Imperial College London

BSc/MSci EXAMINATION May 2019

This paper is also taken for the relevant Examination for the Associateship

COMPREHENSIVES PAPER I
For Third and Fourth Year Physics Students
Thursday, 2 May 2019 10:00-13:10

You may attempt as many questions as you wish. Only the answers to the best EIGHT
questions over the two papers will contribute to your mark.
Marks shown on this paper are indicative of those the Examiners anticipate assigning.

General Instructions

Complete the front cover of each of the FIVE answer books provided.

If an electronic calculator is used, write its serial number at the top of the front cover of
each answer book.

USE ONE ANSWER BOOK FOR EACH QUESTION.

Enter the number of each question attempted in the box on the front cover of its corre-
sponding answer book.

Hand in FIVE answer books even if they have not all been used.

You are reminded that Examiners attach great importance to legibility, accuracy and
clarity of expression.

c Imperial College London 2019

2019/PComp I 1 Go to the next page for questions
 1. Consider a bottle filled with an ideal gas as illustrated in Figure 1. The neck of the
bottle is sealed with a sphere which is able to oscillate on the periodically expand-
ing and compressing (ideal) gas. We assume that the arrangement is suitably tight
preventing any gas from escaping.

Figure 1: A sphere in the neck of a bottle filled with an ideal gas oscillates up and down on
top of the periodically expanding/compressing ideal gas.

(i) Starting from the differential form of the first law of thermodynamics, derive a re-
lationship between the pressure p and volume V that is applicable for adiabatic
processes in an ideal gas. [8 marks]
(ii) Show that the sphere executes harmonic oscillations. You may disregard fric-
tion, assume small oscillations and that all changes occur adiabatically.
[7 marks]
(iii) Calculate the period of the oscillation of the sphere when r = 0.012m (radius of
the sphere and the neck of the bottle), m = 0.1kg (mass of the sphere), p0 =
101325 Pa (equilibrium pressure of the ideal gas), V0 = 25 litres (equilibrium
volume of the gas), and γ = 1.4 (ratio of specific heats).
[5 marks]

[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 2 Please go to the next page

 2. Consider a free electron interacting with an electromagnetic wave of frequency ω
linearly polarised in the ẑ direction:

E = [0, 0, E0 cos(ωt)] ,

where the spatial dependence of the wave and its magnetic component are ne-
glected.

(i) Assume that the electron is a classical particle with zero initial velocity at the
time t = t0 , when the electromagnetic field has phase ωt0 .
(a) Write down non-relativistic Newton’s equation of motion for the electron and
show that:
eE0
ż(t) = [sin(ωt0 ) − sin(ωt)]
me ω
(b) Identify the oscillating (so-called “quiver”) and the constant (so-called “drift”)
parts of the velocity.
[4 marks]
(ii) (a) Write down the expression for the kinetic energy of the electron. Consid-
ering the quiver part of the electron velocity only, find its average over the
electric field period. Calculate the average kinetic energy of the electron
oscillations for the following field parameters:
• λ = 800 nm, E0 = 1 × 1011 V/m;
• λ = 10 µm, E0 = 1 × 1011 V/m.
(b) In which of these two cases, will the classical Newton equation in (i) not
provide an adequate description of the electron’s dynamics? Explain.
[5 marks]
(iii) (a) For the electron that emerges at the origin of the coordinate system, show
that
eE0
z(t) = [cos(ωt) − cos(ωt0 ) + (ωt − ωt0 ) sin(ωt0 )]
me ω2
and write down a mathematical condition under which the electron will re-
turn back to its original position at some later time tr > t0 . Show that this
condition can be formulated as:

f (tr ) = f (t0 ) + (tr − t0 )f 0 (t0 ) ,

where f 0 (t0 ) is the derivative of f (t) at t = t0 .

(b) Sketch the graphical solution for tr and show that
• multiple solutions may exist for 0 < ωt0 < π/2;
• no solution exists for π/2 < ωt0 < π.
What is the physical meaning of these results in terms of the possibility of
the oscillating electron returning to its original position?
[7 marks]

[This question continues on the

2019/PComp I 3 next page . . . ]
 (iv) A free electron ionised from an atom has zero initial velocity and is driven by
the electromagnetic wave. Collision of the oscillating electron with the atomic
ion may lead to recombination of the electron back into the quantum level from
which it was ionised, accompanied by the emission of a photon.
(a) Write down the energy conservation condition for this process.
(b) Determine the energy of the emitted photon for the electron oscillating in
the λ = 800 nm, E0 = 1 × 1011 V/m electric field, ionised from an atom
of ionisation energy of 15.8 eV at ωt0 = 18◦ and returning to the origin at
ωtr = 252◦ .
[4 marks]

[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 4 Please go to the next page

 3. A slab of material has a refractive index n = n(y) that varies with y only. This question
considers how rays of light propagate in this slab.

