Surface Review and Letters, Vol. 24, No.

3 (2017) 1750041 (16 pages)

°c World Scienti¯c Publishing Company
DOI: 10.1142/S0218625X1750041X

EFFECTS OF SURFACE PROPERTIES ON FLUID

ENGINEERING GENERATED BY THE
SURFACE-DRIVEN CAPILLARY FLOW OF WATER
IN MICROFLUIDIC LAB-ON-A-CHIP SYSTEMS
FOR BIOENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

SUBHADEEP MUKHOPADHYAY*,¶, JYOTI PRASAD BANERJEE†,

SUSANTA SINHA ROY‡, SANJEEV KUMAR METYA*,
§ §
MARK TWEEDIE and JAMES ANDREW McLAUGHLIN
*Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
by RUTGERS UNIVERSITY on 02/05/17. For personal use only.
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National Institute of Technology Arunachal Pradesh,

Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India),
Yupia, Papum Pare 791112, Arunachal Pradesh, India
†Institute
of Radio Physics and Electronics,
University of Calcutta, Kolkata 700009,
West Bengal, India
‡Department
of Physics, School of Natural Sciences,
Shiv Nadar University, Gautam Buddha Nagar 201314,
Uttar Pradesh, India
§
Nanotechnology and Integrated Bioengineering Centre,
School of Engineering, University of Ulster, Jordanstown Campus,
Newtownabbey, Antrim BT37 OQB, Northern Ireland, UK
¶subhadeepmukhopadhyay21@gmail.com

Received 22 February 2016

Revised 24 July 2016
Accepted 25 July 2016
Published 13 September 2016

In this research paper, in total 212 individual leakage-free Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)

micro°uidic devices are fabricated by maskless lithography, hot embossing lithography and direct
bonding technique. The e®ect of channel aspect ratio on dyed water °ow is investigated using these
micro°uidic devices. Experimental studies show that the dyed water °ow is faster on the surface of
higher wettability. The e®ect of capillary pressure on dyed water °ow is studied in the fabricated
PMMA micro°uidic devices. According to the experimental observations, the centrifugal force has
prominent e®ect on the dyed water °ow. Also, the e®ect of bend angle is investigated on the surface-
driven capillary °ow of water. The polystyrene microparticles have been separated in the micro-
°uidic lab-on-a-chip systems using the investigated °ow features. A 100% separation e±ciency is
achieved in these lab-on-a-chip systems. These micro°uidic lab-on-a-chip systems can be used to
separate blood cells from human whole blood for further clinical tests. These experimental studies
are important in bioengineering applications. The e®ect of bend angle as channel geometry to
control the surface-driven capillary °ow is investigated as a novel approach to control the separation
time in micro°uidic lab-on-a-chip systems. Also, the e®ect of surface wettability as surface property

¶ Corresponding author.

1750041-1
 S. Mukhopadhyay et al.

to control the surface-driven capillary °ow is investigated as a novel approach to control the
separation time in micro°uidic lab-on-a-chip systems.

Keywords: Hot embossing; micro°uidic device; capillary °ow; surface wettability.

1. Introduction micro°uidic lab-on-a-chip systems.8,20 Proper device

design enhances e±ciency of micro°uidic separators
In active capillary °ow, external electrical connec-
during the separation of microparticles.21–23 Nowa-
tions are necessary with the micro°uidic devices.1–3
days, the separation of microparticles in micro°uidic
In the case of passive capillary °ow, no external
lab-on-a-chip systems is a popular research area in
connection is required with any micro°uidic device.
many academic and industrial research laboratories
Only the surface tension forces between solid–liquid
to develop microtechnology, nanotechnology and the
interfaces are responsible for the surface-driven cap-
fundamentals of basic sciences.
illary °ow or passive capillary °ow.4 Therefore,
In recent past, many researchers have studied the
passive capillary °ow has the advantage to fabricate
nature and modes of surface-driven capillary °ow in
simple micro°uidic network. Channel aspect ratio is
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micro°uidic systems.24–28 Zhao et al. have reported the

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an important structural parameter to control the

principles of surface-directed liquid °ow in micro-
surface-driven capillary °ow in micro°uidic devices.5
°uidic channels.24 Yang et al. have demonstrated the
Channel aspect ratio is determined as the ratio of
channel height to channel width of rectangular velocity of capillary meniscus in a microchannel.25
microchannel.5 Also, surface wettability is a surface- Bouaidat et al. have depicted the theory and experi-
related property to control the surface-driven capil- ments on capillary systems in a recent report.26 Kim
lary °ow in micro°uidic devices.6 Centrifugal force is et al. have pictured the microchannel ¯lling of capil-
another important factor to control the surface- lary meniscus considering surface tension e®ects.27
driven capillary °ow in micro°uidic devices.5 The Reynolds number is generally less than 1 in the
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), SU-8 and surface-driven capillary °ow through microchannels.28
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) are suitable polymers Moreover, Teh et al. have reported a review on
to fabricate micro°uidic devices by various experi- droplet micro°uidics.29 Droplet micro°uidics is related
mental methods.7 Hot embossing lithography, mask- with digital micro°uidics. This platform of droplet
less lithography, imprinting, injection molding, soft micro°uidics has controlled the mixing of °uids in
lithography, laser photoablation and X-ray lithogra- reactors.29 Also, Jiang and Erickson have recently
phy are popular methods to fabricate polymer reported a light-governed capillary °ow in micro°uidic
micro°uidic devices.7 systems.30 According to their report, light-operated
Speci¯c laboratory work can be performed inside a °ow can provide the simple architecture and advanced
fabricated chip as lab-on-a-chip system according to functionality needed in point-of-care devices. Also,
the proper design. Microparticles separation from the Juncker has furnished his Ph.D. thesis (University
test solution is an important part of many point- of Neuchatel, 2002) entitled \Capillary micro°uidic
of-care diagnoses. In the recent past, many scientists systems for bio/chemistry" mentioning di®erent
and researchers have fabricated micro°uidic separa- applications of micro°uidic systems.31
tors in di®erent research laboratories internationally In this research paper, a set of leakage-free PMMA
along with the development of lab-on-a-chip tech- micro°uidic devices as microchannel bends is fabri-
nologies.8–13 Microparticles can be separated from cated by PMMA. Also, the e®ect of channel aspect
the test solution by di®erent active and passive ratio on surface-driven capillary °ow is studied in
techniques in micro°uidic lab-on-a-chip systems.14,15 PMMA micro°uidic devices. Subsequently, the e®ect
Optical separation, magnetic separation and electri- of surface wettability on surface-driven capillary
cal separation techniques are highly useful in many °ow is studied in PMMA micro°uidic devices. Sub-
lab-on-a-chip systems.16–19 Acoustic separation is also sequently the e®ect of capillary pressure on surface-
a useful technique to separate microparticles in driven capillary °ow is studied in PMMA micro°uidic

