EDN-601_Educational Technology 2021

Unit-IV
INNOVATION IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Programmed Learning
Introduction: Programmed instruction owes its origin to the psychology of learning. It first
emerged in the beginning of the 20th century from the efforts of E.L. Thorndike (1874–1949).
Programmed learning is related with the “law of effect” as explained by Thorndike. According
to this law, reward, pleasure or satisfaction contributes in strengthening the behaviour i.e.
providing immediate reinforcement. In this way the law of effect has a close link with the
concept of reinforcement which is regarded as the back-bone of programmed instruction.

Other important psychologists who have made significant contributions in the field are Sydney
L. Pressey, Robert M. Gagne, Robert Mager and B.F. Skinner.
Meaning and Definition:
Personalized learning is a personalized instruction technique. It is based on the principle of
‘self-instruction’ and ‘individualized instruction’. It has been defined as a method of
individualized instruction, in which the student is active and proceeds at his own pace and is
provided with immediate knowledge of result. The physical presence of teacher is not essential
in this strategy.
According to Smith and Moore “Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the
material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the student from a
familiar background into a complex and new set of concepts, principles and understanding."
Espich and Williams “Programmed instruction is a planned sequence of experiences, leading to
proficiency, in terms of stimulus responses relationship that has proven to be effective”.
Leith. “Programme is a sequence of small steps of instructional material (called frames), most
of which requires a response to be made by completing a blank space in a sentence. To ensure
that expected responses are given, a system of cueing is applied, and each response is verified
by the provision of immediate knowledge of results. Such a sequence is intended to be worked
at the learners' own pace as individualized self sequence.”
Susam Markle. "It is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of instructional events to
produce a measurable and consistent effect on the behaviors of each and every acceptable
student.”
Thus, Programmed learning is that instruction in which subject matter is divided into small
frames and presented before the students in a sequence, designed to lead the learner from a
familiar background into a new and complex content, at their own rate. During the entire
process students are given feedback as per their rate of progress.

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Characteristics of Programmed Instruction
1. Programmed instruction is a method or technique of giving or receiving individualized
instruction from a variety of sources like programmed text book, teaching machine,
computers etc. with or without the help of a teacher.
2. Instructional material is logically sequenced and broken into suitable small steps or
segments called frames.
3. For sequencing a particular unit of the instructional material, the programmer has to
pay consideration for the entry behaviour of the learner with which it begins and the
terminal behaviour which student is required to achieve.
4. Programmed instruction system has an adequate provision for immediate feedback
which is based on the theory of reinforcement.
5. It is the interaction between the learner and learning material or programme which is
emphasized in the programmed instruction. Here the student is actively motivated to
learn and respond.
6. Programmed instruction provides self pacing and thus learning may occur at individual
rate rather than general.
7. It has the provision for continuous evaluation which may help in improving the students’
performance and the quality of programmed material.
Objectives of Programmed learning:
1. To help the student to learn by doing.
2. Provide a situation to learn at one’s own pace.
3. To help students to learn without the presence of teacher.
4. To present the content in a controlled manner and in logically related steps.
5. To assess one’s own performance by comparing with the given answer.

Fundamental Principles of Programmed Learning

1. Principle of small steps:
This principle is based on the basic assumption that one learns better if the content
matter is presented to him in suitable small steps. Therefore, according to this principle,
a programmer while preparing a programme should try to arrange the subject matter
into properly sequenced meaningful segments of information called frames. These
segments should be presented one at a time before the learner for responding.
2. Principle of active responding:
This principle rests on the assumption that a learner learns better by being active. In
programmed instruction the learner may remain active if he responds actively to every
frame presented to him. Therefore, a programme should actively involve the learner in
the learning process. It should formed that the learner may not feel much difficulty in

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moving from one frame to another and to remain meaningfully, busy and active by
responding to the frames and thus acquiring the knowledge step by step in a properly
sequenced way.
3. Principle of immediate reinforcement:
The psychological phenomenon reinforcement is the basis of this principle. One learns
better when one is motivated to learn by receiving information of the result just
immediately after responding. Therefore, in a good programme, appropriate
consideration is always made for the provision of immediate reinforcement by
informing him immediately about the correctness of his response.
4. Principle of self-pacing:
The programmed instruction is a technique of individualized instruction. It is based on
the basic assumption that learning takes place better if an individual is allowed to learn
at his own pace. Therefore, a good programme should always take care of the principle
of self-pacing. The programming of material should be done in view of the principle of
individual difference and the learner moves from one frame to another according to his
own speed of learning.
5. Principle of student-testing or student-evaluation:
For better learning it is always better to seek continuous evaluation of the learning
process. The present principle meets this requirement. In the programmed instruction,
the learner has to leave the record of his responses because he is required to write a
response for each frame on a response sheet. This detailed record help in revising the
programme.

