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Power Scenario In Indian Grid

Total Installed Capacity - Source : Central Electricity Authority (CEA)

Sector MW % of Total
Central Sector 93,477 25.2
State Sector 1,03,322 27.9
1,73,549 46.9
Total 3,70,348

Fuel MW % of Total
Total Thermal 2,30,600 62.8
Coal 1,98,525 54.2
Lignite 6,610 1.7
Gas 24,955 6.7
Diesel 510 0.1
Hydro(Renewable 45,699 12.4
)
Nuclear 6,780 1.9
RES (MNRE) 87,269 23.6
Total 3,70,348

All India Installed Capacity (in MW) of Power stations

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Region Thermal Nuclear Hydro RES Grand
(MNRE Total
)
Northern 60,801.05 1620.00 20,085.77 16,870.11 99,376.93
Western 85,281.61 1840.00 7622.50 26,043.13 12,0787.00
Souther 54,509.99 3320.00 11,774.83 42,473.52 1,12,078.34
n
Eastern 27,385.05 4639.12 1499.16 364.64 4,523.46
North 2,581.83 0.00 1577.00 364.64 4,523.46
Eastern
Islands 40.05 0.00 0.00 18.19 58.24
All 2,30,599.57 6780.00 45,699.22 87,268.74 3,70,347.52
India

National and Regional load dispatching centres

• Power System Operation Corporation Limited (POSOCO) is a

wholly owned Government of India enterprise under the Ministry
of Power.

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• It was earlier a wholly owned subsidiary of Power Grid Corporation

of India Limited (PGCIL). It was formed in March 2009 to handle
the power management functionsof PGCIL.

• It is responsible to ensure the integrated operation of the Grid in a

reliable, efficient,and secure manner.

• It consists of 5 Regional Load Despatch Centres and a National

Load Despatch Centre (NLDC).

• National Load Despatch Centre (NLDC) has been constituted as

per Ministry of Power (MOP) notification, New Delhi dated 2
March 2005 and is the apex body to ensure integrated operation of
the national power system.

• Function: for optimum scheduling and despatch of electricity

among the Regional Load Despatch Centres.
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-To monitor grid operations

-To exercise supervision and control over the inter-state transmission

system

-To optimize scheduling and dispatch of electricity within the region

-To keep accounts of quantity of electricity transmitted through the

regional grid.

-To carry out real time operations of grid control and dispatch of electricity
within theregion in accordance with the Grid Standards and Grid Code.
Regional Load Dispatch Centers Rids

o The five RLDCs in India are owned, operated and maintained by

Power Grid Corporation of India Limited (POWERGRID) which is
the Central Transmission Utility (CTU) of the country
o Northern grid: Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and

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Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand

99376.93MW
o Western grid: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Goa, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli 1,20,787.24MW
o Eastern grid: Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Sikkim
33523.32MW
o Southern grid: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Pondicherry 1,12,078.34

o North-Eastern grid: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,

Meghalaya, Mizoram,
o Nagaland,Tripura 4523.46MW Total: 370347.52MW
Southern Regional Grid

• Southern regional grid is an electrical system comprising of 6,51,000

Sq. km of area with 5 States namely Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala,

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Tamilnadu, Telangana and Union Territory of Pondicherry, Generating
Stations at Central and State Sector, Independent Power producing
stations, State DISCOMS and STUs etc.

• The Southern region has an installed capacity of 74367 MW as on

31/07/2016 with 30,347 MW in State Sector and 10490 MW in Central

Sector and 33530 MW IPPs.

• The States are inter connected with each other through 765/400/220

kV network. Southern Region is connected to Western region through

HVDC Back-to-back (2x500 MW) link at Bhadrawathi in WR and to
Eastern regions through HVDC back-to-back link (2x500 MW) at
Gazuwaka in SR and ±500 kV Bipolar HVDC link (2x1000 MW) from
Talcher in ER to Kolar in SR as well as 765 kV 2 x Single Circuit
Sholapur- Raichur Interconnector to facilitate exchange of power from
surplus to deficit region

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/ State as well as wheeling of power.

• For the year 2015 – 16 had seen Southern Region in meeting a

maximum demand of 40899 MW and average daily energy consumption
of 780 MUs which are 7.3% and 4.7% respectively higher than the
previous year. There was about 6800 MW generation addition during the
year. During the year 2015-16 the Southern Region has witnessed a
maximum consumption of energy of 929.57 MUs on 22nd March'16
(4.13% rise compared to 2014-15) and the maximum peak demand of
40899 MW on 21st March'16 (7.3% rise compared to 2014-15) as against
the respective maximum values 892.70 MU and 38090 MW met last year.

• Southern Region has met a maximum demand of 41,607 MW on 7th

April 2016
Tamil Nadu State Load Despatch Centre (SLDC)

Grid Operation in TN started by November 1964.The first Load Despatch

Centre was operatedwww.EnggTree.com
from Erode.
Subquently, the main Load Despatch Centre was formed in 1986 at
Chennai andSub Load Despatch Centre at Madurai.
In accordance with section 32 of Electricity Act, 2003 roles and functions
of SLDCs are as under :
The SLDCs shall be the Apex Body to ensure integrated operation of the
Power system in a State.
SLDCs shall :Be responsible for optimum scheduling and dispatch of
electricity withina state in accordance with the contracts entered into with
the licensees or the generation companies operating in that State.
Functions of SLDCs
• Monitor grid operation
• Be responsible for carrying out real time operation for grid control
and dispatch of electricity within the State through secure and
economic operation of the State Grid in accordance with the grid
standards and state grid code
• Keep accounts of the quantity of electricity transmitted through State
Grid.
• Exercise supervision and control over the inter-state transmission system.

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Requirements Of Good Power System

• The function of a power station is to deliver power to a large number of
consumers.
• However, the power demands of different consumers vary in accordance
with their activities.
• The result of this variation in demand is that load on a power station is
never constant, rather it varies from time to time.
• Most of the complexities ofmodern power plant operation arise from
the inherent variability of the load demanded by the users.
• Unfortunately, electrical power cannot be stored and, therefore, the power
station must produce power as and when demanded to meet the
requirements of the consumers.
• On one hand, the power engineer would likethat the alternators in the
power station should run at their rated capacity for maximum efficiency
and on the other hand, the demands of the consumers have wide
variations.
• This makes the design of a power station highly complex. In this chapter,
we shall focus our attention on the problems of variable load on power
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Requirements Of Good Power System

o In general, each generation plant in any power may have more than one
generating units. Each of the unit may have identical or different
capacities. A number of power plants can be tied together to supply the
system load by means of interconnectionof the generating stations.
o Interconnected electric power system is more reliable and convenient to
operate andalso offers economical operating cost.
o It has better regulations characters by all the units are interconnected.

o The function of an electric power system is to convert energy from one of

the naturally available forms to electrical from and to transport it to points
of consumption.

o A properly designed and operated power system should meet the

following fundamental requirement.

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• Adequate spinning reserve must be present to meet the active and

reactivepower demand.
• Minimum cost with minimum ecological impact.
• The power quality must have certain minimum standards within the tolerance or
limit such as,

Constancy of frequency:
• Constancy of voltage (Voltage magnitude and load angle).
Level of reliability.
• In simply, the generation of power is transfer to the Consumers through
the transmission system. Generation unit, Transformer Unit,
Converter Unit, Transmission Unit, Inverter Unit and Consumer Point.
Thiscombination of all the unit is called the overall power system units.

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System Load
System Load
From systems point of view, there are 5 broad category of loads:
1. Domestic
2. Commercial
3. Industrial
4. Agriculture
5. Others - street lights, traction.
Domestic:
Light Fans, domestic appliances like heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers,
ovens, small motors etc.
Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0;
Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3;
Load factor = 0.1 to 0.15
Commercial:
Lightings for shops, advertising hoardings, fans, AC etc.
Demand factor = 0.9 to 1.0;
Diversity factor = 1.1 to 1.2;
Load factor = 0.25 www.EnggTree.com
to 0.3
Industrial:
Small scale industries: 0-20kW
Medium scale industries: 20-100kW
Large scale industries: above 100kW
System load-continue
Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains fairly uniformthroughout
the day.
For heavy industries:
Demand factor = 0.85 to 0.9;
Load factor = 0.7 to 0.8
Agriculture:
Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors
Demand factor = 0.9 to 1;
Diversity factor = 1.0 to 1.5;
Load factor = 0.15 to 0.25
Other Loads:
Bulk supplies,
street lights,

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traction,
government loads
which have their own peculiar characteristics
System Load Characteristics
Connected Load
Maximum Demand
Average Load
Load Factor
Diversity Factor
Plant Capacity Factor
Plant Use Factor
Plant Capacity Factor:
It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that couldhave
been produced during a given period.
Plant Use Factor:
It is the ratio of kWh generated to the product of plant capacity and the number ofhours
for which the plant was in operation.
Plant use factor = Station output in kWh / Plant capacity * Hours of use
When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descendingmagnitudes.
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Economic of Generation
1. Load curves
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with respect to time
The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power station with reference
to time is known as load curve. Fig shows the load curve
There are three types, Daily load curve, Monthly load curve, Yearly load curve .

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Types of Load Curve:

Daily load curve–Load variations during the whole day
Monthly load curve–Load curve obtained from the daily load curve Yearly
load curve-Load curve obtained from the monthly load curve
Daily load curve
The curve drawn between the variations of load with reference to various timeperiod of
day is known as daily load curve.
Monthly load curve

o It is obtained from daily load curve.

o Average value of the power at a month for a different time periods are calculated
and plotted in the graph which is known as monthly load curve.
Yearly load curve

It is obtained from monthly load curve which is used to find annual load factor.
Load duration curve

• When the elements of a load curve are arranged in the order ofdescending magnitudes.
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The load duration curve gives the data in a more presentable form
• The area under the load duration curve is equal to that of thecorresponding load curve
The load duration curve can be extended to include any period of time

Connected load
It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supplysystems.

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Maximum demand
It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
Demand factor
It is the ratio of maximum demand to connected load.
Demand factor= (max demand)/ (connected load)
Average demand
The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day or monthor
year) is known as average demand
Daily average demand = (no of units generated per day) / (24 hours)
Monthly average demand = (no of units generated in month) / (no of hours in amonth)
Yearly average demand = (no of units generated in a year) / (no of hours in a year)
Load factor
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is
knownas load factor.
Load factor = (average load)/ (maximum demand)
Diversity factor
The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand on power station is known as
diversity factor.
Diversity factor = (sum of individual maximum demand ) / (maximum demand).
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Capacity factor
This is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that
could have been produced during a given period.
Capacity factor = (actual energy produced) / (maximum energy that have been produced)
Plant use factor
It is the ratio of units generated to the product of plant capacity and the numberof
hours for which the plant was in operation.
Units generated per annum= average load * hours in a year

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Necessity of Voltage and Frequency Regulation

Constant frequency
• Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following functions:
• All the AC motors should require constant frequency supply so as to maintain speed
constant.
• In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the process itself.
• For synchronous operation of various units in the power system network, it
isnecessary to maintain frequency constant.
• Frequency affects the amount of power transmitted through interconnecting
lines.Frequency fluctuations are harmful to electrical appliances.
• Speed of three phase ac motors proportional to the frequency.
o (N=120f/p)
• The blades of turbines are designed to operate at a particular speed.
Frequencyvariation leads to speed variation and results in mechanical
vibration
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Constant voltage
• Over voltage and under voltage Electric motors will tend to run on over speed when
they are fed with higher voltages resulting vibration and mechanical damage.
• Over voltage may cause insulation failure.
• For a specified power rating, lower voltage results in more current and this
results inheating problems. (P=VI)
• Kinetic energy= 1/ 2 J w 2
• N=120 f/P
Real Power Vs Frequency And Reactive Power VsVoltage Control Loops

P–f control

The Load Frequency Control (LFC), also known as generation control or P–f
control, deals with the control of loading of the generating units for the system at
normal frequency. The load in a power system is never constant and the system
frequency remains at its nominal value only when there is a match between the
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active power generation and the active power demand. During the period of load
change, the deviation from the nominal frequency, which may be called
frequency error (Δf), is an index of mismatch and can be used to send the
appropriate command to change the generation by adjusting the LFC system. It
is basically controlling the opening of the inlet valves of the prime movers
according to the loading condition of thesystem. In the case of a multi-area
system, the LFC system also maintains the specified power interchanges between
the participating areas. In a smaller system, this control is done manually, but
in large systems automatic control devices areused in the loop of the LFC
system
Q–V Control

In this control, the terminal voltage of the generator is sensed and converted into
proportionate DC signal and then compared to DC reference voltage. The error
in between a DC signal and a DC reference voltage, i.e., Δ |V | is taken as an input
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to the Q–V controller. A control output ΔQ is applied to the exciter
Generator Controllers (p–f and Q–V Controllers)

The active power P is mainly dependent on the internal angle δ and is independent
of the bus voltage magnitude |V|. The bus voltage is dependent on machine
excitation and hence on reactive power Q and is independent of the machine angle
δ. Change in the machine angle δ is caused by a momentary change in the
generator speed and hence the frequency. Therefore, the load frequency and
excitation voltage controls are non-interactive for small changes and can be
modeled and analyzed independently. Figure gives the schematic diagram of load
frequency (P–f) and excitation voltage (Q–V) regulators of a turbo- generator.
The objective of the MW frequency or the P–f control mechanism is to exert
control of frequency and simultaneously exchange of the realpower flows via
interconnecting lines. In this control, a frequency sensor senses the change in

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frequency and gives the signal Δf . The P–f controller senses the change in
frequency signal (Δ f) and the increments in tie-line real powers (ΔP ), which will
indirectly provide information about the incremental state error (Δδ ). These
sensor signals (Δf and ΔP ) are amplified, mixed, and transformed into a real-
power control signal ΔP . The valve control mechanism takes ΔP as the input
signal and provides the output signal, which will change the position of the inlet
valve of the prime mover. As a result, there will be a change in the prime mover
output and hence a change in real-power generation ΔP . This entire P–f control
can be yielded by automatic load frequency control (ALFC) loop.

