FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

The Flight Director System (FDS) was originally developed as an aid used by the pilot during
landing. It gave a pilot the ability to concentrate on fewer instruments and, as it gave
instructions as to attitude and steering, it reduced the workload on the pilot. The signals
produced by the FDS can be coupled to the autopilot allowing it to perform more complex
tasks.

With a FDS, information about the attitude, heading and flight-path of an aircraft, can be
integrated with navigation information to produce either easy to interpret visual instructions
for the pilot and / or input to the autopilot, or both.

FDS coupled with the autopilot has 2 “channels”. The roll channel and the pitch channel.

Information for the FDS can come from several possible sources:
• Pitot-Static system or Air Data Computer ……………
• VHF Nav receiver allowing input from …………..
• Flight Management System, Inertial Navigation / Reference System.

Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI)

EADI is a standard artificial horizon providing pitch and roll information. The instrument
displays demand information from the Flight director system using Flight Director Command
Bars. These come in 2 main forms as shown below:

For both indications the …………………………………………………………………….., or the

point between the wedges, to meet the demand from the FDS.
 AUTOPILOT SYSTEM
The main purpose of the autopilot is to relieve the pilot of the physical and mental fatigue of
flying the aircraft, especially during long flights. This will result in the pilot being more alert
during the critical phase of landing the aircraft safely.

Autopilot systems also enable the aircraft to fly a prescribed route accurately due to the
autopilots’ ability to react quicker than a human pilot to disturbances.

The Autopilot is capable of producing the same actions as the pilot to maintain aircraft
stability in a shorter reaction time. It must detect the disturbance and then work out
appropriate corrective action. It must then apply that correction. Finally, it must detect that
the correction has taken place and re-centre the controls. This is known as inner loop control
(or sometimes closed loop or auto-stabilisation). It can:
• Sense changes in attitude
• Compute the amount and direction of control required.
• Move the control surfaces using servo-motors.
• Detect that the control has been applied and that the aircraft has responded.
• Return control surfaces back to the neutral condition post correction.

CONTROL LOOPS
An autopilot is a control system which uses control loops. The inner loop is an
example of a closed loop control system. Outer loop is sometimes described as an
“open loop”. The outer loop acts on the inner loop to achieve its aims.

The basic elements of a closed loop control system comprise:

• Input
• Error detector
• Output
• Control element
• …………………..

OPEN LOOP
An open loop control system ………………….
The difference between open loop and closed loop systems can be illustrated by the
domestic central heating system. A system with a timing controller but no thermostat would
be an open loop system i.e., the pump would continue to send hot water round the house
regardless of the room temperature for the duration of the period set on the timer control. On
the other hand, a system with a thermostat would interrupt the circulation when the room
temperature reaches the pre-selected level i.e., it has feedback control.

AIRCRAFT INNER LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

An inner (closed) loop control system in an aircraft is shown above.

Attitude sensor: A rate gyro senses disturbance of the aircraft in one axis only.

Transducer: Converts mechanical movement of the gyro into an electrical signal.

Signal processor
The Error detector. Compares the signals from the transducer with the input signals,
determines the required corrective action (the error) and transmits a signal to the
servo-motor. Receives and compares position and rate of movement feedback
signals from the servo-motor.
Servo-motor
Converts processed signal into movement of the aircraft flight controls proportional to
rate and direction of signal. Uses hydraulic, electric or pneumatic power.

Aerodynamic Feedback
The attitude reached by the aircraft is sensed by the rate gyro which gives a
measure of the output.
A disturbance to the selected flight path produces an error signal; the autopilot
operates to move the aircraft back towards its stabilised condition. This causes the
error signal from the transducer to be progressively reduced and therefore removes
the control surface deflection after the disturbance has been corrected.

Inner Loop systems

Inner loop systems are those that provide the auto-stability only. It is the Innermost
control Loop.

Outer Loop systems

Outer loop systems are those extra facilities offered e.g., Altitude Hold, Heading
Hold, LNAV, VNAV. They are still essentially loops (so there is still some confusion
occasionally) but they act from an external position on the inner loop and “fool” the
inner loop into manoeuvring the aircraft into achieving its aim.