Types of Programmed Learning

1. Linear Programming:
BF Skinner is the originator of linear programming. It is also called a single track
programme. This is based on operant conditioning which tells that human behavior can
be given a definite direction and desired behavior can be taught. According to Skinner, a
creature, a bird or a human being can be led to a desired behaviour by means of a
carefully constructed programme consisting of small steps leading logically through the
subject matter from topic to topic, provided each step is reinforced by some kind of
favourable experience or reward. The increments in information which the learner is
expected to absorb are small. The favourable experience or response increases the
probability of the same response again in the future. The process of rewarding the
correct response to a stimulus increases the general tendency to give a response.
The process may be graphically illustrated as shown below:

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As shown in the figure, the sequence of frames and path of learning in the programmed
learning is systematic and linear. That is why this type of programming is referred to as linear
programming. Hence all the learners have to proceed through the same frames and in the same
order. In a linear programme, a learner's responses are controlled externally by the
programmer sitting at a distant place. Hence linear programming is also termed as extrinsic
programming.
Principles of Linear Programming
i. Principle of small steps.
ii. Principle of active responding.
iii. Principle of minimum errors.
iv. Principle of knowledge of results.
Chief Characteristics of Linear Programming
i. A linear programme is a single track or a straight line programme.
ii. Learning material is presented in a series of small steps (frames).
iii. Every learner follows the same path in a linear programme.
iv. The content is broken up into small units that may range from one-word passage to one
of as many as 40 or 50 words in length.
v. The sequence of steps remains unchanged.
vi. The learner is expected to compose his own answer to each question and to respond
actively to each step or frame.
vii. The responses of the learner get immediate reinforcement.
viii. Linear Programming provides for self pacing, i.e., one can learn according to one’s own
speed.
ix. The programmer controls its sequence and the response of the learner.
x. In a linear programme, the learner learns by avoiding errors.

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Limitations of Linear Programming:
i. In linear programming, the learning process becomes somewhat dull on account of the
following reasons (a) Subject matter is broken into very small pieces, (b) Responding is
quite mechanical and restrictive, and (c) The learning process is quite slow.
ii. Its use is limited to some subjects and topics.
iii. Linear programming cramps the imagination of the learner and initiative for creative,
integrative and judgement learning.
iv. Linear programming does not develop the discriminating power of the students.

2. Branching or Intrinsic Programming:

Branching or Intrinsic Programming was developed by Norman A. Crowder, American
Psychologist. This programming is a technique to present the content. In this, all
responses are controlled by the student and not controlled extrinsically by the
programmer, therefore, it is called intrinsic programming.
In branching programme, a frame is given in one or two paragraphs or a full page.
Students keep passing through all frames one by one. After each frame, they have to
answer the right alternatives from the given multiple choice type of questions. If his
response is correct, he proceeds ahead and if his response is not correct, his is given
remedial instruction. For this, he is guided to the basic frame and then he is asked to
come back to that frame again. This process continues until a student is able to give the
right response.
This type of programming is called branching programming because in this all
students do not follow the same path for moving from one path to another, rather, they
have to adopt separate branches to arrive at the final frame.
This has been explained with the help of the diagram:

Figure: Main path and branching in branching programme.

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Characteristics of a Branching Programme
i. A frame may contain two or three related ideas or related sequences.
ii. Each frame is of relatively bigger size as compared with the linear type.
iii. The learner moves forward if his responses are correct but is diverted or branched to
one or more remedial frames if he does not give the correct response.
iv. The cycle goes on till the learner passes through the whole instructional material at his
own pace.
v. Branching programme contains multiple choices of items where the learner selects a
response.
vi. All learners do not follow the frame route. Rather, the route depends on the response
made by the learner. Thus, learners branch according to their responses.
Limitations of Branching Programming
i. The multiple choice questions provided in this programming may lead to guesswork on
the part of the learner and he may not understand the subject matter of the frame.
ii. The setting of appropriate multiple choice questions suiting the entire material of the
frames proves a difficult task.
iii. It is an expensive programme.
iv. It is difficult to cover the entire subject matter.

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Comparison of Linear Programming and Branching Programming
Concept or element under Linear Programming Branching Programming
comparison

1. Propagator B.F. Skinner N.A. Crowder

2. Background Operant conditioning Eclectic.
3. Size of the steps Small, fifteen to twenty five Larger, one to two paragraphs
words. or even a page
4. Number of steps Large Small
5. Presentation
(a) The types of Text The usual text book In scrambled book the normal
containing pages in normal sequence.
sequence.

(b) Teaching machine Complicated involving high

Simple, involving less cost. cost.
6. Response Mode Constructed responses Selection from the multiple
occasionally through multiple choices.
choices.
7. Reinforcement Correctness of the response. Remedial instruction follows
No remedy is suggested for incorrect responses.
incorrect responses.
8. Error rate Less about 5% 20% in general.
9. Utility and Lower classes. Higher classes.
appropriateness Knowledge and Higher order teaching
Understanding objectives. objectives.
Correspondence education. Remedial teaching in
Correspondence education.

Normal and less intelligent Talented and creative pupils.

pupils.
More useful in Concept More useful in concept
formation. comparison.
Best used in teaching facts, Best used in the area beyond
definitions and basic skills. facts, definitions or basic
skills.

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Advantages of Programmed Learning
1. Individual differences are kept in view as learn at their own rate under programmed
instruction. Therefore, it is student-centred programme.
2. Programmed instruction is divided into small frames. Therefore, it becomes easy for
students to learn by it.
3. Students remain active as they have to make responses at every frame.
4. Learning occurs at the maximum because students get immediate feedback after each
right response.
5. The outcome of teaching is more effective as compared to traditional technique of
teaching.
6. It cultivates the spirit of self-confidence and self-dependence in students.
7. It plays an important role in the field of correspondence and distance education too.
8. There are several frames for practice. These frames are presented in an interesting
manner, so students' interest is maintained and they are able to understand the lesson
easily.
9. The level of learning is higher and more effective.
Limitations of Programmed Instruction
1. Student-teacher contact is diminished under programmed instruction.
2. Programmed instruction is helpful in gaining learning, but there is no provision for
imparting experience in it.
3. Under programmed instruction, there is no interaction between student and teacher,
therefore students feel bored after some time.
4. Specialists are needed for constructing programmed instruction material, but they are
not available in our country in the desired number.
5. Programmed instruction is not available for all classes, so it cannot be used much in
teaching as of now.

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