ribozymes, exhibit catalytic activity, enabling themto
facilitate specific biochemical reactions within cells. Ribozymes participate in
Catalysis processes such as RNA splicing, peptide bond formation, and RNA cleavage,
demonstrating thediversefunctionalcapabilitiesofnucleicacidsbeyondtheirroles in
information storage and transfer.

Nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA, can trigger immune responses when
recognized as foreign molecules by the immune system. This immune recognition
Immune
serves as a defense mechanism against viral infections and other pathogens,
Response
highlighting the dual role of nucleic acids in both genetic information storage and
host defense.

Certain nucleic acids, such as small non-coding RNAs, are involved in chemical
signallingpathwayswithincells.TheseregulatoryRNAsmodulategeneexpression by
Chemical
interacting with specific target molecules, thereby influencing various cellular
Signaling
processes, including development, differentiation, and response to environmental
stimuli.
PROTEINS
Proteins are versatile biomolecules with diverse structural, functional, and chemical properties that
underlie their roles in biological systems. Their hierarchical structure encompasses primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels of organization, dictating their overall shape and function.
Composed of amino acids, proteins exhibit a wide range of functionalities, including enzymatic
catalysis, structural support, molecular recognition, and cellular signaling. The folding of proteins
into their native conformations is essential for their biological activity, with denaturationrepresenting
a reversible or irreversible structural disruption. Protein solubility, stability, and behavior are
influenced by various factors, providing insights into their physiological function and biochemical
properties. Understanding the properties of proteins is crucialforelucidatingtheirroles in health,
disease, and biotechnological applications.
Proteins are indispensable macromolecules that fulfill many essential functions in living organisms.
As enzymes, they catalyze biochemical reactions, driving metabolic processes and maintaining
cellular homeostasis. Additionally, proteins provide structural support to cells and tissues, ensuring
the integrity and mechanical strength of biological structures. Through their role in transport,proteins
facilitate the movement of molecules across biological membranes and within thecirculatory system,
ensuring the delivery of nutrients and signaling molecules to target sites. Moreover, proteins
participate in cellular signaling pathways, regulating gene expression, cell growth, and responses to
extracellular stimuli. In the immune system, proteinscontributetodefense mechanisms by recognizing

Forpreliminaryreference
and neutralizing pathogens.Hormonalproteinsandreceptorscoordinate physiological processes, while
contractile proteins enable muscle contraction and movement. The diverse functions of proteins
underscore their indispensability in biological systems and highlight their significance in health,
disease, and biotechnological applications.
Propertiesof Proteins

Property Description

Proteins exhibit a hierarchical structure, consisting of primary, secondary, tertiary,

and quaternary levels of organization. The primary structure refers to the linear
sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Secondary structure involves
Structure folding patternssuchasalphahelicesandbetasheets,whiletertiarystructurerefers to the
three-dimensional arrangement of the entire polypeptide chain. Quaternary
structure arises when multiple polypeptide chains assemble to form a functional
protein complex.

Proteins are composed of amino acids, which are organic molecules containingan
amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain. There are 20 standard
AminoAcid
amino acids, each with a unique side chain that imparts specific chemical and
Composition
structural properties to the protein. The sequence and composition of amino acids
determine the structure and function of the protein molecule.
 Proteins exhibit remarkable functional diversity, serving as enzymes, structural
components, transporters, receptors, antibodies, hormones, and molecular motors,
among other roles. Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions, while structural
Functional
proteins provide support and stability to cells and tissues. Transport proteins
Diversity
facilitate the movement of molecules across biological membranes, and receptors
mediate cellular signaling pathways. The diverse functions ofproteinsreflecttheir
versatility and importance in biological systems.

Proteins undergo folding into their native three-dimensional structures, driven by

interactions between amino acid sidechainsandthesurroundingenvironment.The
Foldingand folding process is crucial for protein function,asitdeterminesthespecificbinding
Stability sites and active sites necessary for interactions with other molecules. Proteins can
also exhibit different levels of stability, influenced by factors such astemperature,
pH, and the presence of cofactors or ligands.