1750041-2
 Surface-Driven Capillary Water Flow in Micro°uidic Lab-on-a-Chip Systems

devices. Then, the e®ect of centrifugal force on sur- is used after a bend region of the inlet channel
face-driven capillary °ow is studied in these PMMA (channel 1). According to the principle of operation,
micro°uidic devices. Also, the e®ect of bend angle on the aqueous microparticle suspension is dispensed at
surface-driven capillary °ow is studied in these the inlet reservoir of the device (Fig. 1). Then, the
microchannel bends. The polystyrene microparticles suspension °ows through channel 1 and the centrif-
are separated in these microchannel bends. The e®ect ugal force is automatically applied on the micro-
of bend angle on separation time is investigated in the particles of the suspension in the bend region. The
microchannel bends. The e®ect of surface wettability microparticles are expected to °ow through channel 3
on separation time is investigated in these micro- due to the e®ect of the centrifugal force. Hence, the
channel bends. The micro°uidic lab-on-a-chip sys- ¯ltered °uid (without microparticles) is expected to
tems reported in this paper are useful to separate pass through channel 2 and the un¯ltered °uid (with
blood cells from human whole blood for further clin- microparticles) is expected to pass through channel 3.
ical tests. Therefore, these studies of this research The angle between channel 2 and channel 3 is termed
paper are useful in bioengineering applications. as `bend angle.'
According to the device designs of this research
paper, the widths of channel 1 (inlet channel), chan-
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2. Experimental Methods nel 2 (outlet channel) and channel 3 (outlet channel)

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2.1. Design of the micro°uidic devices are equal to each other in any particular prototype
as microchannel bends microchannel bend (Fig. 1). The channel widths are
60, 140 and 220
m in individual designs of the
In this research work, the prototype microchannel
microchannel bends. Therefore, three types of
bends are designed to study the surface-driven cap-
microchannel bends are designed from the structural
illary °ow of dyed water. These devices contain
point of view. In all the designs, the lengths of channel
microchannels of rectangular cross-section. The
2 and channel 3 are common as 4 mm and 3 mm,
channel aspect ratio is considered as a structural
respectively. Each of the above-mentioned designs of
parameter of the rectangular microchannels. In this
microchannel bends is drawn on a computer screen of
research work, the channel aspect ratio is de¯ned as
1024
768 pixels to facilitate maskless lithography.32
the ratio of the channel height to channel width.
These designs of microchannel bends are saved in the
Figure 1 shows the schematic of the designed proto-
individual 24-bit bitmap ¯les as `FileName.bmp.'
type microchannel bend. In the design, a bifurcation

2.2. Fabrication of SU-8-based silicon

stamp by maskless lithography
The SU-8-based silicon stamp is fabricated by
maskless lithography (noncontact lithography) using
SF-100 instrument (Intelligent Micropatterning,
LLC, Florida) in the cleanroom laboratory of class
1000 standard according to the Federal Standard
209E.33 The stamp is used to fabricate the PMMA
microchannel structures by hot embossing lithogra-
phy (contact lithography) in the same cleanroom
laboratory. On the chemical bench of cleanroom, the
silicon wafer (Mi-Net Technology Ltd., UK) is ¯rst
cleaned by the piranha solution (H2SO4 þH2O2 Þ to
clean the organic residues from the wafer surface.
After that, the wafer is cleaned by acetone and
deionized (DI) water. Next, the wafer is dehydrated
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the prototype microchannel on the digital hot plate (Cole-Parmer, USA) at 120  C
bend (top view). for 4 min. Then, the wafer is cooled down on the

1750041-3
 S. Mukhopadhyay et al.

digital hot plate up to the cleanroom temperature of stamp may not be proper in hot embossing lithogra-
26  C. SU-8 is a negative photoresist.34 SU-8 50 (Ches- phy without any anti-adhesion layer on the stamp
tech Ltd., England) is coated on the silicon wafer by a surface. So, a thin ¯lm of hydrogenated amorphous
spin speed of 2000 RPM in a SCS G3 spin coater (Spe- carbon (a-C:H) is deposited on the stamp surface in
cialty Coating Systems, IN, USA). Next, the coated the plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
wafer is soft baked on the digital hot plate at 65  C for (PECVD) system (Oxford Instruments, England,
15 min. After that, the temperature of the digital hot UK).36 Thin ¯lm of a-C:H is a diamond-like carbon
plate surface is ramped up from 65  C to 95  C and the (DLC) coating.36 This thin ¯lm acts as an anti-stic-
coated wafer is soft baked at 95  C for 35 min. tion layer between the SU-8 surface and the PMMA
Now, this soft-baked sample is used in maskless substrate surface during the pattern transfer to pro-
lithography by SF-100 arranged on the cleanroom duce the proper microchannel structures.37
bench just beside the chemical bench.32 The baked For the anti-stiction coating, the stamp is placed
sample is placed on the exposure bench in SF-100. inside the PECVD chamber. Then, the vacuum
Before switching on the SF-100, the safety-goggles are pressure is maintained at 1.7
10 6 Torr inside the
put on, to protect the eyes from any kind of re°ection PECVD chamber. After that, the stamp surface is
of the ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The radiation in- cleaned by Ar at 61 SCCM at 1.8
10 2 Torr for
by RUTGERS UNIVERSITY on 02/05/17. For personal use only.

tensity of UV light in SF-100 is measured by an ul- 6 min. Next, the a-C:H ¯lm is deposited on the stamp
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traviolet intensity meter (UVX Digital UV Intensity surface for 7 min using the gas mixture of Ar (10
Meter, Cole-Parmer, USA) in the cleanroom before SCCM) and C2H2(20 SCCM) at the chamber pres-
starting UV exposure on the soft-baked sample. The sure of 6.4
10 3 Torr. The a-C:H ¯lm thickness is
soft-baked SU-8 layer is exposed to the UV light of measured as 67 nm by scanning the stamp surface
365 nm in SF-100 at a radiation intensity of 309 using the surface stylus pro¯lometer. So, this thin

