1.
Compass and Theodolite Traverse and Application
A traverse is when we survey an area by measuring a connected series of straight lines
(called legs) and their corresponding angles.
With a compass:
You measure the magnetic bearing (the angle between the line and magnetic north) for
each leg.
This method is fast but less accurate because magnetic disturbances (like nearby iron
objects or electrical fields) can affect readings.
With a theodolite:
You measure horizontal angles and vertical angles very precisely using an optical sight and
calibrated scales.
This makes the theodolite much better for precise engineering works like highways,
bridges, and buildings.
Where it’s used:
Mapping land boundaries (e.g., property plots).
Designing roads, railways, and pipelines.
Laying out large construction projects like buildings, dams, and industrial plants.
2. Computation of Traverses and Adjustment
Once you’ve collected the raw survey data (distances and angles), you compute:
Bearings and distances for each leg
You use the measured angles to calculate each leg’s direction (bearing) relative to north.
You use the measured distance for how long each leg is.
Calculating coordinates (northings and eastings)
Using simple trigonometric formulas:
Change in northing (ΔN) = length × cos(angle)
Change in easting (ΔE) = length × sin(angle)
For example, if line AB is 120 meters long at a bearing of 60°, we compute:
ΔN = 120 × cos(60°) = 120 × 0.5 = 60 meters
ΔE = 120 × sin(60°) = 120 × 0.866 = 103.92 meters
You repeat this for every leg to get all the coordinate changes.
Checking for closing error
After computing all legs, you sum up all ΔN and ΔE.
Ideally, in a closed traverse, the sums should return to the start point (i.e., total ΔN = 0, total
ΔE = 0).
Any difference is called the closing error.
Adjustment
We distribute the closing error across all the legs using correction methods (see next
section) to ensure the traverse closes perfectly and matches the real-world layout.
3. Bowditch and Transit Rules
These are adjustment methods used to correct small measurement errors:
Bowditch Rule (Compass Rule)
Assumes errors are caused by both angle and distance mistakes.
Correction for each leg is proportional to its length.
Formula for correction:
Correction in latitude (northing) = total latitude correction × (line length ÷ total perimeter)
Correction in departure (easting) = total departure correction × (line length ÷ total
perimeter)
For example, if the total latitude correction is 0.3 m, and line AB is 120 m, while the total
traverse perimeter is 600 m:
Correction for AB = 0.3 × (120 ÷ 600) = 0.3 × 0.2 = 0.06 m
Transit Rule
Assumes errors mainly come from angular measurements.
Corrections are based on the proportion of the coordinate (not just length).
Formula:
Correction in latitude = total latitude correction × (latitude ÷ total sum of latitudes)
Correction in departure = total departure correction × (departure ÷ total sum of departures)
These corrections help ensure the final plotted traverse has accurate shape and size.
4. Tachometry (Faciometry, Optical, and Electronic Tachometers)
Tachometry (or stadia surveying) is a rapid method for measuring distances, elevations,
and positions without needing to stretch tapes.
Tachometry
Uses a graduated staff and an instrument (like a theodolite) with stadia hairs (special
crosshairs).
Distance is calculated using the stadia interval formula:
Distance (D) = k × s + c
Where:
K = multiplying constant (usually 100),
S = staff intercept (difference between upper and lower stadia hair readings),
C = additive constant (depends on instrument, often small or zero).
For example, if s = 1.2 m, k = 100, c = 0,
D = 100 × 1.2 = 120 meters
Optical Tachometers
Use improved optics to get higher precision in stadia readings.
Electronic Tachometers
Use Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) to calculate distances faster and more
accurately.
Applications
Topographic surveys (hills, rivers, valleys).
Road and highway projects.
Surveying in difficult or rough terrains.
5. Electronic Tachometers
These advanced survey tools (like total stations) combine:
A theodolite to measure precise angles.
An EDM device to measure precise distances.
A microprocessor to calculate coordinates instantly and store data digitally.
Benefits
Accuracy up to millimeters.
Fast data collection with minimal manual work.
Direct digital outputs that can be uploaded to CAD or GIS software.
Common uses
Large construction projects.
Engineering surveys.
Precise mapping work.
6. Control Surveys (Horizontal and Vertical Control)
Control surveys provide the framework or reference for all subsequent surveys.
Horizontal control
Establishes fixed positions (X, Y) on the ground.
Methods include:
Triangulation (using angle networks).
Trilateration (using distance networks).
Traversing (combined angle and distance networks).
Vertical control
Establishes reference elevations (Z).
Done by leveling, measuring height differences between points.
These controls ensure that all surveys and designs are tied to the same coordinate and
elevation system, keeping everything aligned and accurate.
7. Setting Out of Buildings
Setting out is the physical transfer of a building’s design from paper to ground.
Surveyors perform:
Marking the foundation corners with pegs, nails, or stakes.
Laying out the centrelines of walls using strings or chalk lines.
Checking right angles with the 3-4-5 method or total station.
Verifying distances and levels to ensure everything matches the drawings.
This process is critical to ensure that the construction is built exactly according to plan,
avoiding expensive mistakes or legal boundary problems.
8. Introduction and Requirements of Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements (distances, areas, elevations)
from photographs.
Traditional method:
Aerial photos taken from aircraft.
Modern method:
Drone-based photogrammetry with high-resolution cameras.
Requirements
High-resolution cameras with calibrated lenses.
Known Ground Control Points (GCPs) for scaling and orienting the models.
Specialized software (like Pix4D, Agisoft Metashape) to process images into:
Orthophotos (corrected aerial images).
3D point clouds.
Digital elevation models (DEMs).
Applications
Land and topographic mapping.
Urban and regional planning.
Environmental monitoring.
Mining and agricultural surveys.
9. Basic Surveying
Basic surveying covers all the essential field tasks every surveyor must master:
Measuring horizontal distances (using tapes, chains, or EDM).
Measuring angles (using compass or theodolite).
Measuring height differences (using leveling instruments like dumpy level or automatic
level).
Drawing up maps and plans based on field measurements.
These are the foundation for advanced surveying methods and are critical for any civil
engineering or construction project.
Summary
In short, engineering surveying provides the foundation for every construction or mapping
project by collecting accurate measurements of the physical world.
Photogrammetry adds an aerial, digital, and 3D dimension, giving a powerful complement
to ground-based surveys.
Mastering these topics means you not only know how to gather data but also how to
process, adjust, and apply it properly in engineering and design contexts.