Single pilot operation under IFR

An operator ………………………………………………………… unless the aeroplane
is equipped with an autopilot with at least …………………………………………. This
means that the aircraft must have at least a two-axis autopilot.

When the autopilot is engaged automatic trim is available only in pitch. This is called
Automatic Pitch Trim or simply Auto-trim.

If there is only one autopilot or the aircraft is not fitted with auto-trim, the aircraft must
be correctly in trim before the engagement of the autopilot to minimise the control
loading expected on disengagement.

Independent Systems
Mach trim (if required) will operate independently of the autopilot. A Mach Trim
system is provided in aeroplanes that fly at high subsonic speeds and are
susceptible to Mach tuck. At these speeds as the aeroplane approaches it’s critical
Mach No the ………………………………………………………………. attitude known
as Mach tuck. This condition is automatically trimmed out by a mach trim system.
The mach trim system will be armed at all stages of flight but will only activate at high
subsonic speeds.
Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS)
The AFDS is a dual system consisting of 2 individual Flight Control Computers
(FCCs) and a single Mode Control Panel (MCP)

For A/P operation, The 2 FCCs send control commands to their respective pitch and roll
hydraulic servos, which operate the flight controls through 2 separate hydraulic systems.

For FD operation, each FCC positions the FD command bars on the respective ADI.

MCP Mode Selector Switches

The Mode selector switches are pressed to select desired command modes for the AFDS
and A/T. The switch illuminates to indicate mode selection and that the mode can be
deselected by pressing the switch again.

All AFDS modes can be disengaged by selecting another command mode or by disengaging
the A/P and turning the FDs off.

CONTROL WHEEL STEERING (CWS)

A Control Wheel Steering mode (CWS) is provided in some automatic flight control systems
(Boeing 737-400), its …………………………………………………………………… in pitch
and/or roll, ………………………………………………………………………………………….
The signals for the A/P are produced by transducers in the control column.

Pressing a CWS engage switch, engages the A/P pitch and roll axes in the CWS mode and
displays CWS P and CWS R on the FMAs.

With CWS engaged, …………………………………………………………………………………..

applied by either pilot. The control pressure is similar to that required for manual flight. When
control pressure is released, the A/P holds existing attitude.

If aileron pressure is released ………………………………………………………………………

………….. and holds the existing heading. This heading hold feature with bank less than 6
degrees, is inhibited when any of the following conditions exist:
• Below ……………………………………………….
• After FD VOR capture with TAS 250 kts or less.
• After FD LOC capture in the APP mode.

This manual pitch override is inhibited in the APP mode with both A/Ps engaged.

CWS P is enunciated on the Flight Mode Annunciators (FMA) while this mode is engaged.
Command pitch modes can then be selected.
When approaching a selected altitude in CWS P with a CMD engage switch selected, CWS
P changes to ALT ACQ and when at the selected altitude, ALT HOLD engages.

If pitch is manually overridden while in ALT HOLD the annunciator changes to CWS P. If
control force is released within 250 ft of the selected altitude, CWS P changes to ALT ACQ
and the A/P returns to the selected altitude and ALT HOLD engages. If the elevator force is
held until more than 250 ft from the selected altitude, pitch remains in CWS P.
Roll CWS with a CMD engage switch selected

The roll axis engages in CWS while the pitch axis is in CMD when:

A command roll mode has not been selected or was de-selected.

A/P roll has been manually overridden with control wheel force. The force required for
override is greater than the normal CWS control wheel force.

CWS R is enunciated on the FMA while this mode is engaged.

CWS R with a CMD engage switch illuminated, can be used to capture a selected radio
course while VOR/LOC or APP mode is armed. Upon intercepting the radial or localiser, the
FD and A/P annunciation changes from CWS R to VOR/LOC engaged and the A/P tracks
the selected course.

TOUCH CONTROL STEERING (TCS)

Touch Control Steering (TCS) also permits a pilot to manoeuvre his aircraft in pitch or roll,
but unlike CWS the appropriate automatic control channels and servo-motors are
disengaged while the TCS button is held depressed while …………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………. The autopilot is re-engaged by
release of the TCS button and the …………………….