Wcm 2 for 36 s. All the portions of this soft-baked layer of DLC is a nano¯lm. This a-C:H-coated stamp
sample are exposed one after another for the same UV is used for pattern transfer on the PMMA substrate
exposure time and with the same UV intensity in SF- by hot embossing lithography.
100. The exposed region of SU-8 layer is cross-linked
by the post-exposure bake. For su±cient cross-link-
ing, the sample is baked on the digital hot plate at
2.4. Fabrication of leakage-free pristine
65  C for 5 min. Then the temperature of the digital
PMMA micro°uidic devices by hot
hot plate surface is ramped up from 65  C to 95  C and
embossing lithography and direct
the sample is baked at 95  C for 15 min. After the
bonding technique
post-exposure bake, the sample is cooled down on the Inside the cleanroom, the pristine PMMA micro-
digital hot plate surface up to the cleanroom tem- channel structures are fabricated by pattern transfer
perature of 26  C. Then the sample is developed by on the PMMA substrate (Engineering and Design
colorless liquid EC solvent (SU-8 Developer supplied Plastics Ltd., UK) in EVG520HE system (EV Group,
by MicroChem, USA) for 6 min on the chemical Austria) using the fabricated stamp. At ¯rst, the
bench. After that, the sample is hard baked on the stamp is placed on the PMMA substrate for proper
digital hot plate surface by a temperature ramp up contact inside the embossing chamber of EVG520HE
from 120  C to 195  C (well below the glass transition system. Then, the vacuum pressure is created as 0.4
temperature of SU-8) for 21 min. Next, the digital hot mbar inside the embossing chamber. Next, 10 kN
plate is switched o® but the sample is kept on the embossing force is applied on the stamp for the pat-
digital hot plate surface for natural cooling up to the tern transfer on the PMMA substrate at 125  C
cleanroom temperature of 26  C. (above the glass transition temperature of purchased
PMMA substrates) for 2 min. The vacuum pressure is
maintained at 0.4 mbar inside the embossing chamber
2.3. Coating of the anti-adhesion layer during the pattern transfer. After removal of the
on the stamp surface embossing force, the temperature is reduced to 50  C
PMMA is an adhesive material for SU-8.36 Therefore, inside the embossing chamber. Next, the embossing
the pattern transfer on the PMMA substrate from the chamber is vented. The main PMMA substrate

1750041-4
 Surface-Driven Capillary Water Flow in Micro°uidic Lab-on-a-Chip Systems

containing the microchannel structures along with locations of main lid substrate. After drilling, the
the stamp is placed on the cooling pad beside the PMMA dusts are removed by washing the main lid
embossing chamber. The temperature and pressure substrate using distilled water in an ultrasonic soni-
parameters in each step of the hot embossing lithog- cator bath (Branson Ultrasonics, USA). Subse-
raphy are shown in Table 1. The microchannel height quently, the main lid substrate is dried on the digital
is measured as 29
m by scanning the microchannel hot plate at 105  C (well below the glass transition
structure surface by the surface stylus pro¯lometer. temperature of purchased PMMA substrates) for
In the direct bonding technique, no adhesive layer 15 min. The main PMMA lid substrate is then placed
is required between the lid substrate and the micro- on the main PMMA microchannel structure substrate
channel substrate for leakage-free sealing.38 The inside the embossing chamber, maintaining the
PMMA lid substrate is in proper contact with the proper contact of the circular holes at the corre-
PMMA microchannel substrate during the steps of sponding locations of the inlet and outlet reservoirs.
direct bonding. Before starting direct bonding, 2 mm Then the embossing chamber is closed and the vac-
circular holes are marked on the PMMA main lid uum pressure is maintained at 0.4 mbar during all the
substrate by a blue ink marker pen at proper places, steps of direct bonding. Table 2 shows the tempera-
followed by the marking of the corresponding loca- ture and pressure parameters in each step of direct
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tions of the inlet and outlet reservoirs of the already bonding technique. At 90  C, the bonding force of 9
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fabricated PMMA microchannel structures on the kN is applied for 4 min. After the last step of direct
other main PMMA substrate. After this, the 2 mm bonding, the embossing chamber is vented, and the
circular holes are drilled accurately at the marked sealed main substrate containing 24 pristine micro-
locations by a drill press (Model No. ZQJ4116, channel bends is placed on the cooling pad (within
Qingdao Summit Machinery Co., Ltd., China) in the EVG520HE system) beside the embossing chamber.
mechanical engineering workshop. In the drill press According to the experiment, it is observed that the
machine, drill bit of 2 mm diameter is used as the direct bonding between PMMA lid and PMMA
cutting tool to make 2 mm holes at the proper marked microchannel structure is not leakage-free below the

Table 1. Steps of hot embossing lithography to fabricate PMMA microchannel structures.

Vacuum pressure Duration of

inside the embossing the process
Temperature inside the embossing chamber chamber (mbar) State of the embossing force step (min)

Ramp up from 50  C to 90  C 0.4 Before switching on the embossing force 29

Ramp up from 90  C to 115  C 0.4 Before switching on the embossing force 23
Ramp up from 115  C to 125  C 0.4 Before switching on the embossing force 18
125  C 0.4 10 kN force is switched on 2
Ramp down from 125  C to 115  C 0.4 After switching o® the embossing force 25
Ramp down from 115  C to 90  C 0.4 After switching o® the embossing force 29
Ramp down from 90  C to 50  C 0.4 After switching o® the embossing force 34

Table 2. Steps of direct bonding for leakage-free sealing in PMMA micro°uidic devices.

Vacuum pressure Duration of

inside the embossing the process
Temperature inside the embossing chamber chamber (mbar) State of the bonding force step (min)

Ramp up from 45  C to 90  C 0.4 Before switching on the bonding force 28

90  C 0.4 9 kN force is switched on 4
Ramp down from 90  C to 65  C 0.4 9 kN force is switched on 33
Ramp down from 65  C to 40  C 0.4 After switching o® the bonding force 37

1750041-5
 S. Mukhopadhyay et al.