# Ray path
!
" #

(i) Consider a ray in the block that is travelling in the (x, y) plane at an angle θ to
the x-axis as shown in the figure above:
(a) Show that Snell’s law leads to a relationship between angle and local re-
fractive index of:
n(y) cos θ = C ,
where C is a constant that defines the ray.
(b) Hence show that the local angle and refractive index are related by the
differential equation:
dθ 1
= .
dn n tan θ
(c) Given that the gradient of the ray path is given by dy /dx = tan θ, further
show that the second differential of the ray path may be written as:
d 2y n dn
2
= 2 .
dx C dy
[8 marks]
(ii) The refractive index of the material varies according to the equation
 
n2 (y) = n02 1 − αy 2 .
(a) Sketch n(y) for n0 = 1.5 and α = 0.1 mm−2 over the range −1 mm < y <
1 mm.
(b) Show that the ray path in this refractive index profile satisfies the differential
equation
d 2y n02
= − αy .
dx 2 C2
(c) Determine a general solution for the ray path when α > 0.
(d) An object on the optic axis at x = 0 emits rays in all directions in the (x, y)
plane. Show that rays close to the optic axis come together to form an
image of the object periodically along the slab and determine numerically
the distance along the optic axis where the first image is formed.
[12 marks]
[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 5 Please go to the next page

 4. (i) In particle physics experiments the momentum of charged particles is deter-
mined by measuring the curvature of the particle trajectory in a magnetic field,
B.
(a) Starting from the equation for the Lorentz force, show that for a particle with
charge e, P⊥ = 0.3 · R · B, where R is the radius of curvature measured in
metres, P⊥ is the particle momentum component transverse to the magnetic
field in GeV/c and B is in Tesla.
(b) In practice the sagitta, s, is often measured for the particle trajectory af-
ter passing through a distance L in the magnetic field B, as shown in the
figure. Show that P⊥ can be approximated by P⊥ = 0.3BL 2 /8s, and that
consequently the fractional momentum resolution is given by
σ(P⊥ ) σs 8σs
= = P⊥ .
P⊥ s 0.3BL 2
You may assume that s  R. [7 marks]

(ii) A charged particle with mass m, charge z1 e and a velocity v, traversing a de-
tector, is scattered by the Coulomb potential of the detector’s nuclei with charge
z2 e. The mass of a nucleus is much larger than m.
(a) Show that for a head-on elastic collision, the distance of closest particle
approach, D, is given by
z1 z2 e 2
D= .
2π0 mv 2
(b) The scattering angle, θ, of the particle decreases with its impact parameter
b, which is the perpendicular distance between the particle trajectory and
the nucleus, as tan θ/2 = D /2b. Using a classical calculation, derive the
following formula for the Rutherford differential cross-section:
!2
dσ dN z1 z2 α~c 1
= = ,
dΩ FdΩ 2mv 2 sin (θ/2)
4

where F is the flux of incident particles, dN(b) = F · 2πb · db is the number of

particles with impact parameters between b and b + db, and α = e 2 /4π0 ~c
is the fine structure constant. [7 marks]

[This question continues on the

2019/PComp I 6 next page . . . ]
 (iii) In the detector being considered here, different terms dominate the overall reso-
lution in transverse momentum at different values of the transverse momentum.
When traversing detector material, charged particles collide with a large number
of nuclei, leading to a large number of scattering processes with very low devia-
tions from the original path and negligible loss in the magnitude of momentum.
The root mean square of the scattering angle distribution in the azimuthal plane,
θrms , is approximately proportional to
s
Const L
× z1 ,
P⊥ X0

where XL0 is the thickness of the scattering medium measured in units of the
radiation length X0 , which in turn depends on z2 and the atomic weight of the
scattering medium.
(a) Show that the multiple
√ scattering contribution to the momentum smearing
is proportional to L /X0 .
(b) The fractional momentum resolution of a charged particle, as measured in
a magnetic spectrometer with the sagitta method, is given by σ(P⊥ )/P⊥ =
AD · P⊥ ⊕ AS , where AD and AS are constants for a given particle detector.
Comment on the origin of the AD and AS terms.
q
L
(c) Assuming that for P⊥ in GeV/c, AD =0.0001 and AS =0.01 X0
, calculate the
maximum thickness of the detector material in X0 , for which the momen-
tum measurement is not dominated by multiple scattering for protons with
P⊥ >10 GeV/c. Calculate the corresponding fractional momentum resolu-
tion for the 10 GeV/c momentum protons. [6 marks]
[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 7 Please go to the next page

 64
5. 29 Cu decays weakly to 64
30 Zn emitting an electron and to
64
28 Ni emitting a positron. It
also decays via electron capture to 64
28 Ni.