The objective of the MVAr-voltage or Q–V control mechanism is to exert control

of the voltage state |Vi |. A voltage sensor senses the terminal voltage and converts
it into an equivalent proportionate DC voltage. This proportionate DC voltage is
compared with a reference voltage Viref by means of a comparator. The output
obtained from the comparator is error signal Δ|Vi | given as input to Q–V
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controller, which transforms it to a reactive power signal command ΔQci and is
fed to a controllable excitation source. This results in a change in the rotor field
current, which in turn modifies the generator terminal voltage. This entire Q–V
control can be yielded by an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop
Schematic diagram of P–f controller and Q–V controller

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Fig. Schematic diagram of P–f controller and Q–V controller

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OPERATION AND CONTROL

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OVERVIEW OF POWER SYSTEM CONTROL (PLANT

LEVEL AND SYSTEM LEVEL CONTROL)
➢ The function of an electric power system is to convert energy from one of
the naturally available forms to electrical from and to transport it to points
of consumption.
➢ A properly designed and operated power system should meet the following
fundamental requirement.
1. Adequate „spinning reserve’ must be present to meet the active and
reactive power demand.
2. Minimum cost with minimum ecological impact.
3. The power quality must have certain minimum standards within the
tolerance or limit such as,
➢ Constancy of frequency.
➢ Constancy of voltage (Voltage magnitude and load angle).
➢ Level of reliability.

Factor affecting power quality:

➢ Switching surges.
➢ Lightning.
➢ Flickering of voltage. www.EnggTree.com
➢ Load shedding.
➢ Electromagnetic interference.
➢ Line capacitance and line inductance.
➢ Operation of heavy equipment.

The three main controls involved in powers are:

1. Plant Level Control (or) Generating Unit Control.
2. System Generation Control.
3. Transmission Control.

1. Plant Level Control (or) Generating Unit Control

The plant level control consists of:
I. Governor control or Prime mover control.
II.Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or Excitation control.
I. Governor control or Prime mover control
➢ Governor control or Prime mover controls are concerned with speed
regulation of the governor and the control of energy supply system
variables such as boiler pressure, temperature and flows.

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➢ Speed regulation is concerned with steam input to turbine.

➢ With variation in load, speed of governor varies as the load is inversely
proportional to speed.
➢ The speed of the generator varies and the governor senses the speed and gives
a command signal, so that, the steam input of the turbine is changed relative to
the load requirement.
II. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or Excitation control
➢ The function of Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or Excitation control
is to regulate generator voltage and relative power output.
➢ As the terminal voltage varies the excitation control, it maintains the
terminal voltage to the required standard and the demand of the reactive
power is also met by the excitation control unit.
These controls are depicted in given figure 1.4

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2. System Generation Control

➢ The purpose of system generation control is to balance the total system
generation against system load and losses, so that, the desired frequency and
power interchange with neighboring systems are maintained.

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 This comprises of:

I. Load Frequency Control (LFC).
II.Economic Dispatch Control (EDC).
III.System Voltage Control.
IV. Security control.
i. Load Frequency Control (LFC).
➢ This involves the sensing of the bus bar frequency and compares with
the tie line power frequency.
➢ The difference of the signal is fed to the integrator and it is given to
speed changer which generates the reference speed for the governor.
➢ Thus, the frequency of the tie line is maintained as constant.
ii. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC).
➢ When the economical load distribution between a number of generator
units is considered, it is found that the optimum generating schedule is
affected when an incremental increased at one of the units replaces a
compensating decrease at every other unit, in term of some incremental
cost.
➢ Optimum operation of generators at each generating station at various
station load levels is known as unit commitment.
iii. System Voltage Control.www.EnggTree.com
➢ This involves the process of controlling the system voltage within tolerable
limits.
➢ This includes the devices such as static VAR compensators, synchronous
condenser, tap changing transformer, switches, capacitor and reactor.
➢ The controls described above contribute to the satisfactory operation of the
power system by maintaining system voltages, frequency and other system
variables within their acceptable limits.
➢ They also have a profound effect on the dynamic performance of power
system and on its ability to cope with disturbances.

iv. Security control

➢ The main objective of real time power system operation requires a process
guided by control and decisions based on constant monitoring of the
system condition.
➢ The power system operation is split into two levels.
LEVEL 1: Monitoring and Decision
➢ The condition of the system is continuously observed I the control centres
by protective relays for faults or contingencies caused by equipment
trouble and failure.

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➢ If any of these monitoring devices identifies a sufficiently severe problem

at the sample time, then the system is in an abnormal condition.
➢ If no such abnormality is observed, then the system is in a normal
condition.
LEVEL 2: Control
➢ At each sample, the proper commands are generated for correcting the
abnormality on protecting the system from its consequences.
➢ If on abnormality is observed, then the normal operation proceeds for the
next sample interval.

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POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

(i) Load Forecasting
(ii) Unit Commitment
(iii) Load Scheduling.

1. Load forecasting:
The load on their systems should be estimated in advance. This estimation in
advance is known as load forecasting. Load forecasting based on the previous
experience without any historical data.

Classification of load forecasting:

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Need for load forecasting:

➢ To meet out the future demand.
➢ Long term forecasting is required for preparing maintenance schedule of
the generating units, planning future expansion of the system.
For day-to-day operation, short term load forecasting demand and for
maintaining the required spinning reserve. Very short term load forecasting
is used for generation and distribution.
➢ generation scheduling and load dispatching.
➢ Medium term load forecasting is needed for predicted monsoon acting and
hydro availability and allocating.

2. Unit Commitment:
The unit commitment problem is to minimize system total operating costs
while simultaneously providing sufficient spinning reserve capacity to satisfy a
given security level. In unit commitment problems, we consider the following
terms.
• A short term load forecast.

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• System reserve requirements.

• System security.
• Startup costs for all units.
• Minimum level fuel costs for all units.
• Incremental fuel costs of units.
• Maintenance costs.

3. Load Scheduling (Load Dispatching):

Loading of units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel cost is
known as load scheduling. Load scheduling problem can be divided into:
i. Thermal scheduling.
ii. Hydrothermal scheduling.

i. Thermal scheduling.
The loading of steam units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel
cost. Thermal scheduling will be assumed that the supply undertaking has got
only form thermal or from steam stations.

ii. Hydrothermal scheduling.

Loading of hydro and thermal units are allocated to serve the objective of
minimum fuel cost is knownwww.EnggTree.com
as hydrothermal scheduling.
Scheduling of hydro units are complex because of natural differences I the
watersheds, manmade storage and release elements used to control the flow of
water are difficult.
During rainy season, we can utilize hydro generation to a maximum and
the remaining period, hydro generation depends on stored water availability. If
availability of water is not enough to generate power, we must utilize only thermal
power generation. Mostly hydroelectric generation is used to meet out peak loads.
There are two types of hydrothermal scheduling.
a) Long range hydro scheduling
b) Short range hydro scheduling.

a) Long range hydro scheduling

Long range hydro scheduling problem involves the long range forecasting
of water availability and the scheduling of reservoir water releases for an interval
of time that depends on the reservoir capacities. Long range hydro scheduling
involves
from I week to I year or several years. Long range hydro scheduling involves
optimization of statistical variables such as load, hydraulic inflows and unit
availabilities.
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b Short range hydro scheduling.

Short range hydro scheduling involves from one day to one week or hour-
by-hour scheduling of all generation on a system to achieve minimum production
cost foe a given period.
Assuming load, hydraulic inflows and unit availabilities are known, for a
given reservoir level, we can allocated generation of power using hydro plants to
meet out the demand, to minimize the production cost.
The largest category of hydrothermal system includes a balance between
hydroelectric and thermal generation resources. Hydrothermal scheduling is
developed to minimize thermal generation production cost.

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Speed – Load Characteristics

(Load Sharing between Two SynchronousMachines in Parallel)
Speed droop is a governor function which reduces the governor reference
speed as fuel position (load) increases. All engine controls use the principle of droop
to provide stable operation.
The simpler mechanical governors have the droop function built into the
control system, and it cannot be changed.
Droop originates from the principle of power balance in synchronous generators. An
imbalance between the input mechanical power and the output electric power causes a
change in the rotor speed and electrical frequency. Similarly, variation in output
reactive power results in voltage magnitude deviation.
The ability to return to the original speed after a change in load is called
isochronous speed control. All electronic controls have circuits which effectively
provide a form of temporary droop by adjusting the amount of actuator position change
according to how much off speed is sensed. Without some form of droop, engine-speed
regulation would always be unstable.
A load increase would cause the engine to slow down. The governor would
respond by increasing the fuel position until the reference speed was attained.
However, the combined properties of inertia and power lag would cause the speed to
recover to a level greater than the reference.
Droop is a straight-line function, with a certain speed reference for every fuel
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position. Normally, a droop governor lowers the speed reference from 3 to 5 percent
of the reference speed over the full range of the governor output. Thus a 3% droop
governorwith a reference speed of 1854 rpm at no fuel would have a reference speed
of 1800 rpm at max fuel (61.8 Hz at no fuel and 60 Hz at max fuel).
Most complex hydraulic governors have adjustable droop. In these cases,
droop may beset between 0% and 5%. Droop is not adjustable in most mechanical
governors,
Percentage speed regulation or droop
The value of R determines the steady-state speed versus load characteristic
of the generating unit as shown in fig.5. The ratio of speed deviation (∆ω r) or frequency
deviation (∆f) to change in valve/gate position or power output (∆P) is equal to R. The
parameter R is referred to as speed regulation or droop. It can be expressed in
percent as

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When two generating units are operating in parallel on the system, their speed-
droop characteristics low load changes are shared among them in the steady state and
to operate to a common frequency.

The changes in the outputs of the units are given by

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Fig.5 Ideal steady state characteristics of a governor with speed droop

Parallel operation of two alternators
Two different controls are carried out on the governor characteristics. The
parameter R is adjusted during off-line condition of the unit to ensure its proper
coordination with the other units, the second control shifts the straight line
characteristic parallel to itself to change the load distribution among the generators
connected in parallel as well as to maintain the system frequency.

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The second control known as supplementary control. In Fig.7, the governor
characteristics of two generating units are shown. Supposing if two generator units
sharing the total load P ie. P =P1+P2 and at constant frequency f0.
Now if the total load increases by P’, the frequency reduces to f’0 then the
two generator units increases their output by supplying kinetic energy which in turn
reduction in speed. In order to maintain the system frequency, one of the generators or
both the generator increase their output which is shown in dotted lines of the figure.
Now the total load P’ is hared by both the generators with increased output i.e
P’ = P’1+P’2 .
It is to be noted that if the frequency of two areas are to be controlled, the
static frequency drop is 50% of the isolated operation of two systems. Also, if there is
changein load in any area, half of it shared by other area

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Basics of Speed Governing Mechanisms and Modelling

The speed governor is the main primary tool for the LFC, whether
the machine isused alone to feed a smaller system or whether it is a part of the
most elaborate arrangement. A schematic arrangement of the main features of
a speed-governing system of the kind used on steam turbines to control the
output of the generator to maintain constant frequency is as shown in Fig.1
Its main parts or components are as follows:
Fly Ball Speed Governor:
This is the heart of the system which senses the change in speed (frequency).As
the speed increases the fly balls move outwards and the point B on linkage
mechanismmoves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed decreases.
(i) Hydraulic Amplifier:
It comprises a pilot valve and main piston arrangement. Low power level pilot valve
movement is converted into high power level piston valve movement. This is
necessary inorder to open or close the steam valve against high pressure steam.
(ii) Linkage Mechanism:
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D. This
link mechanism provides a movement to the control valve in proportion to change
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in speed. Italso provides a feedback from the steam valve movement.
Basics of Speed Governing Mechanisms and Modelling
(iii)Speed Changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the
turbine. Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more
steam is admitted to the turbine under steady conditions (hence more steady
power output). The reverse happens for upward movement of speed
changer.
A brief explanation of the diagram is as follows:
Steam enters into the turbine through a pipe that is partially obstructed by a steam
admission valve. In steady state the opening valve is determined by the position
of a device called the speed changer (upper left corner in Fig.1), fixes the position
of the steam valve through two rigid rods ABC and CDE. The reference value
or set point ofthe turbine power in steady state is called the reference power
When the load on the bus suddenly changes, the shaft speed is modified, and a
device called speed regulator acts through the rigid rods to move the steam valve.
A similar effect could be produced by temporarily modifying the reference power
(which justifies the name speed changer). In practice, both control schemes are
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used simultaneously. Amplifying stages (generally hydraulic) are introduced to

magnify the output of the controller and produced the forces necessary to actually
move the steam valve.
Modelling of Speed Governor
In this section, we develop the mathematical model based on small deviations
arounda nominal steady state. Let us assume that the steam is operating under
steady state and is delivering power P0G from the generator at nominal speed
or frequency fo. Under this condition, the prime mover valve has a constant
setting χ0E, the pilot valve is closed, and the linkage mechanism is stationary.
Now, we will increase the turbine power by ΔPC with the help of the speed
changer. For this, the movement of linkage point A moves downward by a small
distance ΔxA and is given by

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Fig.1 Schematic diagram of speed governing mechanism

ΔxA = Kc ΔPC ...................... (1)

The link point ‘C’ will move upward because of linkage (A-B-C) action.
Let it befurther, the link point ‘D’ moves the piston in pilot servo (V),
resulting in higher pressure oil flow in the upper part of the main
piston. The piston moves
downward by an amount ΔXD and the steam valve opening increases. It
increases the torque developed by the turbine. This increased torque
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increases the speed of generator, i.e., frequency (Δf). This change of speed
results in the outward movement of fly ball of the speed regulator. Thus
the link ‘B’ moves slightly downward a small distance ΔXB. Due to the
movement of link point B, the link point ‘C’ also moves downward by an
amount ΔXC’’ which is also proportional to Δf. Thus the net movement of
link point C is

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LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

The following basic requirements are to be fulfilled for successful operation of the
system:

1. The generation must be adequate to meet all the load demand

2. The system frequency must be maintained within narrow and rigid limits.

3. The system voltage profile must be maintained within reasonable limits and

4. In case of interconnected operation, the tie line power flows must be maintained at
the specified values.

• When real power balance between generation and demand is achieved the
frequency specification is automatically satisfied.
• Similarly, with a balance between reactive power generation and demand,
voltage profile is also maintained within the prescribed limits.
• Under steady state conditions, the total real power generation in the system
equals the total MW demand plus real power losses.
• Any difference is immediately indicated by a change in speed or frequency
• Generators are fitted www.EnggTree.com
with speed governors which will have varying
characteristics: different sensitivities, dead bands response times and droops.
• They adjust the input to match the demand within their limits.
• Any change in local demand within permissible limits is absorbed by generators
in the system in a random fashion.
• An independent aim of the automatic generation control is to reschedule the
generation changes to preselected machines in the system after the governors
have accommodated the load change in a random manner.
• Thus, additional or supplementary regulation devices are needed along with
governors for proper regulation.
• The control of generation in this manner is termed load-frequency control.
• For interconnected operation, the last of the four requirements mentioned earlier
is fulfilled by deriving an error signal from the deviations in the specified tie-
line power flows to the neighboring utilities and adding this signal to the control
signal of the load-frequency control system.
• Should the generation be not adequate to balance the load demand, it is
imperative that one of the following alternatives be considered for keeping the
system in operating condition:

I. Starting fast peaking units.

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2. Load shedding for unimportant loads, and

3. Generation rescheduling.

• It is apparent from the above that since the voltage specifications are not
stringent. Load frequency control is by far the most important in power system
control.
• In order to understand the mechanism of frequency control, consider a small step
increase in load. The initial distribution of the load increment is determined by
the system impedance; and the instantaneous relative generator rotor positions.
The energy required to supply the load increment is drawn from the kinetic
energy of the rotating machines. As a result, the system frequency drops. The
distribution of load during this period among the various machines is determined
by the inertias of the rotors of the generators partaking in the process. This
problem is studied in stability analysis of the system.
• After the speed or frequency fall due to reduction in stored energy in the rotors
has taken place, the drop is sensed by the governors and they divide the load
increment between the machines as determined by the droops of the respective
governor characteristics. Subsequently, secondary control restores the system
frequency to its normal value by readjusting the governor characteristics.

AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY www.EnggTree.com

CONTROL
• The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power
balance in the system.
• The main functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the steady frequency; ii)
control the tie-line flows; and iii) distribute the load among the participating
generating units.
• The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ∆Ptie (measured from the
tie- line flows), and the frequency deviation ∆f (obtained by measuring the angle
deviation ∆δ).
• These error signals ∆f and ∆Ptie a r e amplified, mixed and transformed to a real
power signal, which then controls the valve position. Depending on the valve
position, the turbine (prime mover) changes its output power to establish the real
power balance.
• The complete control schematic is shown in Fig For the analysis, the models for
each of the blocks in Fig2 are required.

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• The generator and the electrical load constitute the power system. The valve and
the hydraulic amplifier represent the speed governing system. Using the swing
equation, the generator can be Using the swing equation, the generator can be
modeled by Block Diagram Representation Of The Generator The load on the
system is composite consisting of a frequency independent component and a
frequency dependent component. The load can be written as

Pe = P0 + Pf

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Pe is the change in the load;

P0 - is the frequency independent load component;
Pf - is the frequency dependent load component.

Pf = D
where,
• D is called frequency characteristic of the load (also called as damping constant)
expressed in percent change in load for 1% change in frequency.
• If D=1.5%, then a 1% change in frequency causes 1.5% change in load. The
combined generator and the load (constituting the power system) can then be
represented as shown in Fig.
• The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig.

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• Gt(s) is the TF of the turbine; ∆PV(s) is the change in valve output (due to
action). Pm(s) is the change in the turbine output.
• The governor can similarly modeled as shown Fig. The output of the governor
is by
• Where ∆Pref is the reference set power, and ∆w/R is the power given by
governor speed characteristic.
• The hydraulic amplifier transforms this signal Pg into valve/gate position
corresponding to a power PV.
Thus
PV(s) = (Kg/ (1+sTg)) _Pg(s).

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LFC CONTROL OF SINGLE AREA AND DERIVE THE STEADY STATE

FREQUENCY ERROR
All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as

Power Generation

We have

∆PG(s) = kGkt / (1+sTG)(1+sTt)[∆Pc(s)-1/R∆F(s)]

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The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size. So, the speed or frequency will
be essentially independent of any changes in a power output of the generator ie,
∆F(s) =0

Therefore ∆PG(s) =kGkt / (1+sTg) (1+sTt)* ∆Pc(s)

Steady state response
(i)Controlled case:
To find the resulting steady change in the generator output:
Let us assume that we made a step change of the magnitude ∆Pc of the speed changer For
step change,
∆Pc(s) = ∆Pc/s
∆PG(s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ∆Pc(s)/s s∆PG (s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ∆Pc(s)
Applying final value theorem,
∆PG (stat) = ∆
(ii)Uncontrolled case
Let us assume that the load suddenly increases by small amount ∆PD.
Consider there is no external work and the generator is delivering a power to a single load.

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∆Pc = 0
Kg Kt = 1
∆PG(s) = 1/ (1+sTG) (1+sTt) [-∆F(s)/R]
For a step change ∆F(s) = ∆f/s
Therefore
∆PG(s) = 1/(1+sTG)(1+sTt)[-∆F/sR]
∆f/∆PG (stat) =-R Hz/MW
Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop

In the steady state, the ALFC is in „open‟ state, and the output is obtained by substituting
s→0 in the TF.
With s→0, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then,(note that
∆Pm =∆PT = PG =∆Pe = ∆PD;
That is turbine output = generator/electrical output = load demand)
∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R) ∆ω or ∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R)∆f
When the generator is connected to infinite bus (∆f = 0, and ∆V = 0), then
∆ Pm = ∆Pref .
If the network is finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (∆Pref = 0), then
∆Pm = (1/R)∆f www.EnggTree.com
or
∆f=RPm.
Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)
• The ALFC loop shown in Fig. is called the primary ALFC loop.
• It achieves the primary goal of real power balance by adjusting the turbine output ∆Pm
to match the change in load demand ∆PD.
• All the participating generating units contribute to the change in generation. But a
change in load results in a steady state frequency deviation ∆f.
• The restoration of the frequency to the nominal value requires an additional control
loop called the supplementary loop.
• This objective is met by using integral controller which makes the frequency deviation
zero.
• The ALFC with the supplementary loop is generally called the AGC. The block
diagram of an AGC is shown in Fig.
• The main objectives of AGC a r e
• to regulate the frequency (using both primary and supplementary controls);
and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows.

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• A secondary objective of the AGC is to distribute the required change in generation

among the connected generating units economically (to obtain least operating costs).

AGC in a Single Area System

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• In a single area system, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained.
• Thus the function of the AGC is only to bring the frequency to the nominal value.
• This will be achieved using the supplementary loop (as shown in Fig.) which uses the
integral controller to change the reference power setting so as to change the speed set
point.
• The integral controller gain KI n e e d s to be adjusted for satisfactory response (in
terms of overshoot, settling time) of the system.
• Although each generator will be having a separate speed governor, all the generators
in the control area are replaced by a single equivalent generator, and the ALFC for the
area corresponds to this equivalent generator.

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Static Analysis or Steady state response of uncontrolled case
• The basic objective of the primary ALFC loop is to maintain constant frequency
in spite of changing loads. The primary ALFC loop as shown in the fig. has one
output and two inputs. ΔPref(s) and ΔPD(s)
• Consider the speed changer has a fixed setting. Under this condition ΔPC =0 and
the load demand changes. This is known s free governor operation. The block
diagram is shown infig drawn from substituting ΔPC =0.

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When several generators with governor speed regulations R1,R2…..Rn are connected
to thesystem the steady state deviation in frequency is given by

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Static Analysis or Steady state response of controlled case

In this case, there is a step change ΔPC force for speed changer setting and the load demand
remains fixed i.e ΔPD =0

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Dynamic Analysis of Uncontrolled case (Single Area)

To obtain the dynamic response representing the change in frequency as a function of time
for a step change in load. The block diagram reduces as shown in fig.

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Taking inverse Laplace transform for an expression ΔF(s) is tedious, because the
denominator will be third order.www.EnggTree.com
We can simplify the analysis by making the following
assumptions.
1. The action of speed governor and turbine is instantaneously compared with rest of
the power system.
2. The time constant of the power
systemTp=20 sec, Tg = 0.4sec. Tt
= 0.5sec
Approximate Analysis : letting TG = Tt = 0
KG =Kt =1
The block diagram reduces as shown in fig.

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Important points for uncontrolled Single Area

1. By reducing value of R it is possible to increase AFRC. Hence static
frequency error may bereduced.

2.With smaller time constant Tg and Tt, the system response shows some
oscillations before settling down with a drop in frequency. But if these time
constants are neglected, response is purely exponential.

3. If the overall closed loop system time constant is calculated from the
response curve, it is
found to be much smaller than the open loop time constant of the power
system.

4. For the uncontrolled system there exists a steady state frequency error as
a result of increasein load demand, however small it may be.

5. When the load demand increases speed or frequency of the system drops
though initially kinetic energy of rotating inertia may be used to meet up the
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demand. Eventually it will be balanced by an increase in system generation
and decrease in load as associated with the dropping frequency.

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UNCONTROLLED TWO AREA LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL SYSTEM

AGC IN A MULTI AREA SYSTEM

• In an interconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each control
area (located at the ECC of that area).
• They are combined as shown in Fig for the interconnected system operation.
• For a total change in load of ∆PD, the steady state Consider a two area system as
depicted in Figure.
• The two secondary frequency controllers, AGC1 and AGC2, will adjust the power
reference values of the generators participating in the AGC.
• In an N-area system, there are N controllers AGCi, one for each area i.

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• A block diagram of such a controller is given in Figure 4.2. A common way is to

implement this as a proportional-integral (PI) controller:
• Deviation in frequency in the two areas is given by

∆f=∆ω1=∆ω2=−∆PD / β1 + β2
where

β1 = D1 + 1/ R1

β2= D2+1/R2
E expression for tie-line flow in a two-area interconnected system Consider a change in load
∆PD1 in area1. The steady state frequency deviation ∆f is the same for both the areas.

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That is
∆f =∆f1 =∆f2.
Thus, for area1, we have
∆Pm1 -∆PD1 -∆P12 = D1∆f
Where, Area 2 ∆P12 is the tie line power flow from Area1to Area 2; and for
∆Pm2 +∆P12 = D2∆f
The mechanical power depends on regulation. Hence
∆Pm1= -∆f 1∆Pm2= -∆f 2
Substituting these equations, yields
(1/R1+ D1) ∆f =-∆P12- ∆Pm

(1/R2+ D2) ∆f =-∆P12- ∆Pm

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Solving for ∆f, we get

∆f= -∆PD1/ β1 + β2

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• Where β1 and β2 are the composite frequency response characteristic of Area1 and
Area 2 respectively.
• An increase of load in area1 by ∆PD1 results in a frequency reduction in both areas and
a tie-line flow of ∆P12.
• A positive ∆P12 is indicative of flow from Area1 to Area 2 while a negative ∆P12 means
flow from Area 2 to Area1.
• Similarly, for a change in Area 2 load by ∆PD2, we have
∆f= -∆PD2/ β1 + β2

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State variability model

• A modern gigawatt generator with its multistage reheat turbine, including its
automatic load frequency control (ALFC) and automatic voltage regulator
(AVR) controllers, is characterized by an impressive complexity.
• When all its non- negligibility dynamics are taken into account, including
cross-coupling betweencontrol channels, the overall dynamic model may be
of the twentieth order.
• The dimensionality barrier can be overcome by means of computer-aided
optimal control design methods originated by Kalman. A computer-oriented
technique called optimum linear regulator (OLR) design has proven to be
particularlyuseful in this regard.
• The OLR design results in a controller that minimizes both transientvariable
excursions and control efforts. In terms of power system, this means
optimally damped oscillation with minimum wear and tear of control valves.
OLR can be designed using thewww.EnggTree.com
following steps:
• Casting the system dynamic model in state-variable form and introducing
appropriate control forces.
• Choosing an integral-squared-error control index, the minimization of which is the
• control goal.
• Finding the structure of the optimal controller that will minimize the
chosencontrol index.
Dynamic State Variable Model
• The LFC methods discussed so far are not entirely satisfactory. In order to
have more satisfactory control methods, optimal control theory has to be
used. For this purpose, the power system model must be in a state variable
model

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From the block diagram write the ‘s domain’ equations

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Where XE1 (s) and XE2 (s) are the Laplace transforms of the movements of the main
positions in the speed governing mechanism of the two areas.

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By taking inverse Laplace transform for the above equations, we get a set of seven
differential equations. These are the time-domain equations, which describe the small-
disturbance dynamic behavior of the power system.

Taking the inverse Laplace transform of the above equation, we get

In a similar way, the remaining equations can be rearranged and an inverse Laplace
transform is found. Then, the entire set of differential equations is
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The state variables are a minimum number of those variables, which contain sufficient
information about the past history with which all future states of the system can be
determined for known control inputs. For the two area system under consideration, the state
variables would be Δf1, Δf2 , ΔXE1 , ΔXE2 , ΔPsg1 , ΔPsg2 and ΔPTL1 ; seven in number.
Denoting the above variables by x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, and x7 and arranging them in a
column vector as

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The control variables ΔPc1 and ΔPc2 are denoted by the symbols u1 and u2, respectively,
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𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The disturbance variables ΔPD1 and ΔPD2, since they create perturbations in the system,
are denoted by p1 and p2, respectively, as

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The above state equations can be written in a matrix form as

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In the present case, their dimensions are (7 × 7), (7 ×2), and (7 × 2), respectively. Equation
(2) is a shorthand form of Equation (1), and Equation (1) constitutes the dynamic ‘state-
variable model’ of the considered two-area system.
The differential equations can be put in the above form only if they are linear. If the
differential equations are non-linear, then they can be expressed in the more general form
as

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Integration of Economic Dispatch Control with LFC
• Economic load dispatch and LFC play a vital role in modern power system.
In LFC, zero steady-state frequency error and a fast, dynamic response
wereachieved by integral controller action.
• But this control is independent of economic dispatch, i.e., there is no
control over the economic loadings of various generating units of the
control area.
• Some control over loading of individual units can be exercised by adjusting
the gain factors (K) of the integral signal of the ACE as fed to the
individual units. But this is not a satisfactory solution.
• A suitable and satisfactory solution is obtained by using independent
controls of load frequency and economic dispatch.
• The load frequency controller provides a fast-acting control and regulates
the system around an operating point, whereas the economic dispatch
controller provides a slow-acting control, which adjusts the speed-changer
settings every minute in accordance with a command signal generated by
the central economic dispatch computer.
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EDC—economic dispatch controller
CEDC—central economic dispatch computer
• The speed-changer setting is changed in accordance with the economic
dispatch error signal, (i.e., PG desired – PG actual) conveniently modifiedby the
signal ∫ ACE dt at that instant of time.
• The central economic dispatch computer (CEDC) provides the signal PG
desired, and this signal is transmitted to the local economic dispatch controller
(EDC).
o The system they operate with economic dispatch error is only for very short
periods of time before it is readily used
• This tertiary control can be implemented by using EDC and EDC works
on the cost characteristics of various generating units in the area.
• The speed-changer settings are once again operated in accordance with an
economic dispatch computer program.
• The CEDCs are provided at a central control center. The variable partof the
load is carried by units that are controlled from the central control center.
Medium-sized fossil fuel units and hydro-units are used for control.