bonding force of 8 kN. Therefore, a minimum of 8 kN fabricated stamp (Table 1). To fabricate each pro-
bonding force is required to fabricate leakage-free cessed prototype microchannel bend, the pristine
pristine PMMA micro°uidic devices. microchannel structure surface and the corresponding
After direct bonding, if any pristine PMMA lab- pristine lid surface are simultaneously treated by
on-a-chip system is viewed with bare eyes by placing DBD plasma in a dielectric barrier discharge system
the white light at the backside of this lab-on-a-chip (Arcotec GmbH, Germany) by adjusting the lift
system, then the colored interference fringes are ob- length of 740 mm with 20% speed for ¯ve cycles
served in the case of leaky system following the during the 5 s residence time.39,40 After DBD plasma
principles of optics due to the presence of thin air ¯lm treatment, the treated microchannel structure sur-
between the PMMA channel substrate and PMMA faces and lid surfaces are maintained in continuous
lid substrate. But, no interference fringe is observed contact with natural air within the laboratory for 48 h
in the case of leakage-free PMMA lab-on-a-chip sys- to complete the processing. Next, the processed lid
tem due to the proper contact between the PMMA surface is sealed to the processed microchannel
channel substrate and PMMA lid substrate. There- structure surface by the same direct bonding tech-
fore, after this novel `white-light test,' the bonding nique (Table 2). After sealing, all the inner surfaces
steps are optimized to achieve a leakage-free sealing are DBD plasma-processed at each processed
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between the PMMA lid and the PMMA microchannel microchannel bend.
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structure. In a leaky system, the exact characteristics The processed prototype microchannel bends are
of any micro°uidic °ow cannot be investigated after separated as micro°uidic chips from the sealed main
the establishment of micro°uidic °ow phenomena. substrate using the same hot wire cutter instrument.
After cooling up to the cleanroom temperature, Totally 48 leakage-free processed microchannel bends
the pristine prototype microchannel bends are sepa- are fabricated as micro°uidic chips. This group of 48
rated as micro°uidic chips from the sealed main processed microchannel bends is used to determine
substrate using a hot wire cutter instrument the °uid °ow characteristics of dyed water at di®er-
(PROXXON 37080 Hot Wire Cutter Thermocut, ent levels of surface wettability. Also, the e®ect of
USA). The dimensions of each rectangular micro- surface wettability on the surface-driven water °ow is
°uidic chip are 18 mm in length, 14 mm in width and easy to determine by comparing the °ow through
2 mm in height. In total, 48 leakage-free pristine processed microchannel bends with the °ow through
microchannel bends are fabricated as micro°uidic pristine microchannel bends. Also, each processed
chips. This group of 48 pristine microchannel bends is microchannel bend is used only one time to record the
used to record the micro°uidic °ow of dyed water, to surface-driven micro°uidic °ow. Again, chip numbers
determine the °uid °ow characteristics with respect are assigned on the outer top surfaces of all processed
to channel aspect ratio, surface wettability, capillary microchannel bends by a blue ink marker pen.
pressure and centrifugal force. Each pristine micro-
channel bend is used only one time to record surface-
driven micro°uidic °ow. Chip numbers are assigned 3. Results and Discussions
on the outer top surfaces of all the pristine micro-
channel bends by a blue ink marker pen. 3.1. E®ect of channel aspect ratio on the
surface-driven capillary °ow of water
The channel widths of 60, 140 and 220
m have the
2.5. Fabrication of the leakage-free corresponding channel aspect ratios (ratio of channel
processed micro°uidic devices by hot height to channel width) of 0.483, 0.207 and 0.131,
embossing lithography, atmospheric respectively, as the channel height is equal to 29
m
pressure air DBD plasma processing for each channel width. Dyed water is prepared by
and direct bonding technique mixing 4 mL red dye (SuperCook Red Food Colour-
A separate group of air dielectric barrier discharge ing 38 mL, BritishSupermarketWorldwide, England)
(DBD) plasma-processed microchannel bends is pre- with 40 mL distilled water. The speed of the surface-
pared. At ¯rst, the pristine PMMA microchannel driven micro°uidic °ow is determined by measuring
structures are fabricated by hot embossing using the the velocity of the capillary meniscus (air–water

1750041-6
 Surface-Driven Capillary Water Flow in Micro°uidic Lab-on-a-Chip Systems

interface). In each microchannel, the meniscus ve- individual micro°uidic devices are tested under the
locity is measured along the centerline of the micro- optical microscope (HORIBA Scienti¯c, USA) for a
channel. A CMOS camera of FlexCam iCam Digital speci¯c application.
model (ClearOne Communications, USA) is used to In pristine PMMA microchannel bends, the surface-
capture the meniscus propagation in all microchannel driven micro°uidic °ow of dyed water is faster in
bends. The CMOS camera has a digital video capture channel 2 of higher channel aspect ratio as shown in
speed of 25 frames per second (FPS) with a corre- Fig. 3. Similarly, in pristine PMMA microchannel
sponding resolution of 0.04 s. A representative group bends, the surface-driven micro°uidic °ow of dyed
of snapshot images is shown in Fig. 2 to demonstrate water is faster in channel 3 of higher channel aspect
the propagation of capillary meniscus in channel 2 ratio as shown in Fig. 3. Also, in DBD plasma-pro-
and channel 3 of DBD plasma-processed micro- cessed PMMA microchannel bends, the surface-driven
channel bend of 140
m channel width. About 10
L micro°uidic °ow of dyed water is faster in channel 2 of
drop of dyed water is dispensed at the inlet reservoir higher channel aspect ratio as shown in Fig. 4. Simi-
of each microchannel bend using a nonelectrical larly, in DBD plasma-processed PMMA microchannel
microsyringe pump (Unimetrics Corporation, USA). bends, the surface-driven micro°uidic °ow of dyed
Totally 166 individual video ¯les (Audio Video water is faster in channel 3 of higher channel aspect
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Interleave ¯le as \FileName.avi") are collected after ratio as shown in Fig. 4. So, in this research work, the
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recording the micro°uidic °ow through many pristine surface-driven micro°uidic °ow is faster in any PMMA
and processed prototype microchannel bends. The microchannel of higher channel aspect ratio.
time recorded in each frame of all the video ¯les is
completely matching with the simultaneous real time
measured by a digital clock. Each video ¯le has the 3.2. E®ect of surface wettability on the
size of less than 1.5 GB. These recorded video ¯les are surface-driven capillary °ow of water
numbered as from 1.avi to 166.avi. Other 46 indi- The static contact angle of distilled water is measured
vidual micro°uidic devices among the total 212 on the pristine and DBD plasma-processed °at

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2. (Color online) A representative group of snapshot images is captured during the meniscus propagation in DBD
plasma-processed microchannel bend of 140
m channel width. The dyed water is dispensed at the inlet reservoir of this
microchannel bend. In image (a), the dyed water has just entered into channel 2 and channel 3. In image (b), the dyed water is
°owing through channel 2 and channel 3. In image (c), the dyed water reaches the outlet reservoirs. Few parts of the blue
marks surrounding the inlet reservoir and outlet reservoirs are still present after drilling, as captured by the CMOS camera.
Also, the natural wrinkles of cleanroom tissue paper (under the micro°uidic chip) are recorded during the micro°uidic °ow,
according to the adjusted focus of the CMOS camera. The e®ect of centrifugal force on the dyed water is prominent in the
images (a) and (b).