(i) Write down equations showing the particles produced in the decays 64 64
29 Cu →30 Zn
and 64 64
29 Cu →28 Ni. [3 marks]
(ii) Let the mass of the neutral 64 64
29 Cu atom be MCu and the masses of the neutral 30 Zn
64
and 28 Ni atoms be MZn and MNi respectively. Calculate the end-point energies
of the e − and e + emitted in the decays to 64 64
30 Zn and 28 Ni. You may ignore the
kinetic energy of the recoiling nucleus. [5 marks]
(iii) What is the neutrino energy emitted when 64 64
29 Cu decays to 28 Ni by electron cap-
ture? You may assume that the electron is captured from the 1 S shell for which
the binding energy is Cu W1 = 9 keV. What is the maximum photon energy, Emax ,
released when the 64 1
28 Ni atom accepts an electron into the S level for which the
binding energy is Ni W1 = 8.3 keV? [6 marks]
−
(iv) In 40.0% of 64
29 Cu decays an e is observed, and in 19.0% of decays an e
+

is observed. In a subset of the 41.0% of decays which occur due to electron

capture, and for which an e ± is not emitted, a photon with an energy of 1.34 MeV
is observed. This subset accounts for 0.6% of all decays. Sketch the decay
scheme for 64
29 Cu labelling clearly which processes proceed via nuclear beta
decay and which by electron capture. What is the origin of the 1.34 MeV photon?
[6 marks]

[You may take MCu = 59550.706 MeV, MZn = 59550.127 MeV, MNi = 59549.031 MeV,
and, for the mass of the electron, me = 511 keV. ] [Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 8 Please go to the next page

 6. According to the local equivalence principle, gravity cannot be detected in a local
free-fall laboratory. Consider the situation of a uniform gravitational field in which
light is red-shifted as it climbs out of the field.

(i) A laboratory is in free-fall in a uniform gravitational field, where g = 9.8 ms−2 (cf.
figure below). In the lab frame a light pulse of frequency ω is emitted from A . In
this frame how long does the pulse take before it is received at B? What is the
frequency of the pulse received at B? [2 marks]

(ii) Now consider the situation from the point of view of an observer who sees the
lab falling with acceleration g (n.b. strictly this frame is not inertial, but you may
assume that the space-time region is sufficiently small for lengths and simul-
taneity to be well-defined). The lab is at rest when the pulse is emitted. Show,
using Newtonian considerations, that the time taken for the pulse to reach B is
approximately h /c. What is the speed of the lab in this frame when the light is
received at B? If there were no change in frequency due to the pulse climbing
in a gravitational field, what would be the Doppler shift in frequency observed
by the moving detector at B? [5 marks]
(iii) Putting together the results from parts (i) and (ii) show that a photon climbing in
a gravitational field experiences a frequency shift given by

∆ω gt ∆φ
≈− =− 2
ω c c
where ∆φ is the difference in gravitational potential over height h. [3 marks]
(iv) What is the fractional frequency shift for a photon travelling up an elevator shaft
of height 22.5m? [2 marks]

[This question continues on the

2019/PComp I 9 next page . . . ]
 In 1960 Pound and Rebka devised a scheme to detect such a frequency shift. After
travelling up the elevator shaft of the Physics Department at Harvard, the frequency
shift of a photon was sufficient for a spectral filter at B (where the detector was placed)
to prevent the photon being detected.

(v) Briefly explain why a photon emitted/absorbed by an atom in a very rigid crystal
has a very precisely defined frequency. What effect would cooling the crystal
have? [5 marks]
(vi) With what speed would the detector at B have to move, and in what direction
(i.e. up or down), for the photon to be detected? Interpret this speed in terms of
a Doppler shift. [3 marks]

[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 10 Please go to the next page

 7. Consider the stationary one-dimensional Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass
m on a half-line 0 < x < ∞ in a potential V(x) that vanishes at x → ∞. Assume that
its particular solution is described by the wave function ψ(x) = Ax n e −kx , where A and
k > 0 are constants and n > 0 is an integer.

(i) Normalize ψ to 1,R i.e. find the value of A expressed as a power of k . [You may
∞
use the fact that 0 x a e −bx dx = b −1−a a! if a is an integer.]
[4 marks]
(ii) Show that the kinetic energy operator H0 = p̂ 2 /2m applied to ψ(x) gives

~2 h i
H0 ψ = − Ae −kx x n−2 k 2 x 2 − 2nkx + n(n − 1) .
2m

[6 marks]
(iii) Thus show that the potential V(x) for which the wave function ψ is a solution of
the Schrödinger equation is given by

~2
" #
2nk n(n − 1)
V= − + ,
2m x x2

and identify the particle energy.