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• During peak load hours, lesser efficient units, such as gas-turbine units or
diesel units, are employed in addition; generators operating at partial
output (with spinning reserve) and standby generators provide a reserve
margin.
• The central control center monitors information including area frequency,
outputs of generating units, and tie-line power flows to interconnected
areas.
• This information is used by ALFC in order to maintain area frequency at
its scheduled value and net tie-line power flow out of the area at its
shedding value.
• Raise and lower reference power signals are dispatched to the turbine
governors of controlled units. Economic dispatch is co-ordinated with LFC
such that the reference power signals dispatched to controlled units move
the units toward their economic loading and satisfy LFC objectives.

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EXCITATION SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS

• Meet specified response criteria.
• Provide limiting and protective functions are required to prevent damage to
itself, the generator, and other equipment.
• Meet specified requirements for operating flexibility
• Meet the desired reliability and availability, by incorporating the necessary
level of redundancy and internal fault detection and isolation capability.
1. ELEMENTS OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

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Exciter:
• provides dc power to the synchronous machine field winding constituting the
power stage of the excitation system.
Regulator:
• Process and amplifies input control signals to a level and form appropriate for
control of the exciter.
• This includes both regulating and excitation system stabilizing function.
Terminal voltage transducer and load compensator:
• Senses generator terminal voltage, rectifier and filters it to dc quantity, and
compares it with a reference which represents the desired terminal voltage.
Power system stabilizer:

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• provides an additional input signal to the regulator to damp power system

oscillation.
Limiters and protective circuits:
• These include a wide array of control and protective function which ensure
that the capability limits of the exciter and synchronous generator are not
exceeded.

TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Today, a large number of different types of exciter systems are used. Three main types
can be distinguished:

DC excitation system,
• where the exciter is a DC generator, often on the same axis as the rotor of the
synchronous machine.

AC excitation system,
where the exciter is an AC machine with rectifier.
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Static excitation system
• where the exciting current is fed from a controlled rectifier that gets its power
either directly from the generator terminals or from the power plant‟s auxiliary
power system, normally containing batteries.
• In the latter case, the synchronous machine can be started against an
unenergised net, “black start”. The batteries are usually charged from the net.

Block Schematic of Excitation Control:

➢ A typical excitation control system is shown in Fig.
➢ The terminal voltage of the alternator is sampled, rectified and com
pared with a reference voltage; the difference is amplified and fed back to
the exciter field winding to change the excitation current.

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1. STATIC EXCITATION SYSTEM

➢ In the static excitation system, the generator field is fed from a thyristor
network shown in Fig.
➢ It is just sufficient to adjust the thyristor firing angle to vary the excitation
level.
➢ A major advantage of such a system is that, when required the field voltage
can be varied through a full range of positive to negative values very rapidly
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with the ultimate benefit of generator Voltage regulation during transient
disturbances.

➢ The thyristor network consists of either 3-phase fully controlled or semi

controlled bridge rectifiers.
➢ Field suppression resistor dissipates Energy in the field circuit while the
field breaker ensures field isolation during generator faults.

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• 2. BRUSHLESS EXCITATION SCHEME

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➢ In the brushless excitation system of an alternator with rotating armature

and stationary field is employed as the main exciter.
➢ Direct voltage for the generator excitation is obtained by rectification
through a rotating, semiconductor diode network which is mounted on the
generator shaft itself.
➢ Thus, the excited armature, the diode network and the generator field are
rigidly connected in series.
➢ The advantage of this method of excitation is that the moving contacts such
as slip rings and brushes are completely eliminated thus offering smooth and
maintenance-free operation.
➢ A permanent-magnet generator serves as the power source for the exciter
field.
➢ The output of the permanent magnet generator is rectified with thyristor
network and is applied to the exciter field.
➢ The voltage regulator measures the output or terminal voltage, compares it
with a set reference and utilizes the error signal, if any, to control the gate
pulses of the thyristor network.

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3. AC EXCITATION SYSTEM

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Exciter and Voltage Regulator:
The function of an exciter is to increase the excitation current for voltage drop
and decrease the same for voltage rise. The voltage change is defined

Where V1 is the terminal voltage and

Vref is the reference voltage.

Exciter ceiling voltage:

• It is defined as the maximum voltage that may be attained by an exciter with
specified conditions of load.

Exciter response:
• It is the rate of increase or decrease of the exciter voltage. When a change in
this voltage is demanded. As an example consider the response curve shown
in Figure.

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Exciter builds up:

➢ The exciter build up depends upon the field resistance and the charging of
its value by cutting or adding.
➢ The greatest possible control effort is the complete shorting of the field
rheostat when maximum current value is reached in the field circuit.
➢ This can be done by closing the contactor.

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When the exciter is operated at rated speed at no load, the record of voltage as
function of time with a step change that drives the exciter to its ceiling voltage
is called the exciter build up curve. Such a response curve is show in
Figure.4.14

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➢ In general the present day practice is to use 125V excitation up to IOMVA

units and 250V systems up to 100MVA units.
➢ Units generating power beyond IOOMVA have excitation system voltages
variedly. Some use 350V and 375V system while some go up to 500V
excitation system.

4. DC EXCITATION SYSTEM
➢ The excitation system of this category utilize dc generator as source of
excitation power and provide current to the rotor of the synchronous machine
through slip ring.
➢ The exciter may be driven by a motor or the shaft of the generator. It may
be either self excited or separately excited.
➢ When separately excited, the exciter field is supplied by a pivot exciter
comprising apermanent magnet generator.

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➢ Below figure a simplified schematic representation of a typical dc

excitation system. It consists of a dc commutator exciter which supplies direct
current to the main generator field through slip ring.

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• ➢ Dc machine having two sets of brush 90 electrical degree apart, one set on
its direct
• (d) axis and the other set on its quadrature (q) axis.
• ➢ The control field winding is located on the d axis.
• ➢ A compensating winding in series with the d axis armature current, thereby
cancelling negative feedback of the armature reaction.
• ➢ The brushes on the q axis are shorted, and very little control field power is
required to produce a large current in the q axis armature.
• ➢ The q axis current is supplied mechanically by the motor.

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MODELING OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

➢ Mathematical model of excitation system are essential for the assessment
of desired performance requirement, for the design and coordination of
supplementary control and protective circuits, and for system stability
studies related to the planning and purpose of study.
Generator Voltage Control System

➢ The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation

(flux) of the generator.

➢ The speed being constant, the excitation is used to control the voltage.
➢ Therefore, the voltage control system is also called as excitation control
system or automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
➢ For the alternators, the excitation is provided by a device (another machine
or a staticdevice) called exciter.
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➢ For a large alternator the exciter may be required to supply a field
current of as large as 6500A at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large
machine.

➢ Depending on the way the dc supply is given to the field winding of the
alternator
➢ (which is on the rotor), the exciters are classified as:
i) DC Exciters;
ii) AC Exciters; and
iii) Static Exciters.
➢ Accordingly, several standard block diagrams are developed by the IEEE
working group to represent the excitation system.

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➢ A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system .

➢ The generator terminal voltage Vt is compared with a voltage reference
Vref to obtain a voltage error signal ∆V.
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➢ This signal is applied to the voltage regulator shown as a block with
transfer function KA/ (1+TAs).
➢ The output of the regulator is then applied to exciter shown with a block of
transfer function Ke/ (1+Tes).
➢ The output of the exciter Efd is then applied to the field winding which
adjusts the generator terminal voltage.
➢ The generator field can be represented by a block with a transfer function
KF/(1+sTF). The total transfer function

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The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the

dynamic response of the exciter. The input to this block is the exciter voltage and
the output is a stabilizing feedback signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.

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Performance of AVR loop

➢ The purpose of the AVR loop is to maintain the generator terminal voltage
within acceptable values.
➢ A static accuracy limit in percentage is specified for the AVR, so that the
terminal voltage is maintained within that value.
➢ For example, if the accuracy limit is 4%, then the terminal voltage must be
maintained within 4% of the base voltage.

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VOLTAGE CONTROL METHOD

1. Reactors
• Inductive reactors absorb reactive power and may be used in circuits, series
or shunt connected, while series connected reactors are used to limit fault
currents, shunt reactors are used for var control.
• Reactors installed at line ends and intermediate substations can compensate
up to 70% of charging power while the remaining 30% power at no-load
can be provided by the under excited operation of the generator.
• With increase in load, generator excitation may be increased with reactors
gradually cut-out.
• Figure shows some typical shunt reactor arrangements

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2. Shunt Capacitors
• Capacitors produce var and may be connected in series or shunt in the
system.
• Series capacitors compensate the line reactance in long overhead lines and
thus improve the stability limit.
• However, they give rise to additional problems like high voltage transients,
sub-synchronous resonance, etc.
• Shunt capacitors are used for reactive compensation.
• Simplicity and low cost are the chief considerations for using shunt
capacitor.
• Further, for expanding systems additions can be made.

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• Fig. shows the connected of shunt capacitors through the tertiary of a

transformer.

3. Series capacitors
• Here the capacitors are connected in series with the line.
• The main aim is to reduce
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the inductive reactance between supply point
and the load.
• The major disadvantage of the method is, whenever short circuit current
flows through the capacitor, protective devices like spark gaps and non
linear resistors are to be in corporate.
• Phasor diagram for a line with series capacitor is shown in the figure (b).

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4. Relative merits between shunt and series capacitors.

• If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors are of little help.
• If the voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are effective; also
to some extent the voltage fluctuations can be evened.
• If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very effective and
stability is improved.
• With series capacitors the reduction in line current is small, hence if the
thermal considerations limits the current, little advantage is from this, so
shunt compensation is to be used.

Synchronous compensators:
• A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without a
mechanical load and depending on the excitation level; it can either
absorb or generate reactive power.
• When used with a voltage regulator the compensator can automatically
run overexcited at times of high loads and under excited at light loads.
• A typical connection of a compensator is shown in the figure along with
the associated voltage – var output characteristics
• A great advantagewww.EnggTree.com
of the method is the flexible operation for all load
conditions.
• Being a rotating machine, its stored energy is useful for riding through
transient disturbances, including voltage drops.

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STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS

➢ The term static var compensator is applied to a number of static var

compensation devices for use in shunt reactive control.
➢ These devices consist of shunt connected, static reactive element (linear or
non linear reactors and capacitors) configured into a var compensating
system.
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➢ Some possible configurations are shown in above Figure.
➢ Even though the capacitors and reactors in are shown in figure connected
to the low voltage side of a down transformer, the capacitor banks may be
distributed between high and low voltage buses.
➢ The capacitor bank often includes, in part, harmonic filters which prevent
the harmonic currents from flowing in the transformer and the high voltage
system.
➢ Filters for the 5th and 7th harmonics are generally provided.
➢ The thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) is operated on the low voltage bus.
➢ In another form of the compensator illustrated in Figure the reactor
compensator is connected to the secondary of a transformer.

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➢ With this transformer, the reactive power can be adjusted to anywhere

between 10% to the rated value.
➢ With a capacitor bank provided with steps, a full control range from
capacitive to inductive power can be obtained.
➢ The reactor's transformer is directly connected to the line, so that no circuit
breaker is needed. www.EnggTree.com
➢ The primary winding is star connected with neutral grounded, suitable to
the thyristor network.
➢ The secondary reactor is normally nonexistent, as it is more economical to
design the reactor transformer with 200% leakage impedance between
primary and secondary windings.
➢ The delta connected tertiary winding will effectively compensate the triple
harmonics.
➢ The capacitor bank is normally subdivided and connected to the substation
bus bar via one circuit breaker per sub bank.
➢ The regulator generates firing pulses for the thyristor network in such a
way that the reactive power required to meet the control objective at the
primary side of the compensator is obtained.
➢ The reactor transformer has a practically linear characteristic from no load
to full load condition.Thus, even under all stained over voltages; hardly any
harmonic content is generated due to saturation.
➢ The transformer core has non ferromagnetic .Gaps to the required linearity.

The following requirements are to be borne in mind while designing a

compensator.

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➢ Reaction should be possible, fast or slow, whenever demanded. No

switching of capacitor should take place at that time to avoid additional
transients in the system. Commutation from capacitor to reactor and vice
versa should be fast.
➢ No switching of the capacitors at the high voltage bus bar, so that no higher
frequency Transients is produced at EHV level.
➢ Elimination of higher harmonics on the secondary side and blocking them
from entering the system.
➢ In a three phase system the thyristor controlled inductors are normally delta
connected as shown in Figure to compensate unbalanced loads and the
capacitors may be star or delta connected

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➢ In the thyristor controlled reactor, the inductive reactance is controlled by

the thyristors.
➢ For a limited range of operation the relationship between the inductive
current iL andthe applied voltage V is represented in Figure. As the
inductance is varied, the susceptance varies over a range within the limits
BLmin and BLmax (corresponding to XLmax and XLmin) while the voltage Changes
by v volts.

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➢ The current flowing in the inductance would be different in each half cycle,
varying with the conduction angle such that each successive half cycle is a
smaller segment of a sine wave.
➢ The fundamental component of inductor current is then reduced to each
case.
➢ Quick control can be exercised within one half cycles, just by giving a
proper step input to the firing angle control Static var compensators when
installed reduce the voltage swings at the rolling mill and power system
buses in drive system applications.
➢ They compensate for the average reactive power requirements and improve
power factor.
➢ Electric arc furnaces impose extremely difficult service requirements on
electrical power systems since the changes in arc furnace load impedance
are rapid. Random and non symmetrical.
➢ The three phases of a static var compensator can be located independently
so that it compensates for the unbalanced reactive load of the furnace and
the thyristor controller will respond quickly in order to minimize the
voltage fluctuations or voltage flicker seen by the system.