ALTITUDE REFERENCE TO AUTOPILOT

The altitude selected in the window on the MCP is referenced to the Captain’s barometric
altimeter setting when the ‘A’ autopilot is selected and to the First Officer’s when ‘B’ is
selected. After ALT HOLD engages, changes in altimeter barometric settings do not change
the selected altitude reference i.e., the autopilot will not change altitude until a new altitude is
selected and engaged.

Maximum Pitch and Bank Angles

During normal autopilot operation the maximum angles are:
Pitch ± 10°
Roll ± 30°
AUTOLAND SYSTEM

Objective
In order to achieve the objective of automatic landing, the operation of an automatic flight
control system must be of such a nature that it will:
• Not disturb the flight path as a result of an active malfunction
• Have adequate authority for sufficiently accurate control along the required flight path
• Warn of a passive failure
• Allow the intended flight manoeuvre to be completed following an active or a passive
failure.

Requirements
• To enable an aeroplane to complete an automatic landing the auto-land system
requires
• A minimum of two independent autopilots capable of following ILS signals
• Two independent Radio Altimeters to give accurate height from the ground
information
• Category 3 ILS ground installation at the airport.

Auto-land Status
The number of autopilots required also depends upon the auto-land status of the aircraft.
These fall into two main categories:

Fail - passive (Fail-soft)

This is defined as the ability of the system to withstand a failure without endangering
passenger safety, and without producing excessive deviations in the flight path but removing
its capability to complete an automatic landing.
The minimum number of autopilots required for a ………………………

Fail-Operational (Fail - active)

This status is defined as the ability of a system to withstand a failure without affecting the
overall functioning of the system and without causing degradation of performance beyond
the limits required for automatic landing.
The system requires a minimum of ……………………... However, it is possible for an aircraft
to have a fail operational category with only two autopilots provided that there is suitable
duplicate monitoring for each ……………………..

At 1500 feet radio altitude (RA)

Shortly after capturing both LOC and G/S and descending …………………………
……………………………………………………………. is enunciated and the A/P go-around
mode arms but is not enunciated. ROLL OUT mode if available will also now arm. The
Autoland status will also now be enunciated as either “LAND 2”(or “LAND 3” for fail
operational aircraft).

The pitch and roll axes cannot be manually overridden into CWS. Attempts to do so will
result in A/P disengagement.
800 ft RA
The …………………… must have been …………………………….. to execute a dual A/P
approach. Otherwise, engagement of the second A/P is inhibited on descending through 800
ft RA.

400 - 330 feet RA

The stabiliser is automatically trimmed an additional amount nose-up, with the elevators
neutralising and holding the pitching up moment. If the A/Ps subsequently disengage,
forward control column force may be required to hold the desired pitch attitude. This biasing
aids the flare and in the event of a subsequent fail passive the aircraft will tend to pitch nose
up to prevent a hard contact with the ground and aids the initiation of a go around.
If FLARE is not armed by approximately 350 ft RA, both A/Ps automatically disengage.

At 45 feet gear altitude (GA)/ 50 ft RA

…………………………………………………………………… and is completed at touchdown.
FLARE engaged is enunciated and the FD command bars retract. Also:
The stabiliser trim is again automatically trimmed an additional amount nose-up.
The FLARE mode is automatically engaged (replacing G/S) …………..
The A/T begins retarding thrust at approximately …………… so as to reach idle at
touchdown.
The gear altitude calculation, which is pre-programmed into the computer, is based upon
radio altitude, pitch attitude, and the known distance between the landing gear, the fuselage
and the radio altimeter antenna.

At about 5 feet GA:

The flare mode is disengaged and there is transition to the touchdown
LOC disengages Roll-out mode (if available) will engage.

At about 1 foot GA:

The pitch attitude of the aircraft is decreased to 2°
At touchdown, a command signal is supplied to the elevators to lower the aircraft’s nose
and So, bring the nose landing gear wheels in contact with the runway and hold them there
during the roll-out.

When reverse thrust is applied the auto-throttle system is automatically disengaged.

Irrespective of reverse thrust deployment, the A/T automatically disengages approximately
…………
The automatic flight control system remains on until manually disengaged by the flight crew,
which is when the auto-land sequence is considered to be completed.

Roll-out
Another function of Cat 3 auto-land systems is roll-out which gives steering commands on
the ground proportional to localiser deviation along the centreline.