1750041-7
 S. Mukhopadhyay et al.

0.48 plasma-processed °at PMMA surfaces, respectively.

Pristine microchannel bends
0.46 Channel 2 Higher static contact angle of a liquid on any par-
Meniscus velocity (mm/sec)

0.44 Channel 3 ticular °at solid surface corresponds to a lower surface

0.42
0.40 wettability of that liquid for that particular solid
0.38 surface.41,42 So, the surface wettability is signi¯cantly
0.36 higher on the DBD plasma-processed °at PMMA
0.34 surface than the pristine °at PMMA surface in terms
0.32
of static contact angle of water.
0.30
0.28 Corresponding to the microchannel bends of 60
m
0.26 channel width, the meniscus velocity of dyed water is
0.24 around 1.41 times higher in DBD plasma-processed
0.22 channel 2 than in the pristine channel 2, since the
0.20
surface wettability of DBD plasma-processed channel
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
2 is higher than in the pristine channel 2. Also, in
Channel aspect ratio
these devices of 60
m channel width, the meniscus
Fig. 3. (Color online) Variations of the meniscus velocity velocity of dyed water is around 1.31 times higher in
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in channel 2 and channel 3 are shown with respect to the DBD plasma-processed channel 3 than in the pristine
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channel aspect ratio in the case of pristine PMMA micro- channel 3 due to the same reason of surface wetta-
channel bends. bility. Corresponding to the microchannel bends of
140
m channel width, the meniscus velocity of dyed
PMMA surfaces by sessile drop method using an
water is around 1.52 times higher in DBD plasma-
optical contact angle meter (CAM 200, KSV Instru-
processed channel 2 than in the pristine channel 2.
ments Ltd., Helsinki, Finland). About 5
L amount of
Similarly, in these devices of 140
m channel width,
distilled water is dispensed on the test surface for each
the meniscus velocity of dyed water is around 1.34
measurement of static contact angle. Totally 10
times higher in DBD plasma-processed channel 3
readings are recorded in each of the 10 individual
than in the pristine channel 3. Corresponding to the
occasions. The average value of these 10 readings is
microchannel bends of 220
m channel width, the
accepted as the measured static contact angle of
meniscus velocity of dyed water is around 1.72 times
distilled water. The measured static contact angles
higher in DBD plasma-processed channel 2 than in
are 78.73  and 44.88  on the pristine and DBD
the pristine channel 2. Also, in these devices of
220
m channel width, the meniscus velocity of dyed
Processed microchannel bends
0.60 Channel 2
water is around 1.45 times higher in DBD plasma-
Channel 3 processed channel 3 than in the pristine channel
Meniscus velocity (mm/sec)

0.55 3. So, the surface-driven capillary °ow of dyed

water is faster in the microchannels of higher surface
0.50
wettability.

0.45 3.3. E®ect of capillary pressure on the

surface-driven capillary °ow of water
0.40
The capillary pressure (
Pcap Þ at the solid–liquid–gas
interface has been expressed as follows:
0.35  
ðw þ 2hÞ w
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Pcap ¼ lg ðcos 1 Þ þ ðcos 2 Þ ; ð1Þ
Channel aspect ratio
wh wh
where lg is the air–water interfacial surface tension
Fig. 4. (Color online) Variations of the meniscus velocity
in channel 2 and channel 3 are shown with respect to the per unit area. 2 is the water contact angle on the top
channel aspect ratio in the case of DBD plasma-processed wall; and 1 is the water contact angle on the bottom
PMMA microchannel bends. wall and side walls of the microchannel. The water

1750041-8
 Surface-Driven Capillary Water Flow in Micro°uidic Lab-on-a-Chip Systems

meniscus propagation is possible in the microchannel by channel 3 and meniscus velocity in channel 2 is almost
capillary action if
P has positive value.43 w and h are same even when the channel width is increased in
the channel width and channel height, respectively. The DBD plasma-processed microchannel bends.
water contact angle is lower in the DBD plasma-pro-
cessed channel walls than in pristine channel walls. So,
the capillary pressure is higher in the DBD plasma-
3.5. E®ect of bend angle on the
processed channels than in pristine channels according
surface-driven capillary °ow of water
to Eq. (1). Therefore, the surface-driven capillary °ow of In Fig. 5, the propagations of dyed water meniscus
water is faster in the DBD plasma-processed channels are shown in the pristine microchannel bends of dif-
than that in the pristine channels. ferent bend angles. The variations of meniscus velocity
of dyed water in channel 2 and channel 3 are shown in
Figs. 6 and 7 with respect to the variations in bend
3.4. E®ect of centrifugal force on the angle. Separate stamps are fabricated to prepare the
surface-driven capillary °ow of water microchannel bends of 40  , 50  , 70  and 90  bend
The centrifugal force is applied on the dyed water in angles. The channel width is designed as 140
m and
the bend region of the microchannel bend (Fig. 1). In the measured channel height is 31
m in the pristine
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Fig. 2, the meniscus propagation of dyed water is and processed PMMA microchannel bends to investi-
Surf. Rev. Lett. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