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➢ Thus, the furnace characteristics are made more acceptable to the power
system by the static var compensator.
➢ Above figure shows the application of the static var compensator to an arc
furnace installation for reactive power compensation at the HV bus level.

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STATIC ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

LOOP

• The automatic voltage regulator must regulate the terminal voltage

|V| within the required static accuracy limit.
• It must have sufficient speed response.
• It must be stable.
The block diagram of AVR is as shown in Fig.

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Initial error, ∆e0 = ∆|V|ref0 - ∆ |V|0

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Dynamic Analysis of AVR Loop

Fig Block diagram of AVR

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Tap changing transformer:

• when the movable arm makes contact with lower positions such as 1, the secondary
voltage is minimum, during the period of light inductive load
• When the movable arm contact with higher position such as 5
,the secondary voltage is maximum, during the period of high inductive load

Advantage of tap changing transformer

• During high system load conditions, network voltages arekept At highest
practical level to minimize reactive power requirements increase effectiveness of
shunt capacitors to compensated reactive power
• During light load conditions, it is usually required to lower network voltages avoid
under excited operation ofwww.EnggTree.com
generators
• All power transformers on transmission lines are provided with taps for control of
secondary voltage. The tap changing transformers do not control voltage by
regulating the flow of reactive VARs but by changing transformation ratio.
There are two types of tap changing transformers.
• Off-load tap changing transformers.
• On-load (Under-load) tap changing transformers (OLTC).

Off-load tap changing transformers:

The off-load tap changing transformer as shown in figure which requires the disconnection
of the transformer when the tap setting is to be changed. Off-load tap changers are used
when it is to be operated in frequently due to load growth or some seasonal change.

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• On-load tap changing transformer is used when changes in transformer ratio to be

needed frequently, and no need to switch off the transformer to change the tap of
transformer.
• It is used on power transformers, auto transformers and bulk distribution
transformers and at other points of load service.
• The modern practice is to use on-load tap changing transformer which is shown in
figure.
• In the position shown, the voltage is maximum and since the currents divide equally
and flow in opposition through the coil between Q1 and Q2, the resultant flux is zero
and hence minimum impedance.

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On-load tap changing transformers (OLTC):

• To reduce the voltage, the following operations are required in sequence:

• Open Q1.
• Move selector switch S1 to the next contact. Close Q1.
• Open Q2.
• Move selector switch S2 to the next contact. Close Q2.
• Thus, six operations are required for one change in tap position. The voltage
change between taps is often 1.25 % of the nominal voltage.
System Level Control using Generator Voltage Magnitude Setting:
• Transformers transfer the reactive power from one side to another side by altering
the inphase component of the system voltage. Let us consider the tap changing
transformer at both ends of a line is shown in figure.
• Let t1, t2 be the functions of nominal transformation ratio. i.e., tap ratio/nominal
voltage
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• The actual voltage will be t1V1 and t2V2. Let V1, V2 be the nominal voltage at
the ends of the line. Since, the line has impedance, it is necessary to compensate
the voltage drop in the line so that the voltage at the receiving end is maintained
at a desired level.

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For complete line drop compensation

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• For a given load, given the nominal voltages, we can find t1 and t2 as to keep
V2 constant at a specific value.
• For high line drops, the tap changing transformers do not improve voltage profile
because it does not have any reactive power generation capability.
• For small voltage variation or line drop, tap changing transformer is used to
improve voltage magnitude of the system.
Combined use of Tap changing Transformers and Reactive Power Injection:
• Normally tap setting are provided in steps for the range of ± 20 %. If the setting
exceeds this range, it is necessary to inject VARs at the load end to maintain the
voltage profile and to minimize transmission loss.
• A synchronous compensator is connected to the tertiary winding of a three
winding transformer as shown in figure.
• The equivalent circuit is shown in figure.

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Fixed Capacitor and Thyristor Controlled

Reactor [FC – TCR]
• The circuit diagrams of a FC – TCR, with switched filtersare as shown in figure. This
arrangement provides discrete leadings VARs from the capacitors and continuously
lagging VARs from thyristor controlled reactor.
• The capacitors are used as tuned filters, as considerable harmonics are generated by
thyristor control.
• The steady state characteristics of a FC – TCR is shown in figure. The control range is
AB with a positive slope, determine by the firing angle control.

• Where bc is the susceptance of the capacitor, b1(α) isthe susceptance of the inductor at
firing angle α.
• As the inductance is varied, the susceptance varies overa large range. The voltage varies
within limits V ± ΔV. Outsidethe control interval AB, the FC – TCR acts like an
inductor in thehigh voltage range and like a capacitor in the low voltage range.
• The response time is of the order of one or two cycles. The compensator is designed
to provide emergency reactivewww.EnggTree.com
and capacitive loading beyond its continuous steady state
rating.

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Thyristor Switched Capacitor and Thyristor ControlledReactor [TSC – TCR]

• To control the current through a reactor, with new elements Thyristor Controlled
Reactor (TCR) and Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) to meet reactive power
generationand absorption demands.
• Improved performance under largesystem disturbance and lower power loss are
obtained.

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TSC-TCR

• Each thyristor switch is built up from two thyristor stacks connected in anti-parallel.
• Each single phase thyristor switchedcapacitor consists of the capacitor, thyristor switch
and reactorto limit the current through the thyristors and to prevent resonance with the
network as shown in figure.
• The problem of achieving transient free switching ON ofthe capacitor is overcome by
keeping the capacitor charged to the positive or negative peak value, when they are in
the stand by state.
• The switching on instinct is then selected at thetime when the network has its maximum
or minimum value and the same polarity as the capacitor voltage. Switching of the
capacitor is accomplished by separation of the firing pulses to the anti-parallel thyristors
so that the thyristors will block as soon as the current becomes zero.
• The capacitor will then remain charged to the positive or negative peak voltage and be
prepared for the new transientfree switching on.
• The V-I characteristics is as shown in figure. A certain short time overload capability id
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provided both in the maximum inductive and capacitive regions.

• Voltage regulation with a given slope can be achieved in the normal operating range.
• The maximum capacitive current decreases linearly withthe system voltage and the SVC
becomes a fixed capacitor when the maximum capacitive output is reached.
• The voltage support capability decreases with decreasein system voltage.

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VI characteristics of an SVC (TSC-TCR)

ADVANTAGES

▪ SVCs are suited to control the varying reactive power demand oflarge fluctuating loads
(i.e., rolling mills and arc furnaces).
▪ It is used in HVDC converter stations for fast control of reactivepower flow.
▪ The midpoint voltage will vary with the load and an adjustablemidpoint susceptance is
required to maintain constant voltagemagnitude.
▪ The transmitted electrical power can be increased be capacitiveVARs when the machine
accelerates and it can be decreased by reactive VARs when the machine decelerates
because it has no inertia.
▪ Less maintenance.
▪ Possibility to regulate the phases individually

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STATCOM
• A STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source. It provides the desired
Reactive-power generation and absorption entirely by means of electronic
processing of the voltage and current waveforms in a voltage-source converter
(VSC).
• A single-line STATCOM power circuit is shown in Figure(a), where a VSC is
connected to a utility bus through magnetic coupling.
• In Figure.(b), a STATCOM is seen as an adjustable voltage source behind a
reactance—meaning that capacitor banks and shunt reactors are not needed for
reactive-power generation and absorption, thereby giving a STATCOM acompact
design, or small footprint, as well as low noise and lowmagnetic impact.
• The exchange of reactive power between the converter and the ac system can be
controlled by varying the amplitude of the 3-phase output voltage, Es, of the
converter, as illustrated in Figure(c).
• That is, if the amplitude of the output voltage is increased above that of the utility
bus voltage, Et, then a current flows through the reactance from the converter to
the ac system and the converter generates capacitive- reactive power for the ac
system.
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• If the amplitude of theoutput voltage is decreased below the utility bus voltage,
then the current flows from the ac system to the converter and the converter
absorbs inductive-reactive power from the ac system.
• If the output voltage equals the ac system voltage, the reactive-power exchange
becomes zero, in which case the STATCOM is said to be in a floating state.
• On the basis of explanations provided in the previous sections it should be clear
to the reader that, on the one hand, in the linear operating range the V-I
characteristic and functional compensation capability of the STATCOM and the
SVC are similar.
• However, the basic operating principles of the STATCOM, which, with a
converter based var generator, functions as a shunt-connected synchronous
voltage source,are fundamentally different from those of the SVC, which, with
thyristor-controlled reactors and thyristor-switched capacitors, functions as a
shunt-connected, controlled reactive admittance.
• This basic operational difference (voltage source versus reactive
admittance)accounts for the STATCOM's overall superior functional
characteristics, better performance, and greater application flexibility than those
attainable with the SVC.

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• These operational and performance characteristics are summarizedhere, with

the underlying physical reasons behind them, and with the corresponding
application benefits.

V-I and V-Q Characteristics

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• The STATCOM is essentially an alternating voltage source behind a coupling
reactance with the corresponding V-I and V-Q characteristics shown in Figure.
• These show that the STATCOM can be operated over its full output current range
even at very low (theoretically zero), typically about 0.2 p.u system voltage levels.
• In other words, the maximum capacitive or inductive output current of the
STATCOM can be maintained independently of the ac system voltage , and the
maximum var generation or absorption changes linearly with the ac system
voltage.
• In contrast to the STATCOM, the SVC, being composedof (thyristor-switched
capacitors and reactors, becomes a fixed capacitive admittance at full output.
• Thus, the maximum attainable compensating current of the SVC decreases
linearly with ac system voltage, and the maximum var output decreases with the
square of this voltage ,as shown in Figures
• (b) and (b), respectively. The STATCOM is, therefore superior to the SVC in
providing voltage support under large system disturbances during which the
voltage excursions would be well outside of the linear operating range of the
compensator.

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• The capability of providing maximum compensating current.at reduced system

voltage enables the STATCOM to perform in a variety of applications the same
dynamic compensation as an SVC of considerably higher rating.

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ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM

• A power system has several power plants. Each power plant has several
generating units.
• At any point of time, the total load in the system is met by the generating units in
different power plants.
• Economic dispatch control determines thepower output of each power plant and
power output of each generating units within a power plant, which will maximize
the overall cost of the fuel needed to serve the system load.
• The factors considered by the load dispatcher are when to interchange energy
from one station to another station, how much energy to interchange, the cost of
supplying energy to the interconnection, the cost of received energy fromthe
interconnection.
• The other factors affecting the economy of operation are variation fuel cost,
labour cost, and weather conditions, normal and emergency equipment rating,
reserve requirements, voltage limitations, characteristic's of prime moves,
transmission losses etc.,
• The main economic factor in power system operation is the cost ofgenerating real
power.
• The main factor controlling the most desirable load allocationbetween the various
generating units is the total cost.
• Interconnected power system is the more reliable, convenient to operate and
offers economical operating cost.
• Forthe purpose of economy interchange so it is necessary to consider not only the
incremental fuel cost but alsowww.EnggTree.com
the incremental transmission loss for the optimum
economy. The economic system operation is necessary because
• In many cases economic factors and the availability of primary essentials such as
coal, water etc., it indicates that new generating plants is located at greater
distances from the load Centres
• Power systems are in interconnecting for purpose of economy interchange and
reduction of reserve capacity In a number of areas of the country, the cost of fuel
is rapidly increasing.
Statement of Economic Dispatch Problem:
• The complexity of interconnections and the size of the areas of electric power
systems that are controlled in a coordinated way is rapidly increasing.
• This entails optimal allocation of the outputs of a large number of participating
generators.
• Whether a generator should participate in sharing the load at a given interval of
time is a problem of unit commitment.
• Once the unit commitment problem has been solved, it becomes a problem of
optimal allocation of the available generations to meet the forecasted load
demand for the current interval.
• At a modern-day energy management center, highly developed optimization
techniques are used to determine not only the optimaloutputs of the participating
generators, but also the optimal settings of various control devices such as the tap
settings of load tap changers (LTCs), outputs of VAR compensating devices,
desired settings of phase shifters etc.
• The desired objective for such optimization problems can be many, such as the
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minimization of the cost of generation, minimization of the total power loss in

the system, minimization of the voltage deviations, and maximization of the
reliability of the power supplied to the customers.
• One or more of these objectives can be considered while formulating the
optimization strategy.
• Determination of the realpower outputs of the generators so that the total cost of
generation in the system is minimized is traditionally known as the problem of
economic load dispatch (ELD).
Input and Output Characteristics of Thermal Plant
• In analysing the economic operation of a thermal unit, input–output modeling
characteristics are significant.
• For this function, consider a single unit consisting of a boiler, a turbine, and a
generator as shown in Fig This unit has tosupply power not only to the load
connected to the power system but also to the local needs for the auxiliaries in
the station, which may vary from 2%to 5%.
• The power requirements for station auxiliaries are necessary to drive boiler feed
pumps, fans and condenser circulating water pumps, etc The total input to the
thermal unit could be British thermal unit (Btu)/hr or Cal/hr in terms of heat
supplied or Rs./hr in terms of the cost of fuel (coal or gas).
• The total output of the unit at the generator bus will be either kW or MW

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• To analyze the power system network, there is a need of knowing the system
variables. They are:
• Control variables - real and reactive-power generations
• Disturbance variables - real and reactive-power demands
• State variables - bus voltage magnitude V and its phase angle δ
• Scheduling is the process of allocation of generation among different generating
units.
• Economic scheduling is a cost-effective mode of allocation of generation among
the different units in such a way that the overall cost of generation should be
minimum.
• This can also be termed as an optimal dispatch
• Let the total load demand on the station = 𝑃𝐷 and the total number ofgenerating
units = n.
• The optimization problem is to allocate the total load 𝑃𝐷 among these ‗n‘ units
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in an optimal way to reduce the overall cost of generation

• Let 𝑃𝐺1 , 𝑃𝐺2 , 𝑃𝐺3 , …, 𝑃𝐺𝑛 be the power generated by each individual unit to supply a
load demand of P .
• To formulate this problem, it is necessary to know the ‗input–output characteristics
of each unit‘.
• It establishes the relationship between the energy input to the turbine andthe energy output
from the electrical generator.
• The input to the turbine shown on the ordinate may be either in terms of the heat energy
requirement, which is generally measured in Btu/hr or kCal/hr or in terms of the total cost
of fuel per hour in Rs./hr. The output is normally the net electrical power output of that
steam unit inkW or MW.