Proteins can undergo denaturation, a process in which their native structure is

disrupted, leading to loss of function. Denaturation can be induced by various
factors, including heat, pH extremes, organic solvents, and chaotropic agents.
Denaturation

For preliminary reference

Whiledenaturedproteinsmaylosetheirbiologicalactivity,theyoftenretaintheir
primary structure,allowingforthepossibility ofrenaturation underfavorableconditions.

The solubility of proteins varies depending on their amino acid composition andthe
surrounding environment. Some proteins are soluble in water, while othersare
insoluble and may form aggregates or precipitates. Protein solubility is influenced
Solubility
by factors such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, and the presence of denaturing
agents or binding partners. Understanding the solubility behavior of proteins is
essential for their purification, characterization, and functional studies.

Functions of Proteins
Function Description

Proteins serve as enzymes, catalyzing biochemical reactions within cells and

Enzymatic organisms. Enzymes facilitate the conversion of substrates into products bylowering
Activity the activation energy of reactions, thereby accelerating metabolicprocesses essential
for life.

Proteins provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs in living organisms.
Structural Structural proteins such as collagen, elastin, and keratin contribute to themechanical
Support strength, elasticity, and integrity of various biological structures, including bones,
skin, hair, and connective tissues.
 Proteins function as carriers and transporters, facilitating the movement
ofmoleculesacrossbiologicalmembranesandwithinthecirculatorysystem.Transport
Transport proteins, such as hemoglobin, transport gases likeoxygenandcarbondioxideinthe
blood, while membrane transporters regulate the passage of ions and molecules
across cell membranes.

Proteins play crucial roles in cellular signaling pathways, transmitting and

modulating signalsthatregulatevariousphysiologicalprocesses.Signalingproteins,
Signaling such as receptors, transducers, and kinases, relay information from extracellular
stimuli to intracellular effectors, controlling cell growth, differentiation, and
responses to environmental cues.

Proteins are essential components of the immune system, participating in the

Immune recognition, response, and defense against pathogens and foreign substances.
Response Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins produced by theimmune
system that bind to specific antigens, marking them for destruction by immune cells.

Proteins serve as hormones andhormonereceptors,regulatingnumerous

physiologicalprocessesandmaintaininghomeostasisinthebody.Hormones,such
Hormonal
asinsulin,glucagon,and growthhormone,aresignaling proteinsthatcoordinatemetabolism,

For preliminary reference

Reg ulati on
growth,reproduction,andotherfunctionsbybindingtospecific
receptorsontargetcells.

Proteins play a central role in muscle contraction, enabling movement and

locomotion in animals. Contractile proteins, including actin and myosin, interact to
Muscle
generate the force required for muscle contraction and movement. The coordinated
Contraction
action of these proteins underlies processes such as muscle contraction, relaxation,
and control of motor functions.