faster in channel 3 than that in channel 2 due to the gate the e®ect of bend angle on meniscus velocity.
applied centrifugal force. Corresponding to the pris- In the pristine microchannel bends, the meniscus
tine microchannel bend of 60
m channel width, the velocity is larger in channel 2 for higher bend angle as
meniscus velocity of dyed water is around 1.21 times shown in Fig. 6. Also, the meniscus velocity is larger
higher in channel 3 than that in channel 2 due to the in channel 3 of pristine devices for higher bend angle
e®ect of centrifugal force on dyed water in channel 3. as shown in Fig. 6. For each bend angle, the meniscus
Corresponding to the pristine microchannel bend of velocity is larger in channel 3 than in channel 2 of the
140
m channel width, the meniscus velocity of dyed pristine devices as shown in Fig. 6. In the DBD
water is around 1.31 times higher in channel 3 than plasma-processed microchannel bends, similar e®ects
that in channel 2. Similarly, corresponding to the of bend angle are observed upon variations of me-
pristine microchannel bend of 220
m channel width, niscus velocity as shown in Fig. 7. The variations of
the meniscus velocity of dyed water is around 1.41 meniscus velocity at di®erent bend angles may be
times higher in channel 3 than that in channel 2. caused due to the variations of capillary pressure at
Corresponding to the DBD plasma-processed micro- the junction of channel 2 and channel 3.
channel bend of 60
m channel width, the meniscus
velocity of dyed water is around 1.13 times higher in
channel 3 than that in channel 2. Corresponding to 3.6. Separation of polystyrene
the DBD plasma-processed microchannel bend of microparticles from aqueous
140
m channel width, the meniscus velocity of dyed suspensions in the prototype
water is around 1.16 times higher in channel 3 than and structurally-modi¯ed
that in channel 2. Also, corresponding to the DBD microchannel bends
plasma-processed microchannel bend of 220
m The major function of these designed prototype
channel width, the meniscus velocity of dyed water is microchannel bends is to separate the polystyrene
around 1.18 times higher in channel 3 than that in microparticles from the test aqueous suspensions.
channel 2 due to the e®ect of centrifugal force. Experimentation shows that the prototype micro-
In pristine microchannel bends, the ratio between channel bend of Fig. 1 is capable of separating poly-
meniscus velocity in channel 3 and meniscus velocity styrene microparticles e±ciently from the test
in channel 2 is increased with the increase in channel aqueous suspensions. To facilitate the determination
width. Unlike in the case of pristine microchannel of separation e±ciency, a square observation chamber
bends, the dependence of this ratio on channel width (500
m
500
m) is added at the middle of channel
is di®erent in DBD plasma-processed microchannel 2 of the prototype microchannel bends. If N2 is the
bends. The ratio between meniscus velocity in number of polystyrene microparticles that are

1750041-9
 S. Mukhopadhyay et al.

(a) (b)
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Surf. Rev. Lett. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Fig. 5. (Color online) The propagations of dyed water meniscus are shown in the pristine microchannel bends of di®erent
bend angles. In the images (a) and (b), the meniscus propagation is shown in the microchannel bend of bend angle 50  . The
water meniscus is more advanced in channel 3 than in channel 2 due to the e®ect of centrifugal force in this microchannel
bend. In the images (c) and (d), the meniscus propagation is shown in the microchannel bend of bend angle 70  . The e®ect of
centrifugal force is prominent in this device also. In the images (e) and (f), the meniscus propagation is shown in the
microchannel bend of bend angle 90  with the clear e®ect of centrifugal force.

1750041-10
 Surface-Driven Capillary Water Flow in Micro°uidic Lab-on-a-Chip Systems

0.56 The separation e±ciency is observed to be 94% in

Pristine PMMA
0.54 Channel 2 both pristine and processed prototype microchannel
bends to separate 10
m polystyrene particles.
Meniscus velocity (mm/sec)

0.52 Channel 3
0.50 (Channel width=140µm,
Channel height=31µm) In this phase of investigation, the design of pro-
0.48
totype microchannel bend is modi¯ed into a simple
0.46
0.44 and e±cient micro°uidic network named as
0.42 `structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bend.' At ¯rst,
0.40 the structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bend is
0.38 designed in a laboratory computer following the al-
0.36 ready investigated striking °ow features in order to
0.34 achieve the maximum separation e±ciency in a de-
0.32
sired separation time. The widths of channel 1,
0.30
channel 2 and channel 3 are adjusted as 200, 100
40 50 60 70 80 90
and 400
m, respectively. The width of channel 1
Bend angle (degree)
(200
m) is gradually increased in the bend region to
Fig. 6. (Color online) Variations of the meniscus velocity the width of channel 3 (400
m) according to the
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of dyed water in channel 2 and channel 3 are shown with design of Fig. 8. This gradually increasing channel
Surf. Rev. Lett. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

respect to the bend angle in the case of pristine PMMA width in the bend region is expected to produce
microchannel bends of 140
m channel width and 31
m
su±cient centrifugal force on the aqueous micro-
channel height.
particle suspension. According to this combination
of channel widths, major amount of polystyrene
0.68
microparticles is expected to pass through channel 3
0.66 Processed PMMA due to the e®ect of centrifugal force in the bend re-
Channel 2
0.64 gion. So, less amount of microparticles is expected to
Meniscus velocity (mm/sec)

Channel 3
0.62 (Channel width=140µm,
0.60 pass through channel 2. In this new design, another
Channel height=31µm)
0.58 chamber named as `chamber 1' is added in channel 2
0.56 before the observation chamber (chamber 2) as
0.54
0.52 shown in Fig. 8.
0.50 Hence a sudden expansion is added in channel 2 at
0.48
0.46
the entrance of chamber 1 in structurally-modi¯ed
0.44 microchannel bend. The expansion ratio is 1.0:8.7 in
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.36
40 50 60 70 80 90
Bend angle (degree)

Fig. 7. (Color online) Variations of the meniscus velocity

of dyed water in channel 2 and channel 3 are shown with
respect to the bend angle in the case of DBD plasma-pro-
cessed PMMA microchannel bends of 140
m channel width
and 31
m channel height.

observed in the observation chamber and N1 is the

number of dispensed polystyrene microparticles at
the inlet reservoir, then the separation e±ciency is
calculated as
 
N1  N2
Efficiency ð%Þ ¼
100: ð2Þ Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of the structurally-modi¯ed
N1 microchannel bend (top view).

1750041-11
 S. Mukhopadhyay et al.

this sudden expansion. Chamber 1 is not a perfect The aqueous suspension of 10
m polystyrene
square or rectangle according to the design. Five particles is prepared using 1
106 particles  mL 1
square micropillars and one rectangular micropillar number density. The aqueous suspension of 1
106
are designed inside chamber 1. The side length of each particles  mL 1 is dispensed at the inlet reservoir of
square pillar is designed as 200
m. The length and the structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bend fabri-
width of the rectangular pillar are designed as 460
m cated by pristine PMMA. The bend angle of this
and 80
m, respectively. The inter-pillar distance is device is 50  . Figure 9 shows the propagation of
de¯ned as the horizontal distance between the suspension meniscus in this structurally-modi¯ed
micropillars at the pillar bottom. Both the inter-pillar microchannel bend. Before chamber 1, the suspension
distance and pillar to chamber side wall distance are meniscus propagates faster in channel 3 than in
designed as 60
m. After the separation at micro- channel 2 due to the e®ect of centrifugal force as
channel junction, the residual microparticles present shown in Fig. 9. Due to the sudden expansion of
in channel 2 are expected to be blocked by the chamber 1, the meniscus propagation slows down
micropillars in chamber 1. Another microchannel more in channel 2. In this way, major amount of
named as channel 4 is connected to chamber 1. polystyrene microparticles is passing through channel
Channel 4 has 200
m width and is parallel to channel 3. The rest of the microparticles are blocked by the
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3 according to the design. The blocked microparticles micropillars of chamber 1 as shown in Fig. 10. No
Surf. Rev. Lett. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