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• The steam turbine-generating unit curve consists of minimum and maximum limits in
operation, which depend upon the steam cycle used, thermal characteristics of material,
the operating temperature etc.
• To convert the input–output curves into cost curves, the fuel input per hour is multiplied
with the cost of the fuel (expressed in Rs./million kCal)

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Incremental cost curve

• From the input–output curves, the incremental fuel cost (IFC) curve can be
obtained.
• The IFC is defined as the ratio of a small change in the input to the corresponding small
change in the output

• where ΔF represents small changes. As the ΔPG quantities become

progressively smaller, it is seen that the IFC is 𝑑(𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) and is expressed in Rs./MWh.
𝑑(𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡) A typical plot of the IFC versus output power is shown in Fig
• The incremental cost curve is obtained by considering the change in the cost of generation
to the change in real power generation at various points on the input–output curves, i.e.,
slope of the input– output curve as shown in Fig

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Heat Rate Curve

• The heat rate characteristic obtained from the plot of the net heat rate in Btu/kWh or
kCal/kWh versus power output in kW Let 𝐻𝑖 be the heat rate in kCal/kWh which is
the heat energy obtained by the combustion of the fuel in Kcal needed to generate
one unit of electric energy.

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• The thermal unit is most efficient at a minimum heat rate, which corresponds to a
particular generation P . The curve indicates an increase in heat rate at low and
high power limits.
• Thermal efficiency of the unit is affected by the following factors: condition of
steam, steam cycle used, re-heat stages, condenser pressure, etc.

Incrémental Heat Rate:

• It is the ratio of change in input to the corresponding change in output at any
operating point.

Incremental Efficiency:
• The reciprocal of the incremental fuel rate or heat rate, which is defined as the ratio
of output energy to input energy, gives a measure of fuel efficiency for the input

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Cost Function

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Economic Dispatch Without Loss

Solution of λ iteration method without loss (Algorithm)
Case (i) operating limits of power generation are not specified

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UNIT COMMITMENT
Introduction:
• In power systems, demand variation is associated with human activities. Load is
always light during night hours and it starts increasing right from morning and usually
readies its peak level in the evening, and again falls during late evening period.
• The demand is also affected during weekends as well as by weather. Hence, many
methods have been developed for load forecasting.
• The methods for load forecasting can predict the load for period varying from as small
as few seconds to days. Based on these load forecasts, the usual practice is to prepare
a commitment schedule of start-up and shut-down of units.
• The commission of a generating unit means to bring it to speed, synchronize it to the
system and then connect it to the system so that it can deliver the load reliably.
• In the early stages, the main criteria of unit commitment were efficiency of units. Units
used to be ordered as per efficiencies.
• The most efficient unit used to be committed first and then the next unit, if necessary
to meet the load demand, from priority list used to be committed.
• Soon, it was realized that optimum unit commitment may be obtained using input-
output characteristics, termed as cost curves; and today all commitment techniques are
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• Classically, unit commitment is the determination of optimal schedule and generation
level of each unit over a specific time horizon. Time horizon may be hours or a week.
• Baldwin (Scientist name) was the first to report the study of economic shut down of
generating units. Since then, many optimization techniques have been used to obtain
solution of unit commitment problem prominent among these are dynamic
programming, branch and bound, Lagrangian relaxation.
STATEMENT OF UNIT COMMITMENT (UC) PROBLEM
• The unit commitment problem (UC) in electrical power production is a large family of
mathematical optimization problems where the production of a set of electrical
generators is coordinated in order to achieve some common target, usually either match
the energy demand at minimum cost or maximize revenues from energy production.
• The total load of the power system is not constant but varies throughout the day and
reaches a different peak value from one day to another.
• It follows a particular hourly load cycle over a day. There will be different discrete
load levels at each period.
• Due to the above reason, it is not advisable to run all available units all the time, and it
is necessary to decide in advance which generators are to start up, when to connect

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them to the network, the sequence in which the operating units should be shut down,
and for how long.
• The computational procedure for making such decisions is called unit commitment
(UC), and a unit when scheduled for connection to the system is said to be committed.
• The problem of UC is nothing but to determine the units that should operate for a
particular load. To commit‘ a generating unit is to turn it on‘, i.e., to bring it up to
speed, synchronize it to the system, and connect it, so that it can deliver power to the
network.
COMPARISON WITH ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
• Economic dispatch economically distributes the actual system load as it rises to the
various units that are already on-line.
• However, the UC problem plans for the best set of units to be available to supply the
predicted or forecast load of the system over a future time period.
NEED FOR UC
• The plant commitment and unit-ordering schedules extend the period of optimization
from a few minutes to several hours.
• Weekly pattern scan be developed from daily schedules. Likewise, monthly, seasonal,
and annual schedules canwww.EnggTree.com
be prepared by taking into consideration the repetitive nature
of the load demand and seasonal variations.
• A great deal of money can be saved by turning off the units when they are not needed
for the time. If the operation of the system is to be optimized, the UC schedules are
required for economically committing units in plant to service with the time at which
individual units should be taken out from or returned to service.
• This problem is of importance for scheduling thermal units in a thermal plant; as for
other types of generation such as hydro their aggregate costs (such as start-up costs,
operating fuel costs, and shutdown costs) are negligible so that the iron-off status is
not important.
CONSTRAINTS IN UC
There are many constraints to be considered in solving the UC problem.
Spinning reserve
It is the term used to describe the total amount of generation available from all
Synchronized units on the system minus the present load and losses being supplied.
Here, the synchronized units on the system may be named units spinning on the system.

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Static reserve:

• To meet the load demand under contingency of failure of a generator or its derating
caused by minor defect, it is made so that the total installed capacity of the generating
station greater the yearly peak load by certain margin. This is called static reserve.
Thermal Unit Constraints
• Thermal units require crew to operate them especially where turned on or off. A
thermal unit may undergo only gradual temperature changes and this translates into
increased number of hours required to bring it on line. Therefore the various
constraints that arise one.
a)Minimum Up time
• Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.
b)Minimum Down Time
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• Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can be
recommitted.
c)Crew Constraints
• If a plant consists of 2 or more units, they cannot be turned on at the same time
• since there are not enough staff to attend all the units at a time.
d) Start Up Cost
• A start-up cost is incurred when a generator is put into operation. The cost is
dependent on how long the unit has been inactive.
• While the start-up cost function is nonlinear, it can be discretized into hourly
periods, giving a stepwise function.
• The start-up cost may vary from a maximum ‗cold start‘ value to a very small
value if the unit was only turned off recently, and it is still relatively close to the
operating temperature.
• Two approaches to treating a thermal unit during it‘s ‗down‘ state:
• The first approach (cooling) allows the unit‘s boiler to cool down and then heat
back up to a operating temperature in time for a scheduled turn-on.
• The second approach (banking) requires that sufficient energy be input to the boiler
to just maintain the operating temperature.
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• Similarly, shut-down cost is incurred during shutting down generating units. In

general, it is neglected from the unit commitment decision.
OTHER CONSTRAINTS
In addition to system and unit constraints, there are other constraints that need to be
considered in the UC decision. They are described as follows:
A.Fuel Constraints:
• Due to the contracts with fuel suppliers, some power plants may have limited fuel
or may need to burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time.
• A system in which some units have limited fuel, or else have constraints that
require them to burn a specified amount of fuel in a given time, presents a most
challenging unit commitment problem.
B.Must Run Units:
• Some units are given a must-run status during certain times of the year for reason
of voltage support on the transmission network or for such purposes as supply of
steam for uses outside the steam plant itself.
• The must run units include units in forward contracts, units in exercised call/put
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options, RMR units, nuclear power plants, some cogeneration units, and units with
renewable resources such as wind- turbine units and some hydro power plants.
C.Must-off Units:
• Some units are required to be off-line due to maintenance schedule or forced
outage. These units can be excluded from the UC decision.
D.Emission Constraints:
• There are some emissions like sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
carbon dioxide ( CO2 ), and mercury which are produced by fossil-fuelled thermal
power plants.
• The amount of emission depends on various factors such as the type of fuel used,
level of generation output, and the efficiency of the unit.
• The production cost minimization may need to be compromised in order to have
the generation schedule that meets the emission constraints.
Unit Commitment Solution Methods
The Unit commitment problems are very difficult to solve, for that consider the following
situation,
1.A loading pattern for the M periods using load curve must be established.

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2.Number of units should be committed and dispatched to meet out the load.
3.The load period and number of units should supply the individual loads and any
combination of loads.
There are many classical approaches have been developed and implemented successfully.
Some of the approaches are

1. Enumeration Technique or Brute Force technique

2. Priority List Method

3. Dynamic Programming

4. Lagrange Relaxation

5. Integer and Mixed integer programming

6. Benders decomposition

7. Branch and Bound www.EnggTree.com

Other non – classical approaches are

1. Genetic Algorithms

2. Greedy random adaptive search procedure

3. Particle swarm optimization

4. Simulated annealing

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Dynamic Programming Method

• In dynamic programming method, the unit commitment table is to
be arrived at for the complete load cycle.
Advantages
• Reductions in the dimensionality of the problem i.e number of
combinations to be tried are reduced in number.
• If a strict priority order is imposed, the numbers of combinations
for a 4 unit case are:
• Priority 1 unit
• Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit
• Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit
• Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit + Priority 4 unit
The priority listing can be used only if:
• No load costs are zero.
• Unit input-output characteristics are linear between 0 output and
full load
• Phase shift transformer tap position
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• Switched capacitor settings
• Reactive injection for static VAR compensator
• Load shedding
• DC line flow.
Assumptions:
• Total number of units available, their individual cost characteristics
and the load cycle on the station are assumed priori(previously)
• A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating
and the rest off- line.
• The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been off-
line(i.e., fixed amount).
• There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
• There is a strict priority order and in each interval a specified
minimum amount of capacity must be operating.
Forward Dynamic programming method Advantages
• Algorithm to run forward in time from the initial hour to the final
hour.

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• Forward dynamic programming is suitable if the start-up cost of a

unit is a function of the time it has been off-line(i.e, fixed amount)
• Previous history of the unit can be computed at each stage.
• Initial conditions are easily specified.
Algorithm
• One could set up a dynamic-programming algorithm to run
backward in time starting from the final hour to be studied, back to
the initial hour.
• Conversely, one could set up the algorithm to run forward in time
from the initial hour to the final hour.
• The forward approach has distinct advantages in solving generator
unit commitment. For example, if the start-up cost of a unit is a
function of the time it has been off-line (i.e., its temperature), then
a forward dynamic-program approach is more suitable since the
previous history of the unit can be computed at each stage.
• There are other practical reasons for going forward.
• The initial conditions are easily specified and the computations can
go forward in time as long as required.
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• A forward dynamic-programming algorithm is shown by the
flowchart
• The recursive algorithm to compute the minimum cost in hour K
with combination Fcost (K,I) = min { Pcost (K,I) + Scost (K-
1,L;K,I) }
Where
Fcost(K.I) = R (K,I)
Fcost(K, I) = least total cost to arrive at state ( K , I ) Pcost(K,I) =
production cost for state ( K ,I )
Scost(K - 1, L: K , I)= transition cost from state (K - 1, L) to
state ( K , I )
State (K, 1) is the Zth combination in hour K. For the forward dynamic
programming approach, we define a strategy as the transition, or path,
from one state at a given hour to a state at the next hour.
Note that two new variables, X and N, have been introduced in Figure. X

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= number of states to search each period

N = number of strategies, or paths, to save at each step
These variables allow control of the computational effort (see below
Figure).For complete enumeration, the maximum number of the value of
X or N is 2𝑁 – 1

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Fig.1Dynamic programming algorithm

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Priority List Method (Using full load average Production cost FLAPC)
• Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which
consists of creating a priority list of units.
• The priority list can be obtained by noting the full-load average production cost
of each unit.
• Full load average Production cost = { Net heat rate at full load} x Fuel cost

Assumptions
• No load costs are zero.
• Unit input – output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load.
Start-up costs are a fixed amount
• Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time
Steps to be followed or Method of solving
• Determine the full load average production cost for each units.
• Form priority order based on average production cost,(Ascending order)
• Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order.
• Calculate PG1,PG2,……………..PGN from economic dispatch problem for the
feasible combinationswww.EnggTree.com
only.
• For the load curve, each hour load is varying.
• Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether dropping the next unit
will supply generation and spinning reserve.
• If not, continue as it is, If yes, go to next step.
• Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be needed again. Check H
< Minimum shut down time
If yes, go to last step, If not, go to next step. Calculate two costs
• 1.Sum of hourly production costs for the next H hours with the unit up.

• 2.Recalculate the same for the unit down + start-up cost for either cooling or
banking. If the second case is less expensive, the unit should be on.
Repeat this procedure until the priority list.
Merits
• No need to go for ―N‖ Combinations. Take only one constraint
• Ignore the minimum up time and minimum down time. Complication reduced.
Demerits

• Start-up cost are fixed amount No load costs are not considered
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Need of computer control of power systems

The computer control of power systems are needed in

❖ Power system Planning

❖ System Monitoring
❖ Automatic generation control
❖ Security control
❖ Voltage or reactive power control
❖ Unit commitment
❖ Economic dispatch
❖ State estimation
❖ Contingency analysis
❖ Load forecasting

Increase in unit size, growth of interconnected and the need to maintain the
system innormal mode requires sophisticated control, instrumentation and
protection.

❖ The multiplicity of monitoring instruments in the control room and

their distance apart make the observation of more than a few
vitalises almost impossible, especially during the intense activity of
plant start-up. www.EnggTree.com

❖ The operation of changing plot parameters and take critical decisions.

❖ These requirements led to the development and application of more

advanced solid

❖ state modular electronic instruments, computer based direct control

and date processing systems.

Computer Configuration Trend

❖ The computer system used at power system has been

undergoing continuous development over the years. Formerly,
all the functions such as data acquisition, logging display, and
control and performance calculations were performer by
computer processing unit (CPU).

❖ In such system failure of any of the elegant leads to the total

system breakdown. Thus, the need for a dual computer
configuration arose which is quite costly.