LIPIDS
Lipids encompass a diverse group of biomolecules with essential roles in cellular structure, energy
metabolism, and signaling pathways. As a concentrated source of energy, lipids serve as a reservoir
of metabolic fuel, providing energy for cellular processes and physical activity. In addition to their
role in energy storage, lipids contribute to the structural integrity of cell membranes, ensuring the
compartmentalization and protection of cellular contents. Moreover, lipids act as insulators, helping
to maintain body temperature and protect vital organs from external stressors. Lipids also play a
critical role inhormoneregulation,servingasprecursorsforsteroidhormonesinvolvedinmetabolic,
reproductive, and stress-related processes. Furthermore, lipids function as signaling molecules,
mediating cellular responses to environmental cues and modulating inflammatory and immune
responses. Finally, lipids facilitate the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins and other
hydrophobicnutrientsinthedigestivesystem,ensuringtheirefficientuptakeandutilizationbythe
body. Overall, the multifaceted functions of lipids underscore their importance in maintaining
cellular homeostasis and supporting various physiological processes in organisms.
Lipids exhibit several characteristic properties that distinguish them from other classes of
biomolecules. Their hydrophobic nature renders them insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar
solvents, reflecting the predominance of nonpolar hydrocarbon chains in their structure. Lipids
display structural diversity, encompassing various classes such as fatty acids, triglycerides,
phospholipids, and sterols, each with distinct chemical compositions and functions in biological
systems. Some lipids exhibit amphipathic properties, containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
regions within the same molecule, enabling them to form structures like lipid bilayers in aqueous
environments. Functionally, lipids serve as efficient energy storage molecules, insulation against
temperature fluctuations, and lubricants that reduce friction between tissues. Understanding the
properties of lipids are essential for elucidating their roles in cellular structure, energy metabolism,
and physiological function in living organisms.
Propertiesof Lipids

Property Description

Lipids are characterized by their hydrophobic nature, meaning they are

insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents such as chloroform,

Forp
Hydrophobicity ether,orbenzene.Thispropertyarisesfrom the nonpolar hydrocarbon chains of
fatty

reliminaryreference
acidsand thehydrophobic regionsofother lipidmolecules,makingtheminherently
repellant to water molecules.
Lipids exhibit structural diversity, encompassing a wide range of molecules
with distinct chemical compositions and functions. Common lipid classes
Structural
include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols, and sphingolipids,each
Diversity
with unique molecular structures and properties that contribute to their
biological functions.

Some lipids display amphipathic properties, containing both hydrophilic

(water-attracting) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) regions within the same
Amphipathicity molecule. Phospholipids, for example, have hydrophilic phosphate heads and
hydrophobic fatty acid tails, allowing them to form lipid bilayers in aqueous
environments such as cell membranes.

Lipids serve as efficient energy storage molecules, storing energy in the formof
chemical bonds within their hydrocarbon chains. Triglycerides, the primary
EnergyStorage storage form of lipids, accumulate in adipose tissue and can be mobilized and
oxidized togenerateATP,providingalong-termreservoirofenergyforcellular
metabolism and physical activity.

Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintainbodytemperatureandprotectvital

Insulation
organsfromtemperaturefluctuationsandmechanicaldamage.Adiposetissue,
 composed primarily of fat cells, serves as an insulating layer beneaththeskin,
providing thermal insulation and cushioning for organs.

Certain lipids, such as waxes and oils, possess lubricating properties thatreduce
friction and facilitate movement in biological systems. Lipid-based lubricants
Lubrication coat surfaces, preventing them from drying out and reducing wear and tear
caused by friction between tissues, such as in joints or between skin surfaces.

Functions of Lipids

Function Description

Lipids serve as a concentrated energyreserveinthebody,providingmorethantwice the

Energy energy per gram compared to carbohydrates or proteins. Triglycerides, the most
Storage common form of dietary fat, are stored in adipose tissue and can be mobilized and
oxidized to generate ATP, the primary energy currency of cells.

Lipids contributetothestructuralintegrityofcellmembranes,formingalipidbilayer that

encloses and protects the contents of cells. Phospholipids, cholesterol, and
Structural
glycolipidsarekeycomponentsofcellmembranes,regulatingmembranefluidity,
Rol e

For preliminary reference

permeability, and signalingprocesses essentialfor cellular functionandcommunicati
on.

Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and protect vitalorgans
from temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage. Adipose tissue, composed
Insulation
primarily of fat cells, serves as an insulating layer beneath the skin, providing
thermal insulation and cushioning for organs.

Lipids play a crucial role in hormone synthesis and regulation,servingasprecursors

for steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol. These hormones
Hormone
regulate various physiological processes, including metabolism, growth,
Regulation
reproduction, and stress responses, exerting widespread effects on the body's
functions.