in chamber 1 are expected to enter into channel 4 due microparticle is observed in the observation chamber
to kinetic inertia during the capillary °ow of test (chamber 2). So 100% separation e±ciency is
aqueous suspension in channel 2. In this design, the achieved in this structurally-modi¯ed microchannel
observation chamber (chamber 2) has 300
m length bend according to Eq. (2). Similarly, 100% separation
and 300
m width in order to visualize any polysty- e±ciency is achieved in DBD plasma-processed
rene microparticle passing after the blocking chamber structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bend of 50  bend
(chamber1) during the separation process. The angle. After that, 100% separation e±ciency is ex-
lengths of channel 2, channel 3 and channel 4 are 5, 4 perimentally achieved in the structurally-modi¯ed
and 2.6 mm, respectively, according to the design. microchannel bends of bend angles 40  , 70  and 90 

(a) (b)

Fig. 9. (Color online) The propagation of dyed aqueous suspension meniscus is shown in the structurally-modi¯ed micro-
channel bend fabricated by pristine PMMA. In image (a), the e®ect of centrifugal force is present on the aqueous micro-
particle suspension as the meniscus propagation is larger in channel 3 than in channel 2. In this device, the bend angle is 50  .
The aqueous suspension of 1
106 particles  mL 1 is dispensed at the inlet reservoir of the device. The images are captured by
the CMOS camera. The major parts of this CMOS camera are a CMOS image sensor and a USB interface to the laboratory
computer for recording the micro°uidic °ow in the same laboratory computer.

1750041-12
 Surface-Driven Capillary Water Flow in Micro°uidic Lab-on-a-Chip Systems

(a) (b)
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Surf. Rev. Lett. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

(c) (d)

Fig. 10. (Color online) The optical microscope images are captured to observe the separation of 10
m polystyrene particles
in the pristine structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bend after dispensing the aqueous suspension of 1
106 particles  mL 1 .
The images are described as follows: (a) 10
m particles are present in channel 3 (near the outlet) during the simultaneous
blocking of microparticles in chamber 1; (b) residual particles are obstructed by the square pillars in chamber 1 during the
separation; (c) no particle is observed in the upper half of the observation chamber (chamber 2) after the separation in
chamber 1; and (d) also, no particle is observed in the lower half of the observation chamber after the separation in chamber 1.
These images are captured by a 10
objective lens of the optical microscope (HORIBA Scienti¯c, USA).

corresponding to pristine devices and DBD plasma- 400

Processed PMMA
processed devices. `Separation time' is de¯ned as the Pristine PMMA
350
time interval between the time of dispensing the
Separation time (sec)

aqueous microparticle suspension at the inlet 300

reservoir of channel 1 and the time of reaching the
250
suspension at the outlet reservoir of channel 2. All the
microparticles will be separated in the structurally- 200
modi¯ed microchannel bend within the corresponding
150
separation time. The separation time depends on the
bend angle and surface wettability (pristine or pro- 100
cessed). The separation time is lower in the struc-
50
turally-modi¯ed microchannel bend corresponding to
higher bend angle as shown in Fig. 11. Also, the 40 50 60 70 80 90
separation time is lower in the DBD plasma-processed Bend angle (degree)
structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bend of any par- Fig. 11. (Color online) The variations in separation time
ticular bend angle than the pristine device of same of the pristine and processed structurally-modi¯ed micro-
bend angle as shown in Fig. 11. channel bends are shown with respect to bend angle.

1750041-13
 S. Mukhopadhyay et al.

The blood cells of human whole blood are classi¯ed techniques to control the micro°uidic °ow in lab-on-
into the following three categories: (i) erythrocytes a-chip systems48,49 According to these recent papers,
[red blood cells (RBCs)], (ii) leukocytes [white blood the technique to control the °ow characteristics by
cells (WBCs)] and (iii) platelets. The RBCs have an adjusting the structural geometry in lab-on-a-chip
average diameter of 8
m.44 The WBCs have an av- systems is a new technology as explained in this
erage diameter of 13
m.36 The platelets have an av- paper. Also, the design of the structurally-modi¯ed
erage diameter of 3
m.44 So the human whole blood microchannel bend is completely novel by comparing
is a microparticle suspension. The separation e±- with the designs of other research groups.49
ciency of structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bend to Eddington et al. and Kim et al. have performed the
separate blood cells from human whole blood depends hydrophobic recovery test to investigate the steadiness
on the particle size (average diameter of blood cells), of static contact angle on solid surface.50,51 The
particle shape of blood cells and particle number steadiness of static water contact angle on DBD plas-
density of blood cells. The human whole blood should ma-processed PMMA surface is a challenge. Therefore,
be diluted by mixing distilled water to have the par- the hydrophobic recovery test on DBD plasma-pro-
ticle number density of blood cells at 1
106 cessed °at PMMA surface is performed in the labora-
particles  mL 1 . Therefore, according to the average tory by measuring the static contact angle of distilled
by RUTGERS UNIVERSITY on 02/05/17. For personal use only.