[5 marks]
(iv) Compare the resulting potential V(x) with the effective potential for the radial
motion of an electron in the hydrogen atom

e 2 ~2 `(` + 1)
V(r) = − + .
r 2mr 2
Using that the electric charge e does not depend on the angular momentum
number ` explain for which choice of k the two potentials are physically equiva-
lent.
[5 marks]

[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 11 Please go to the next page

 8. This question explores a simple statistical model of the 2016 referendum on whether
the UK should remain or leave the European Union.
A poll was performed a few days before the referendum. In a sample of 2091 people,
the poll found 1062 intending to vote Remain and 1029 to vote Leave. (Undecided
voters have been ignored.)

(i) In a simple model of an evenly split electorate, we can treat the voting as a
binomial process with independent voters with a 50% chance of voting Remain
and 50% chance of voting Leave. (You may find the information at the end of
the question useful.)
(a) Calculate for this model the mean and the standard deviation for the number
of Remain votes for 2091 voters.
(b) Calculate for this model the probability that the pre-referendum poll would
produce a number of Remain votes that is equal to or greater than 1062.
(c) Hence, comment on whether the pollster can claim that the Remain cam-
paign has a lead on the day of the poll.
[9 marks]
(ii) Consider now a binomial model (of independent voters) based on probabilities
suggested by the outcome of the pre-referendum poll.
(a) Calculate the expected fraction of Remain votes and the standard deviation
of this fraction from this model.
(b) Hence comment on whether such a model is consistent the actual outcome
of the referendum when 33,552,983 people voted, 51.89% of whom voted
to leave the European Union while 48.11% voted to remain.
[6 marks]

The turnout for the referendum was 72.2%. After the referendum, a survey was
performed involving 555 people who did not vote in the referendum. 56.2% said they
would have voted Remain and 43.8% would have voted Leave.

(iii) Suppose everyone has to vote by law. Use a binomial distribution to model
how the people who did not vote would vote if they had to. What does this
model predict about the outcome of a referendum under this compulsory voting
system? You should discuss the expected fraction of all votes for Remain, and
the likelihood that the Remain campaign would win. [5 marks]

For N independent trials with a probability of success p, the number of successes

follows a binomial distribution with a mean of Np and a variance of Np(1 − p).
For a Normal distribution p(x) with zero mean and unit variance:

z 0 0.25 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Z ∞
p(x) dx 0.50 0.40 0.31 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.16 0.067 0.023 0.006
z

[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 12 Please go to the next page

 9. Quantum dots are extremely small semiconductor components, with dimensions of
only a few nanometers. They have bound, discrete electronic states, similar to nat-
urally occurring atoms and molecules. Quantum dots have potential applications in
the areas of optical processing, quantum computing and biology.

(i) A process for creating quantum dots on the surface of a square piece of silicon
gives a probability density for finding a given dot at the location (x, y) on the
silicon as

1
p(x, y) = (x + y) for 0 ≤ x ≤ L and 0 ≤ y ≤ L
L3

= 0 elsewhere.

Find the conditional probability density for x given y, p(x |y). Are x and y statis-
tically independent random variables? Explain why or why not. [7 marks]
(ii) Consider a single, non-relativistic particle, of mass m, trapped in a one-
dimensional infinite potential well, and show that its minimum energy is given
by

h2
E= ,
8md 2

where h is Planck’s constant and d is the size of the potential well. [5 marks]
(iii) The Brus equation can be used to describe the photon emission energy of quan-
tum dots, E(r), and is written as

h2 1 1 1.786e 2
 
E(r) = Egap + 2 + − ,
8r me∗ mh∗ 4π0 r r

where Egap is the band gap energy, r the radius of the quantum dot, and me∗
and mh∗ are the effective masses of the excited electron and the excited hole,
respectively. Other symbols have their usual meanings.
Considering your result from part (ii) explain qualitatively the origin and form of
each of the terms in the Brus equation. [4 marks]
(iv) Quantum dots may be constructed from CdSe nanocrystals, which have the
following properties: Egap = 1.74 eV, me∗ = 0.13 me , mh∗ = 0.45 me and r = 10.
For crystals of radius 5 nm calculate the emission energy in electron-volts and
comment on the relative size of the terms in the equation.
[4 marks]

[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 13 Please go to the next page

 10. Write an essay about ONE of the following topics:

(i) Applications of machine learning in physics.

(ii) The redefinition of SI base units.
(iii) The physics of sailing.
(iv) Cosmic rays.
(v) Quantum computing.
(vi) The prospects of discovering life on another planet.
(vii) Light and colour in the atmosphere.
(viii) Electromagnetic propulsion.

[Total 20 marks]

2019/PComp I 14 End of examination paper