Lipids function as signaling molecules in intercellular communication pathways,

modulating cellular responses to environmental cues and stimuli. Lipid-derived
Cell
signaling molecules, suchasprostaglandins,leukotrienes,andsphingolipids,mediate
Signaling
inflammatory responses, immune function, and neuronal signaling, influencing
diverse physiological processes.

Absorption Lipids facilitate the absorption and transportoffat-solublevitamins(A,D,E,andK) and

of other hydrophobic nutrients in the digestive system. Bile acids and lipases
Nutrients emulsifyandbreakdowndietaryfatsintoabsorbableforms,allowingforthe
 efficientuptakeofessentialnutrientsacrosstheintestinalepitheliumandintothe
bloodstream.

ENZYMES
Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions by lowering the activation
energy required for the conversion of substrates into products. They are classified into six main
classes basedonthetypeofreactiontheycatalyzeandthenatureoftheirsubstrates.Oxidoreductases catalyze
oxidation-reduction reactions by transferring electrons between substrates, as exemplifiedby lactate
dehydrogenase,whichconvertslactatetopyruvateduringcellularrespiration.Transferases facilitate the
transfer of functional groups between substrates, such as the conversion of alanine to pyruvate by
alanine transaminase (ALT) in amino acid metabolism. Hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis reactions,
breaking chemical bonds by adding water molecules, as demonstrated by the action of lipase in the
digestion of dietary fats. Lyases catalyze the addition or removal of groups to double bonds or the
cleavage of bonds without hydrolysis or oxidation-reduction, such as carbonic anhydrase, which
converts carbon dioxide into bicarbonate ions. Isomerases catalyze the rearrangement of atoms
within a molecule, exemplified bytriosephosphateisomerase(TIM),which interconverts
dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate in glycolysis. Ligases, also known as
synthetases, catalyze the formation of bonds between molecules, often using energy from ATP
hydrolysis, as seen in DNA ligase, which joins DNA strandsduringDNAreplicationand repair. These
examples illustrate the diverse functions of enzymes and their critical roles inbiological processes.

Forpreliminaryreference
Classification of Enzymes

Enzyme Class Description Example

Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions,

involving the transfer of electrons between substrates. Lactate
Oxidoreductases
These enzymestypicallyutilizecofactorssuchasNAD+ or dehydrogenase
FAD as electron carriers.

Transferases facilitate the transfer of functional groups,

such as methyl, acetyl, or phosphate groups, between Alanine
Transferases
substrates. These enzymes play essential roles in transaminase (ALT)
metabolic pathways and signal transduction.

Hydrolases catalyze hydrolysis reactions, cleaving

chemical bonds by adding water molecules. These
Hydrolases enzymes are involved in the breakdown of Lipase
macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and
lipids.

Lyasescatalyzetheadditionorremovalofgroupsto double
Lyases Carbonic anhydrase
bonds orthecleavageofbondswithout
 hydrolysis or oxidation-reduction. These enzymes
participate in diverse metabolic pathways and
biosynthesis.

Isomerases catalyze therearrangementofatomswithina

molecule, resulting in the conversion between isomeric
Triose phosphate
Isomerases forms. These enzymes play crucial roles in maintaining
isomerase (TIM)
metabolic equilibrium and generating biological
diversity.

Ligases, also known as synthetases, catalyze the

formation of bonds between molecules, often using
Ligases
energy from ATP hydrolysis. These enzymes are DNA ligase
(Synthetases)
involved in DNA replication, RNA synthesis, and
protein synthesis.