diameter, the WBCs will be separated from human water on this polymeric surface in continuous time
Surf. Rev. Lett. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

whole blood with 100% separation e±ciency by the intervals of 24 h. The measured static contact angle of
designed and fabricated PMMA lab-on-a-chip sys- distilled water was steady continuously on the DBD
tems as structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bends of plasma-processed °at PMMA surface for more than 30
this research paper. Based on the average diameter, days. So, according to this paper, the durability of
the RBCs will also be separated with 100% separation DBD plasma-processed PMMA lab-on-a-chip systems
e±ciency by these PMMA lab-on-a-chip systems as is more than 30 days. This durability is moderate for
structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bends. But the the point-of-care purpose of this lab-on-a-chip system
separation e±ciency of structurally-modi¯ed micro- in commercial applications.
channel bend to separate RBCs and WBCs from
human whole blood may not be 100% due to the
particle shapes of RBCs and WBCs. After the sepa-
4. Conclusions
ration of RBCs and WBCs, the blood plasma will be Totally 212 individual leakage-free PMMA micro-
used for further clinical tests. channel bends are fabricated by maskless lithography,
hot embossing lithography and direct bonding tech-
nique. The DLC nanoscale ¯lm is found to be very
3.7. State-of-the-art of this research paper e®ective as an anti-adhesion layer for perfect pattern
In this research paper, the °ow characteristics of transfer from the SU-8-based silicon stamp to PMMA
the surface-driven micro°uidic °ow are tuned in microchannel substrate. The dyed water °ow is faster
lab-on-a-chip systems by altering the surface wetta- in the microchannel of higher channel aspect ratio.
bility using plasma processing on microchannel sur- The static water contact angle is lower on the
faces. Recently, Tsougeni et al. and Ellinas et al. have DBD plasma-processed PMMA surface than the
reported the applications of plasma processing to pristine PMMA surface. Lower static water contact
control the micro°uidic °ow in lab-on-a-chip sys- angle corresponds to higher surface wettability.
tems.45–47 According to these recent papers, plasma The meniscus propagation of dyed water is faster on
processing to control the separation time of micro- the DBD plasma-processed PMMA surface than the
°uidic °ow in lab-on-a-chip systems is a novel ap- pristine PMMA surface as the surface wettability is
proach as described in this paper. On the other hand, higher on the DBD plasma-processed PMMA surface.
in this research paper, the °ow characteristics are Also, the meniscus propagation of dyed water is faster
controlled in the same lab-on-a-chip systems by in the DBD plasma-processed PMMA channel due to
adjusting the structural geometry in terms of channel larger capillary pressure at the water meniscus. The
aspect ratio, bend region and bend angle. Recently, meniscus propagation of dyed water is faster due to
Shim et al. and Temiz et al. have described many the e®ect of applied centrifugal force. The meniscus

1750041-14
 Surface-Driven Capillary Water Flow in Micro°uidic Lab-on-a-Chip Systems

propagation of dyed water is faster corresponding to The cross-sectional dimension of any picochannel is in
higher bend angle. the order of molecular diameter corresponding to any
The separation e±ciency is 94% in the prototype °uid.57–59 For example, the average molecular diam-
microchannel bends. The separation e±ciency is ob- eter of water molecule (chemical formula: H2O1 Þ
served to be 100% in the structurally-modi¯ed micro- is 0.275 nm.60–70 Therefore, after miniaturization
channel bend. The separation time is lower in the of °uidic devices beyond nano°uidics and towards
structurally-modi¯ed microchannel bend of higher bend pico°uidics, only the molecular transport may be
angle. Also, the separation time is lower in the DBD possible following the principles of quantum me-
plasma-processed structurally-modi¯ed microchannel chanics, but any principle of °uid mechanics may not
bend than the pristine bend. These experimental studies be governed. If nano°uidic devices are the ultimate
are useful for bioengineering applications. level from the miniaturization point of view, then the
levels of °uid mechanics are macro°uidics (bulk °u-
idics), micro°uidics and nano°uidics. So, the future
5. Future Work in Fluid Mechanics work is considered as the fabrication of nano°uidic
In addition to the earlier reports of other research devices to establish the nano°uidic °ow phenomena
groups, the micro°uidic °ow phenomena described in for the advancement of `science and engineering' to-
by RUTGERS UNIVERSITY on 02/05/17. For personal use only.

this paper are also signi¯cant to develop °uid engi- wards industrial as well as commercial applications
Surf. Rev. Lett. Downloaded from www.worldscientific.com

neering in micro°uidic lab-on-a-chip systems.52–55 by interdisciplinary research.

Hitzbleck et al. used capillary-driven micro°uidics to
detect DNA analytes for bioengineering applica-
tions.52 Zimmermann et al. described the autonomous Acknowledgments
capillary systems as e±cient, fast and convenient Subhadeep Mukhopadhyay (SM) has performed all
platforms for many bioanalytical applications.53 Man the experiments of this research paper using the Re-
et al. reported the applications of capillary °ow in search Fund of UK–India Education and Research
passive micro°uidic valves for engineering applica- Initiative (UKIERI) Project in the Nanotechnology
tions.54 In the recent report of Gogolides et al., the and Integrated BioEngineering Centre (NIBEC) of
relations of plasma processing and surface wettability the University of Ulster at UK. Also, highly-respected
with micro°uidics are explained for chemical and bi- Honorable Prof. (Dr.) Chandan Tilak Bhunia as the
ological applications.55 At least one of the cross-sec- Current Director of the National Institute of Tech-
tional dimensions (height or width for the channel of nology Arunachal Pradesh, Honorable Former Prime
rectangular cross-section and diameter for the chan- Minister of India Prof. (Dr.) Manmohan Singh as the
nel of circular cross-section) or channel length must Sanctioning Authority of this UKIERI Project,
be less than 1.0 mm corresponding to any micro- Honorable Former Prime Minister of UK, Prof. (Dr.)
channel. The °uidic motion in any microchannel is Tony Blair as the Sanctioning Authority of this
called the micro°uidic °ow. After micro°uidics, the UKIERI Project, Prof. (Dr.) Gordon Brown as the
next level of miniaturization of °uidic devices is Honorable Former Prime Minister of UK, Prof. (Dr.)
nano°uidics.56 David Cameron as the Honorable Current Prime
At least one of the cross-sectional dimensions Minister of UK, Steel Tycoon Honorable Prof. (Dr.)
(height or width for the channel of rectangular cross- Lakshmi Niwas Mittal as the Current (Founder)
section and diameter for the channel of circular cross- Chief Executive O±cer (CEO) of the ArcelorMittal
section) must be less than 1.0
m corresponding to Company (UK), Prof. (Dr.) Narendra Modi as the
any nanochannel. The °uidic motion in any nano- Honorable Current Prime Minister of India, Prof.
channel is called the nano°uidic °ow. Nano°uidics (Dr.) Pratibha Patil as the Honorable Former Presi-
may be the ultimate level for °uidic phenomena dent of India and Prof. (Dr.) Pranab Mukherjee as
according to the fabrication point of view for minia- the Honorable Current President of India have highly
turization of °uidic devices. At least one of the cross- inspired SM to perform innovative research in this
sectional dimensions must be less than 1.0 nm corre- UKIERI Project and to write this research paper for
sponding to any picochannel relevant to pico°uidics. publication.

1750041-15
 S. Mukhopadhyay et al.

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