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❖ The further advancement in communication technology and

powerful microprocessors has resulted in the cheap and reliable
microprocessor basedDistributed Processing System (DPS).
❖ It is based on the principle of LAN. Today, in all process
industries including power plant, this system is employed for
data acquisition and control.
❖ DPS consists of a number of microprocessors connected
through data highway, which is passive in nature. Each
processor is assigned a specific task independently.

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Energy control centres

When the power system increases in size-the number of substations,
transformers, switchgear and so on-their operation and interaction become more
complex. So it becomes essential to monitor this information simultaneously for the
total system which is called as energy control centre.
A fundamental design feature of energy centre is that, it increases system
reliability and economic feasibility. In other words, Energy Management (EM) is
performed at control centre called system control centre.
Fig. shows the schematic diagram showing the information flow between
various functions to be performed in an operations control centre computer system.
The system gets information about the power system from remote terminal units
(RTU) that encode measurement transducer outputs and operand/closed status
information into digital signals that are transmitted to the operations centre over
communication circuits.
The control centre can transmit control information such as raise/lower
commandsto the speed changer and in turn to the generators and open/close commands
to circuit breakers (CBs). The information coming into the control centre is
breaker/switch status indications and analog measurements.
The analog measurements of generator outputs must be used directly by the
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) program, whereas, all other data will be
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processed by the state estimator before being used by the other programs. Real time
operations are in two aspects.
Three level control
• Turbine-governor to adjust generation to balance changing load-instantaneous
control.
• ACG (called Load Frequency Control (LFC)) maintains frequency and net
powerinterchange –action repeated at 2-6 sec. interval.
• Economic Dispatch Control (EDC) distributes the load among the units
suchthat fuel cost is minimum-executed at 5-10 minutes intervals.
Primary voltage control
• Excitation controls regulate generator bus voltage.
• Transmission voltage control device includes SVC (Static VAR
Controllers),shunt capacitors, transformer taps, etc

Automatic Generation Control

Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minor
functions that operate online in real time to adjust the generation against load at
minimum cost. The major functions are load frequency control and economic dispatch,
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each of which is described below. The minor functions are reserve monitoring, which
assures enough reserve on the system; interchange scheduling, which initiates and
completes scheduled interchanges; and other similar monitoring and recording
functions

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Fig. Energy control centres

ECC Functions
The practice of all communication links between equipment and the
control centrecould be interrupted and still, electric service is being
maintained. The generating in the system remains synchronized to the
transmission network and maintains its existing power output level even
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without signals received from control centre.
Monitoring
An energy control centre fulfills the function of coordinating their response of
the system elements in both normal operation and emergency conditions.
The burden of repetitious control in normal situations is delegated to the digital
computer and selective monitoring is performed by human operators.
The digital computer is used to process the incoming stream of data to detect
abnormalities and the human operator via lights, buzzers and CRT presentations. Many
lower level or less serious cases of exceeding normal limits are routinely handled by
digital computer. A more serious abnormality detected by the digital computer may
cause suspension of normal control functions
In emergencies such as loss of a major generator or excess power demands by a
neighboring utility on the tie lines, many alarms could be detected and the systemcould
enter an emergency state.

Data Acquisition and Control

Data acquisition provides operators and computer control systems with
status and measurement information needed to supervise overall operations.
Security control analyses the consequences of faults to establish operating
conditions. www.EnggTree.com
A SCADA system consists of a master station and remote terminal unit
(RTU). Master station communicates information to the RTU for observing and
controllingplants.
RTUs are installed at generating station or transmission substation or
distribution substation. RTUs transmitting status of the device and
measurements to master station and receive control commands from the master
station.
In a computer aided data acquisition scheme, the steady state reading
can be acquired simultaneously from various instrument locations and can be
saved for future analysis.
The transient may result in the form of voltage or current fluctuations. In a real
power system, the transient may result in the failure of components and it is sometimes
difficult to trace the origin of disturbance. Using a Data Acquisition system, the
transients can be reduced and analyzed.
Phasor Measurement Units for Power Systems (PMU):
A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device used to estimate the
magnitude and phase angle of an electrical phasor quantity (such as
voltage or current) in the electricity
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grid using a common time source for synchronization. Time
synchronization is usually provided by GPS or IEEE 1588 Precision Time
Protocol, which allows synchronized real-time measurements of multiple
remote points on the grid. PMUs are capable of capturing samples from a
waveform in quick succession and reconstructing the phasor quantity, made
up of an angle measurement and a magnitude measurement. The resulting
measurement is known as a synchrophasor. These time synchronized
measurements are important because if the grid’s supply and demand are not
perfectly matched, frequency imbalances can cause stress on the grid, which
is a potential cause for power outages.
PMUs can also be used to measure the frequency in the power grid. A
typical commercial PMU can report measurements with very high temporal
resolution, up to 120 measurements per second. This helps engineers in
analysing dynamic events in the grid which is not possible with traditional
SCADA measurements that generate one measurement every 2 or 4 seconds.
Therefore, PMUs equip utilities with enhanced monitoring and control
capabilities and are considered to be one of the most important measuring
devices in the future of power systems. A PMU can be a dedicated device, or
the PMU function can be incorporated into a protective relay or other device.
Existing systems in power grid such as Energy Management System
(EMS) and Supervisory Controlwww.EnggTree.com
and Data Acquisition system (SCADA) have
the capability to provide only steady state view of power system with high data
flow latency. In Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system (SCADA)
it was not possible to measure the phase angles of bus voltages of power
system network in real time, due to technical difficulties in synchronising
measurements from distant locations.
Measurements were obtained at slower rates; it was not possible to get
dynamic behaviour of power system as well as limited situational awareness
was conveyed to the operator. Advent of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs)
alleviated this problem by synchronising voltage and current waveforms at
widely dispersed locations with respect to global positioning system. PMU is
superior to SCADA withrespect to speed, performance and reliability.

As per definition of IEEE, PMU is defined as device that produces

synchronised phasor, frequency and rate of change of frequency estimates from
voltage and/or current signals and time synchronising signal. PMUs provide real
time synchronised measurements in power system with better than one
microsecond synchronisation accuracy, which is obtained by Global
Positioning System (GPS) signals. PMUs are situated in power system

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substations, and provide measurement of time stamped positive sequence
voltages and currents of all monitored buses and feeders. Data from various
substations are collected at suitable site, and by aligning time stamps of
measurements a coherent picture of the state power system is created. PMUs are
time synchronised, high speed measurement units that monitor current and
voltage waveforms (sinusoids) in the grid, convert them into a phasor
representation through high end computation and securely transmit the same to
centralised server.
PMU technology is well suited to track grid dynamics in real time, the
data obtained can be used for wide area monitoring, stability monitoring,
dynamic system ratings and improvement in state estimation, protection and
control. It enables utilities to proactively plan energy delivery and prevent
failures.
PMU application

❖ Post disturbance analysis

❖ Stability monitoring

❖ Thermal overload monitoring

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❖ Power system restoration

❖ State estimation

❖ Real time control

❖ Adaptive protection

System Hardware Configuration

The supervisory control and the data acquisition system allow a few
operators to monitor the generation and HV transmission system. Consistent
with principles of high reliability and fail safe failures, electric utilities have
almost universally applied a redundant set of dual digital computers for the
function of remote date acquisition control, energy management and system
security.
Both computers have their own core memory and drive an extensive
number of input-output devices such as printers, teletypes, and magnetic tape

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drive, disks. Usually one computer, the on-line units, is monitoring and
controlling the power system. The backup computer may be executing off-line
batch programs such as load forecasting or hydro-thermal allocation
The on-line computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between
the two computers. Upon a fail over or switch-in status command, the stored
information of the common disk is inserted in the memory of the on-line
computer.
The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of
update cycle. All of the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer
through input- output microprocessors that have been programmed to
communicate, as well as pre-process the analog information, check for limits,
convert to another system of units and so on.
The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory
without interrupting the central processing unit. As a result of these
precautions, for all critical hardware functions, there is often a guaranteed
99.8% or more availability.
Software also allows for multilevel hardware failures and initialization
of application programs, if failures occur. Critical operation and functions
aremaintained during eitherwww.EnggTree.com
preventive or corrective maintenance.
Besides hardware, new digital code to control the system may be
compiled and tested in the backup computer, then switched to on-line status.
The digital computers are usually employed in a fixed cycle operating mode,
with priority interrupts wherein computer periodically performs a list of
operations. The most critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically,
the following categories are scanned every 2 seconds.
o All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and
voltages, transformer tap positions and capacitor banks.

o Tie-line flow and interchanges schedules.

o Generator loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity.

o Telemetry verification to detect failures and error in the remote

bilateral communication links between the digital computer and
remote equipment.

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The turbine-generators are often commanded to new power levels every 4
seconds, sharing the load adjustment based on each unit‘s response
capabilityin MW/min. The absolute power output of each unit‘s response
capability is typically adjusted every 5 min by the computer executing an
economic dispatch program to determine the base power settings.

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Energy Management System (EMS)

Energy management is the process of monitoring, coordinating and
controlling thegeneration, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. It
is performed at centers called ‘system control centers’, by a computer system
called Energy Management System (EMS). Data acquisition and remote
control is performed by the computer system called SCADA, which forms the
front end of EMS. The EMS communicates with generating, transmission and
distribution systems through SCADA systems.
Energy management system consists of energy management, AGC,
Security control, SCADA, load management as shown in figure.

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Fig. Energy Management System

Energy Management

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Automatic generation control and economic dispatch minimize the
production cost ad transmission cost. Commit the number of units to be
operated to minimize the cost and schedule hydro-thermal plants properly have
come under energy management.

The functions of energy management systems are:

System load forecasting – Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days
Unit commitment – 1 to 7 days.
Fuel scheduling to plants.
Hydro-thermal scheduling – up to 7 days.
MW interchanges evaluation
Transmission loss minimization.
Maintenance scheduling.
Production cost calculation.
Load Management – Carried out at Distribution Control Centre

Remote terminal unit (RTU) installed at distribution substations, can

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provide status and measurements for distribution substation. RTU can monitor
switches, interrupters, control voltage, customer meter reading, etc.

The functions
1. Data acquisition
2. Monitoring, sectionalizing switches and create circuit configuration
3. Feeder switch control and preparing distribution map
4. Preparation of switching orders
5. Customer meter reading
6. Load management
7. Fault location and circuit topology configuration
8. Service restoration
9. Power factor and voltage control
10. Implementation time dependent pricing

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11. Circuit continuity analysis.

12. To control customer load through appliance switching and indirectly through
voltage control
Power System Data Acquisition and Control
A SCADA system consists of a master station that communicates with remote
terminal units (RTUs) for the purpose of allowing operators to observe and
controlphysical plants.
Generating plants and transmission substations certainly justify RTUs, and
their installation is becoming more common in distribution substations as costs
decrease. RTUs transmit device status and measurements to, and receive
control commands and set point data from, the master station.
Communication is generally via dedicated circuits operating in the range of 600
to 4800 bits/s with the RTU responding to periodic requests initiated from the
master station (polling) every 2 to 10 s, depending on the criticality of the data.
The traditional functions of SCADA systems are summarized:
✓ Data acquisition: Provides telemetered measurements and status information
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tooperator.
✓ Supervisory control: Allows operator to remotely control devices, e.g., open
andclose circuit breakers. A “select before operate” procedure is used for greater
safety.
✓ Tagging: Identifies a device as subject to specific operating restrictions
andprevents unauthorized operation.
✓ Alarms: Inform operator of unplanned events and undesirable operating
conditions. Alarms are sorted by criticality, area of responsibility, and
chronology.
Acknowledgment may be required
✓ Logging: Logs all operator entry, all alarms, and selected information.

✓ Load shed: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in

response to system emergencies.
✓ Trending: Plots measurements on selected time scales.

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Energy Management
Since the master station is critical to power system operations, its
functions are generally distributed among several computer systems depending
on specificdesign. A dual computer system configured in primary and standby
modes is most common. SCADA functions are listed below without stating
which computer has specific responsibility.
• Manage communication circuit configuration

• Downline load RTU files

• Maintain scan tables and perform polling

• Check and correct message

• Detect status and measurement changes

• Monitor abnormal and out-of-limit conditions

• Log and time-tag sequence of events

• Detect and annunciate alarms

• Respond to operator requests to:

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– Display information

– Enter data

– Execute control action

– Acknowledge alarms Transmit control action to RTUs

• Inhibit unauthorized actions

• Maintain historical files

• Log events and prepare reports

• Perform load shedding

Automatic Generation Control

Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minor
functions that operate online in real time to adjust the generation against load
at minimum cost.
The major functions are load frequency control and economic dispatch, each
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of which is described below.
The minor functions are reserve monitoring, which assures enough reserve on
the system; interchange scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled
interchanges; and other similar monitoring and recording functions.
Load Frequency Control
Load frequency control (LFC) has to achieve three primary objectives,
which are stated below in priority order:
1. To maintain frequency at the scheduled value

2. To maintain net power interchanges with neighboring control areas at

thescheduled values
3. To maintain power allocation among units at economically desired values.

The first and second objectives are met by monitoring an error signal, called
area control error (ACE), which is a combination of net interchange error and
frequency error and represents the power imbalance between generation and
loadat any instant.
This ACE must be filteredwww.EnggTree.com
or smoothed such that excessive and random changes
in ACE are not translated into control action.
Since these excessive changes are different for different systems, the filter
parameters have to be tuned specifically for each control area.
The filtered ACE is then used to obtain the proportional plus integral control signal
This control signal is modified by limiters, dead bands, and gain constants that
aretuned to the particular system.
This control signal is then divided among the generating units under control by
using participation factors to obtain unit control errors (UCE).
These participation factors may be proportional to the inverse of the second
derivative of the cost of unit generation so that the units would be loaded
according to their costs, thus meeting the third objective.
However, cost may not be the only consideration because the different units
mayhave different response rates and it may be necessary to move the faster
generators more to obtain an acceptable response.

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The UCEs are then sent to the various units under control and the generating
units monitored to see that the corrections take place.
This control action is repeated every 2 to 6 s. In spite of the integral control,
errors in frequency and net interchange do tend to accumulate over time.
These time errors and accumulated interchange errors have to be corrected by
adjusting the controller settings according to procedures agreed upon by the
whole interconnection.
These accumulated errors as well as ACE serve as performance measures
forLFC.
The main philosophy in the design of LFC is that each system should follow
its own load very closely during normal operation, while during emergencies;
each system should contribute according to its relative size in the
interconnection without regard to the locality of the emergency.
Thus, the most important factor in obtaining good control of a system is its
inherent capability of following its own load.
This is guaranteed if the system has adequate regulation margin as well as
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adequate response capability.