Propertiesof Enzymes
Enzymes possess several distinctive properties that contribute to their essential roles in biological
systems. One of the key properties of enzymes is their specificity, both in substrate recognition and
catalytic activity. Enzymes interact selectively with specific substrates, binding to them at theiractive

Forpreliminaryreference
sites and facilitating particular biochemical reactions. This specificity arises from the precise
arrangement ofaminoacidresidueswithintheenzyme'sactivesite,whichcomplementsthestructure and
chemical properties of the substrate molecule.
Furthermore, enzymes are highly efficient catalysts that significantly accelerate the rates of
biochemical reactions. By lowering the activation energy barrier required for substrate conversion,
enzymes enable reactions to proceed more rapidly and efficiently, allowing cells to carry outessential
metabolic processes at biologically relevant rates.
Enzyme activity is tightly regulated to ensure that metabolic pathways are coordinated and
responsive to changing physiological conditions. Factors such as substrate concentration, pH,
temperature, and the presence of regulatory molecules can modulate enzyme activity,allowingcells to
fine-tune metabolic flux and maintain homeostasis.
Moreover, enzymes are reusable catalysts that can catalyze multiple rounds of substrate conversion
without being consumedinthereaction.Afterfacilitatingareaction,enzymesremainunchangedand
available to catalyzesubsequentreactions,makingthemhighlyeconomicalandefficientcomponents of
cellular metabolism.
Despite their efficiency, enzymes are sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, such as
temperature and pH. Small deviations from optimal conditions can significantly impact enzyme
activityand,consequently,metabolicpathwaysandcellularfunction.Understandingthepropertiesof
enzymes is crucial for elucidating their roles in biologicalprocessesandtheirpotentialastargetsfor
therapeutic intervention.
Propertiesof Enzymes

Property Description

Enzymes exhibit specificity in substrate recognition and catalytic activity,

interacting with specific substrates to facilitate particular biochemical reactions.This
Specificity
specificity arises from the complementary shapes and chemical properties of the
enzyme's active site and the substrate molecule.

Enzymes are catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions by lowering the

activation energy required for the conversion of substrates into products. By
Catalytic
stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, enzymes facilitate the formation of
product molecules more rapidly and efficiently.

Enzymes are highly efficient catalysts, often capable of increasingreactionratesby

millions to billionsoftimescomparedtouncatalyzedreactions.Thishighefficiency
Efficiency
allows cells to carry out metabolic processes at rates compatible with life despite
relatively mild physiological conditions.

Enzyme activity is regulated by various factors, including substrate

concentration,pH,temperature,andthepresenceofinhibitorsoractivators.Theseregulator
Reg ulati on

For preliminaryreference
y
mechanisms ensurethat enzymeactivityisfinelytunedto meetthechangingmetabolic
demands of cells and maintain homeostasis.
Enzymes are reusable catalysts that can catalyze multiple rounds of substrate
conversion without being consumed in the reaction. After facilitating a reaction,
Reusability
enzymes remain unchanged and available to catalyze subsequent reactions, making
them highly economical and efficient components of cellular metabolism.

Enzyme activity is sensitive to changes in environmental conditions, such as

temperature and pH, which can influence enzyme structure and function. Small
Sensitivity
deviations from optimal conditions can significantly affect enzymeactivity,leading
to alterations in metabolic pathways and cellular function.

Functions of Enzymes
Enzymes are essential biological molecules that perform a wide range of functions critical for life
processes. As catalysts, enzymes accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy
barrier, enabling reactions to occur at physiological conditions. Their specificity ensures that
enzymes selectively bind to specific substrates, leading to precise control over metabolic pathways
and cellular processes. Enzyme activity is tightly regulated throughvariousmechanismstomaintain
metabolic homeostasis and respond to environmental cues. Enzymes participate in metabolic
pathways, DNA replication, and repair processes, ensuring the efficient synthesis, degradation, and
maintenance of biomolecules and genetic material. Additionally, enzymes play roles in signal
transductionpathways,translatingextracellularsignalsintointracellularresponses, and facilitate the
breakdown of macromolecules duringdigestion,enablingnutrientabsorptionandenergyproduction.
These diverse functions highlight the central importance of enzymes in biological systems andtheir
indispensable roles in maintaining cellular function and organismal viability.

Function Description

Enzymes serve as biological catalysts, accelerating chemical reactions bylowering

the activation energy required for the conversion of substrates into products. By
Catalysis facilitating the formation of transition states and stabilizingreaction intermediates,
enzymes enhance the rate of reactions without being consumed in the process.

Enzymes exhibit high specificity for their substrates, recognizing and binding to
specific molecules or chemical groups through complementary interactions at the
Specificity enzyme's active site. This substrate specificity ensures that enzymes selectively
catalyze particular reactions, leading to precise control over metabolic pathways
and cellular processes.

Enzymeactivityistightlyregulatedtomaintainmetabolichomeostasisand
respondtochangingenvironmentalconditions.Regulationmayoccurthrough
Reg ulati on variousmechanisms,including allostericregulation, covalentmodification,andfeedback

For preliminary reference

inhibition,whichmodulateenzymeactivityinresponsetosignalssuch
assubstrateavailability,cellularenergylevels,orhormonal signals.

Enzymes participate in metabolic pathways, sequences of interconnected

biochemical reactions that convert substrates into products. Within these
Metabolic
pathways, enzymes catalyze specific steps, regulating the flowofmetabolitesand
Pathways
ensuring the coordinated synthesis, degradation, and interconversion of
biomolecules essential for cellular function and survival.

Enzymes play keyrolesinsignaltransductionpathways,transmittingextracellular

signals into intracellular responses that regulate various cellular processes. For
Signal
example, protein kinases and phosphatases catalyze the phosphorylation and
Transduction
dephosphorylation of target proteins, respectively, thereby modulating their
activity and mediating cellular responses to stimuli.

Enzymes are involved in DNA replication and repair processes, ensuring the
DNA faithful transmission of genetic information and maintaining genomic stability.
Replication DNA polymerases catalyze the synthesis of new DNA strands during replication,
and Repair while DNA repair enzymes correct errors and lesions in the DNA sequence,
minimizing mutations and preserving genetic integrity.
 Enzymes facilitate the breakdown of macromolecules into smaller, more readily
absorbable units during the process of digestion. Digestive enzymes, such as
Digestion proteases, lipases, and carbohydrases, hydrolyzeproteins,fats,andcarbohydrates,
respectively, into amino acids, fatty acids, and sugars that can be absorbed and
utilized by the body for energy and growth.

VITAMINS
Vitamins are essential micronutrients that play diverse roles in maintaining health and supporting
various physiological functions in the body. They are classified into two categories: fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and water-soluble vitamins (B vitamins and vitamin C). Fat-soluble
vitamins are absorbed along with fats in the diet and are stored in the body's fatty tissues, while
water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are excreted in urine when consumed in excess. Each
vitamin has a specific chemical name and description, alongwithplantandanimalfoodsourcesthat
provide significant amounts of the vitamin. Plant sources include fruits, vegetables, nuts,seeds,and
grains, while animal sources include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, and eggs. Consuming a
balanced diet that includes a variety of foods rich in vitamins is essential for meeting the body's
nutritional needs and maintaining optimal health.
Animal
Vitamin Chemical Name Description PlantSource Source

For preli minary r eference

Essential for vision,i m m u n e f
Liver , f ish
unction, mucousmembranes, Ca rro ts, sw eet oil, eggs,
potatoes,spinach,
Vita min A Retinol maintaininghealthyskin,and cell dairy
kale,broccoli
growth and differentiation. products

Energy metabolism, nerve Whole grains, Pork, beef,

VitaminB₁ Thiamine function, and carbohydrate legumes, nuts, organ meats,
metabolism. seeds whole grains

Energy production, metabolism

of fats, carbohydrates, and Dairy products, Meat,poultry,
leafy greens, fish, eggs,
VitaminB₂ Riboflavin proteins, and maintenance of
almonds, dairy
healthy skin and vision; acts as mushrooms products
an antioxidant.