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SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION(SCADA)

There are two parts to the term SCADA Supervisory control indicates that the
operator, residing in the energy control center (ECC), has the ability to control
remote equipment.
Data acquisition indicates that information is gathered characterizing the state
of the remote equipment and sent to the ECC for monitoring purposes.
The monitoring equipment is normally located in the substations and is
consolidated in what is known as the remote terminal unit (RTU).
Generally, the RTUs are equipped with microprocessors having memory and
logic capability. Older RTUs are equipped with modems to provide the
communication link back to the ECC, whereas newer RTUs generally have
intranet or internet capability.
Relays located within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open or close
selected control circuits to perform a supervisory action.
Such actions may include, for example, opening or closing of a circuit breaker
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or switch, modifying a transformer tap setting, raising or lowering generator
MW output or terminal voltage, switching in or out a shunt capacitor or
inductor, and the starting or stopping of a synchronous condenser.
Information gathered by the RTU and communicated to the ECC includes both
analog information and status indicators.
Analog information includes, for example, frequency, voltages, currents, and real
and reactive power flows.
Status indicators include alarm signals (over-temperature, low relay battery
voltage, illegal entry) and whether switches and circuit breakers are open or
closed.
Such information is provided to the ECC through a periodic scan of all RTUs.
A 2 second scan cycle is typical.
SCADA
It consists of a master station and RTU linked by
communication channel. Thehardware components can be classified into
1. Process computer and associated hardware at the energy control center

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2. RTU and the associated hardware at the remote stations.
3. Communication equipment that links the RTUs and process computers at
themaster station
4. Fig. Digital computer control and monitoring for power system

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System Hardware Configuration:

The supervisory control and data acquisition system allows a few
operators to monitor the generation and HV transmission system. Consistent with
principles of high reliability and fail safe features, electric utilities have
almost universally applied a redundant set of dual digital computers for the
functions of remote data acquisition control, energy management and system
security. Both computers have their own core memory and drive an extensive
number of input- output devices such as printers, teletypes, magnetic tape drive,
and disks and so on.
Usually one computer, the on-line units, is monitoring and controlling
the power system. The backup computer may be executing off-line batch
programs such as load forecasting to hydro-thermal allocation. The on-line
computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between the two computers.

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Upon a fail over or switch-in status command, the stored information
of the common disk is inserted in the memory of the on-line computer.
The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of
update cycle. The figure gives a detailed block diagram of a typical digital
computer control and monitoring for power systems.
All of the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through
input-output microprocessors that have been programmed to communicate, as
well as preprocess the analog information, check for limits, convert to another
system of units and so onThe microprocessors can transfer data in and out of
computer memory witprocessing unit. As a result of these precautions, for all
critical hardware functions, there is often a guaranteed 99.8 % or more
availability. Software also allows for multilevel hardware failures and
initialization of application programs, if failures occur. Critical operations and
functions are maintained during either preventive or corrective maintenance.
Besides hardware, new digital code to control the system may be compiled and
tested in the backup computer, then switched to on-line status. The digital
computers are usually employed in a fixed cycle operating mode, with priority
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interrupts wherein the computer periodically performs a list of operations. The
most critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following
categories are scanned every two seconds.
All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and voltages,
transformer tap positions and capacitor banks.
Tie-line flows and interchanges schedules.
Generators loads, voltage, operating limits ad boiler capacity.
Telemetry verification to detect failures and errors in the remote bilateral
communication links between the digital computer and the remote equipment
The turbine generators are often commanded to new power levels every four
seconds, sharing the load adjustment based on each unit’s response capability
in MW/min. The absolute power output of each unit’s response capability is
typicallyadjusted every five min by the computer executing an economic
dispatch program to determine the base power setting.
Most low priority programs may be executed on demand by the operator for
studypurposes or to initialize the power system. An operator may also alter the

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digital computer code in the execution if system. The computer software
compiler and data handlers are designed to be versatile and readily accepts
operator inputsa parameter changes in the system.
Types of SCADA systems and areas of applications:
Type 1: Small distribution systems, small hydro stations, HVDC links.
Type 2: Medium sized power system (plant control center), power station
HVDC link distribution systems.
Type 3: Regional control center, distribution system in large urban areas
several hydro power stations with cascade control.
Type 4: National and Regional control center distributed systems in large urban
areas, several hydro power station with cascade control.
Components of SCADA
SENSORS - Analog and digital sensors are used to interface the systems
RELAYS– Relays are used to sense the abnormal conditions and protect the
system.
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REMOTE TERMINAL UNITS – RTU’s are microprocessors controlled
electronics devices which are used to collect various data's and transmit to
SCADA system.
MASTER UNIT- Master unit act as a central processor computer.
COMMUNICATION LINKS- It is used to link RTU’s and SCADA system.
Satellite communication, microwave communication, fiber optic
communication maybe used for communication purpose.
AREA CONTROL ERROR
To maintain a net interchange of power with its neighbors, an AGC uses
real power flow measurements of all tie-lines emanating from the area and
subtractsthe scheduled interchange to calculate an error value. The net power
interchange, together with a gain, b , the frequency bias, as a multiplier on the
frequency is called area control error.

The interchange power Ps, is generally scheduled for periods of the day
and is changed as ‘blocks’ of MWhr are bought or sold to neighboring utilities.
A positive ACE or positive net exchange of power represents a flow out of the
area.
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Where,
Pk – MW tie flow defined as positive out of the area
Ps – Scheduled MW interchange
𝑓0 - Scheduled base frequency

MASTER STATION

Master unit is provided with a digital computer with associated

interfacing devices and hardware to receive information from RTU, process data
and display salient information to the operator.

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The hardware at the master station includes the following

1. Process computer
2. CRT display
3. Printer
4. Data logger

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5. Computer graphics
6. Control console
7. Keyboard
8. Alarm panel
9. Instrument panel
10. Modem

11. Multiplexer

REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT

The RTU’S are installed at selected power stations and substations.

Thehardware components of RTU may include the following.
1. Transducers
2. A/D and D/A converters
3. Serial Interface
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4. Modems
5. Multiplexers
6. Front end Computer
7. Control relays

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REMOTE TERMINAL UNITS

The analog quantities like voltage , MW, MVAR and frequency

measured at stations are converted into DC voltage or current signals, through
transducers andfed to the A/D converters with convert the analog signals into
digital from suitable for transmission. The digital signal is fed to the front end
computer and modems through the serial interface . MODEM sends the
information to the master unit through multiplexer. MODEM will also receive
commands from master units to control the station equipment's through the
control relays. In addition to measure quantities, status of various devices is
informed to master station.
The master station scans the RTU sequentially and gathers information
on the system operating condition i.e Voltage, Current, line flows, generation,
output, etc as well as equipment status. Computer, using real time data can check
operatinglimits of various quantities and give an alarm to operator if overloading
or any otherabnormal condition is detected, the system real time information is
presented to the operator through CRT, computer graphic terminals, alarm panels,
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alarm printer so that the operator can supervise minute by minute, system
operating condition and take control action to prevent system disturbances
whenever emergency conditions and system status at specified interval is printed
by data loggers.

FUNCTIONS OF SCADA SYSTEMS

1. Data acquisition

2. Information display.

3. Supervisory Control (CBs : ON/OFF, Generator: stop/start, RAISE/LOWER

command)
4. Information storage and result display.

5. Sequence of events acquisition

6. Remote terminal unit processing.

7. General maintenance.

8. Runtime status verification.

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9. Economic modeling.

10. Remote start/stop.

11. Load matching based on economics.

12. Load shedding.

CONTROL FUNCTIONS
▪ Control and monitoring of switching devices, tapped transformers,
auxiliarydevices, etc.
▪ Bay-and a station-wide interlocking
▪ Dynamic Bus bar coloring according to their actual
operational status.Automatic switching sequences
▪ Automatic functions such as load shedding, power restoration, and
high speedbus bar transfer
▪ Time synchronization by radio and satellite clock signal
MONITORING FUNCTIONS:
• Measurement and displaying of current, voltage, frequency, active and
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reactivepower, energy, temperature, etc.
• Alarm functions. Storage and evaluation of time
stamped events.Trends and archiving of measurements
• Collection and evaluation of
maintenance data Disturbance
recording and evaluation
PROTECTION FUNCTIONS:
▪ Substation protection functions includes the monitoring of events like
start, tripindication and relay operating time and setting and reading of
relay parameters.
▪ Protection of bus bars. Line feeders, transformers, generators.
▪ Protection monitoring (status, events, measurements, parameters,
recorders)
▪ Adaptive protection by switch-over of the active parameter set.

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VARIOUS OPERATING STATES:

1. Normal state

2. Alert state www.EnggTree.com

3. Emergency state

4. Extremis state

5. Restorative state

Normal state:
A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are
satisfied .It is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying
all the operating constraints.

Alert state:
➢ A normal state of the system said to be in alert state if one or more of the
postulated contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated.
➢ When the system security level falls below a certain level or the
probability of disturbance increases, the system may be in alert state .

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➢ All equalities and inequalities are satisfied, but on the event of a

disturbance, the system may not have all the inequality constraints
satisfied.
➢ If severe disturbance occurs, the system will push into emergency state.
To bring back the system to secure state, preventive control action is
carried out.

Emergency state:
➢ The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating
constraints are violated, but the load constraint is satisfied .
➢ In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.
➢ The system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective
actions,disconnection of faulted section or load sharing.

Extremis state:
➢ When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken
in time, then it goes to either emergency state or extremis state.
➢ In this regard neither the load or nor the operating constraint is satisfied,
this result is islanding.
➢ Also the generating units are strained beyond their capacity .
➢ So emergency control action is done to bring back the system state either
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to the emergency state or normal state.

Restorative state:
➢ From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or
secure state .The latter is a slow process.
➢ Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and
then to the secure state .
➢ This is done using restorative control action.

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SECURITY ANALYSIS & CONTROL:

Security monitoring is the on line identification of the actual operating conditions
of a power system. It requires system wide instrumentation to gather the system
data as well as a means for the on line determination of network topology
involving an open or closed position of circuit breakers. A state estimation has
been developed to get the best estimate of the status .the state estimation provides
the database for security analysis shown in fig
Data acquisition:
1. To process from RTU
2. To check status values against normal value
3. To send alarm conditions to alarm processor
4. To check analog measurements against limits.
Alarm processor:
1. To send alarm messages
2. To transmit messages according to priority
Status processor:
1. To determine status of each substation for proper connection.
Reserve monitor: www.EnggTree.com
1. To check generator MW output on all units against unit limits
State estimator:
1. To determine system state variables
2. To detect the presence of bad measures values.
3. To identify the location of bad measurements
4. To initialize the network model for other programs

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Security Control Function:

Ø Network Topology processor-mode of the N/W
Ø State estimator.
Ø Power flow-V, δ,P,Q.
Ø Optimal power flow.
Ø Contingency analysis.
Ø Optimal power flow.
Security enhancement-existing overload using corrective control action.
Preventive action.

System Security
1. System monitoring.
2. Contingency analysis.
3. Security constrained optimal power flow
Security Assessment

• Security assessment determines first, whether the system is currently

residing in an acceptable state and second, whether the system would
respond in an acceptable manner and reach an acceptable state following
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any one of a pre-defined contingency set.
• A contingency is the unexpected failure of a transmission line,
transformer, or generator.
• Usually, contingencies result from occurrence of a fault, or short-circuit, to
one of these components.
• When such a fault occurs, the protection systems sense the fault and
remove the component, and therefore also the fault, from the system.
• Of course, with one less component, the overall system is weaker, and
undesirable effects may occur.
• For example, some remaining circuit may overload, or some bus may
experience an undervoltage condition. These are called static security
problems.
• Dynamic security problems may also occur, including uncontrollable
voltage decline, generator overspeed (loss of synchronism), or undamped
oscillatory behavior

Security Control

• Power systems are designed to survive all probable contingencies.

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• A contingency is defined as an event that causes one or more important

components such as transmission lines, generators, and transformers to be
unexpectedly removed from service.
• Survival means the system stabilizes and continues to operate at acceptable
voltage and frequency levels without loss of load.
• Operations must deal with a vast number of possible conditions
experienced by the system, many of which are not anticipated in planning.
• Instead of dealing with the impossible task of analyzing all possible system
states, security control starts with a specific state: the current state if
executing the real-time network sequence; a postulated state if executing a
study sequence.
• Sequence means sequential execution of programs that perform the
following steps:

1. Determine the state of the system based on either current or postulated

conditions.
2. Process a list of contingencies to determine the consequences of each
contingency on the system in its specified state.
3. Determine preventive or corrective action for those contingencies which
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• Security control requires topological processing to build network

models and uses large-scale AC network analysis to determine system
conditions.
• The required applications are grouped as a network subsystem that
typically includes the following functions:

Topology processor:
Processes real-time status measurements to determine an electrical connectivity
(bus) model of the power system network.
State estimator:
Uses real-time status and analog measurements to determine the best estimate of
the state of the power system. It uses a redundant set of measurements; calculates
voltages, phase angles, and power flows for all components in the system; and
reports overload conditions.
Power flow:

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Determines the steady-state conditions of the power system network for a

specified generation and load pattern. Calculates voltages, phase angles, and
flows across the entire system.
Contingency analysis:
Assesses the impact of a set of contingencies on the state of the power system
and identifies potentially harmful contingencies that cause operating limit
violations.
Optimal power flow: Recommends controller actions to optimize a specified
objective function (such as system operating cost or losses) subject to a set of
power system operating constraints.
Security enhancement:
Recommends corrective control actions to be taken to alleviate an existing or
potential overload in the system while ensuring minimal operational cost.

Preventive action:
Recommends control actions to be taken in a “preventive” mode before a
contingency occurs to preclude an overload situation if the contingency were to
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occur.
Bus load forecasting:
Uses real-time measurements to adaptively forecast loads for the electrical
connectivity (bus) model of the power system network
Transmission loss factors:
Determines incremental loss sensitivities for generating units;
calculates the impact on losses if the output of a unit were to be increased by 1
MW.
Short-circuit analysis:
Determines fault currents for single-phase and three-phase faults for fault
locations across the entire power system network.

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