Energymetabolism,DNArepair, Meat,poultry,fish, Legumes,

VitaminB₃ Niacin and cell signaling. peanuts, whole seeds, nuts,
grains dairy products

Energy metabolism, fatty acid Avocado,

Chicken,beef,
synthesis, and the synthesis of mushrooms,
VitaminB₅ Pantothenic acid liver,
cholesterol, hormones, broccoli, sweet
whole grains
&neurotransmitters. potatoes
 Amino acid metabolism,
neurotransmitter synthesis, and
the production of red bloodcells.
Chickpeas, Fish, beef
It plays a crucial role in brain
VitaminB₆ Pyridoxine potatoes,bananas, liver,poultry,
development and function, poultry nuts, seeds
immune health, and the
regulation of homocysteine
levels.

Essentialforcarbohydrate,fat, and Nuts,seeds,sweet Eggs, liver,

VitaminB₇ Biotin
protein metabolism. potatoes, avocado salmon, pork

Crucial for DNA synthesis, cell

division, and the formation of Leafy greens, Liver, eggs,
Folate
VitaminB₉ red blood cells. It plays a vital asparagus, citrus fortified
Folic acid
role in fetal development, fruits, beans grains, lentils

preventing birth defects.

DNAsynthesis,redbloodcell
format ion, and neurological Fortified

For preli minary r efere nce

function.Itplaysacriticalrole cereals,
Vitamin B₁₂ Cobalamin Meat, fish,poultry,
inmaintainingnervecells'health dairyproducts nutritional
and preventing a type of anemia yeast,algae

called megaloblastic anemia.

Antioxidant that supports Citrusfruits,

Citrus fruits,
immune function, collagen kiwi,
VitaminC Ascorbic acid strawberries, bell
synthesis, wound healing, and peppers, broccoli strawberries,
bell peppers
the absorption of iron.

Essential forcalciumabsorption,
bone health, and immune Fatty fish
function. It helps regulate Sunlight (UV
(salmon,tuna,
exposure),fortified
VitaminD Cholecalciferol calcium and phosphorus levelsin mackerel),
dairy
the blood and supports the products egg yolks

growth and maintenance of

strong bones and teeth.

An antioxidant that protects cell Vegetable

Nuts, seeds,
membranes from oxidative oils, nuts,
VitaminE Tocopherol vegetable oils,
damage. It plays a role in seeds,
leafy greens
immunefunction,skinhealth, avocado
 and gene expression regulation.
Vitamin E also supports
cardiovascular health and may
reduce the risk of chronic
diseases.

Essential for blood clotting,bone

metabolism, and heart health. It Liver, egg
Leafy greens
plays a crucial role in the yolks,cheese,
VitaminK Phylloquinone (kale, spinach,
synthesis of clotting factors and collard greens) fermented
the regulation of calcium in foods

bones and blood vessels.

HORMONES
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands or tissues in the body that
regulate various physiological processes and maintain homeostasis. Each hormone has specific
functions and targets, exerting effects on cells and tissuesthroughoutthebody.Insulin,forexample,
regulates blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and storage, while testosterone
influences male sexual development and secondary sexual characteristics. Estrogen plays a central
role in female reproductive health and bone metabolism, while thyroxine regulates metabolism and

Forpreliminaryreference
growth. Cortisol helps the body respond to stress and modulates metabolism, inflammation, and
immune function. Growth hormone stimulates growth and tissuerepair,whileprogesteronesupports
pregnancy and embryonic development. Adrenaline triggers the fight-or-flight response, preparing
the body for action during stressful situations. These hormones work in concert to regulate
physiological processes and ensure the body's overall health and well-being.

Hormone Function Origin Target

Regulates blood glucose levels by facilitating

Pancreas
glucose uptake, promoting glycogen synthesis,
(specifically Liver,
and inhibiting gluconeogenesis. It plays a
Insulin beta cells in muscle,
crucial role in carbohydrate metabolism and
theisletsof adipose tissue
helps maintain blood glucose within a narrow
Langerhans)
range.

Development of male reproductive tissues and Testes (in

secondary sexual characteristics. It influences males), Reproductive
libido, muscle mass, bone density, facial hair ovariesand organs,
Testosterone
growth, mood regulation, and energy levels. adrenal muscle,bone,
glands (in brain
females)
 Development and function of female Ovaries
Reproductive
reproductive organs, including the uterus, (mainly),
organs, bone,
ovaries, and breasts. Regulatesmenstrualcycle, adrenal
Estrogen brain,
maintains bone density, and supports glands,
cardiovascula
cardiovascular health. Estrogen also affects adipose
r system
mood, cognition, and skin health. tissue

Regulates metabolism, growth, and

development throughout the body. It influences
Cells
Thyroxine cellular energy production, protein synthesis, Thyroid
throughout
(T4) organs & tissue function. Thyroxine levels are gland
the body
crucial for maintaining metabolic balance and
overall health.

Body's stress response, increases blood sugar

levels, suppressing the immune system, and Adrenal
modulating metabolism. It also regulates glands Liver,
Cortisol inflammation,bloodpressure,andthesleep- (specifically muscle,

For prelim inary r efer ence

wakecycle.Cortisolhelpsthebodycope the adrenal immune cells
with stress and maintain physiological cortex)
equilibrium.

Growth hormone stimulates growth, cell

reproduction, and regeneration. It promotes the
Bones,
growth of bones, muscles, and other tissues, as
Anterior muscles,and
Growth well as supporting protein synthesis, fat
pituitary tissues
Hormone metabolism, and the utilization of nutrients for
gland throughout
energy production. Growth hormone is crucial
the body
for growth and maintenance of tissues
throughout life.

Critical role in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, Ovaries

Reproductive
and embryonic development. It prepares the (mainly),
organs,
uterus for implantation and maintains the adrenal
uterus,
Progesterone uterine lining during pregnancy, supportingfetal glands,
placenta
growth and development. Progesterone is placenta
(during
essential for reproductive health and successful (during
pregnancy)
pregnancy. pregnancy)

Auxins regulate plant growth anddevelopment, Shootapical Various plant

Auxins including cell elongation, apical meristems, tissues,
dominance,androotformation.Theyalsoinfluence young including
tropic
 responses such as phototropism and leaves, stems, roots,
gravitropism. seeds and leaves

Gibberellins promote stem elongation, seed Shootapical

germination, and flowering in plants. Theyalso meristems, Stem andleaf
Gibberellins regulate fruit and leaf growth and influence young tissues,seeds,
responses toenvironmentalstimulisuchaslight leaves, and fruit
and temperature changes. seeds

Cytokinins regulate cell division and Shoot and

Rootapical
differentiation in plants, promoting shoot and root
meristems,
root growth, and delaying senescence. Theyalso meristems,
Cytokinins developing
influence apical dominance, leafexpansion, and leaves, and
seeds,young
nutrient uptake. developing
fruits
organs

Abscisic acid (ABA) regulates plant responses

to environmental stressors such as drought, Leaves, Guard cells,

For
Abscisic acid salinity,andcoldtemperatures.Itpromotes stems,roots, seeds, and
stomatalclosure,i n h i b i t s seed germination,andin and seeds buds

prelim i nary r efer ence

duces dormancy in buds and seeds.

Ethylene is involved in various aspects ofplant Ripening Variousplant

growth and development, including fruit fruits,aging tissues,
Ethylene ripening, leaf senescence, and abscission leaves,and including
(shedding of leaves and fruits). Italsoregulates nodes of fruit, leaves,
responses to mechanical stress. stems and roots