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SKN NEW STB BIOLOGY KEY POINT NOTES

IMMUNITY
Definition of Immunity:
1. Immunity refers to the body's ability to resist pathogenic organisms like viruses and
bacteria.
2. It protects against disturbances in the body's normal systems by:
o Preventing the entry of pathogens.
o Neutralizing toxins released by pathogens.
o Destroying abnormal or foreign cells within the body.
Immune System:
1. The immune system is a collection of cells and proteins working together to protect the
body from harmful microorganisms.
2. It plays a critical role in:
o Controlling cancer, allergies, and hypersensitivity.
o Preventing rejection of transplanted tissues and organs.
3. The study of the immune system's functioning and disorders is termed immunology.
Divisions of the Immune System:
1. Innate Immune System (Non-Specific):
o Provides natural immunity.
o Defends against any pathogenic organism attempting to enter the body.
o Consists of two lines of defense:
▪ First Line of Defense (Physical and Biochemical Barriers):
▪ Physical barriers: Intact skin, mucous membranes, and ciliated
epithelium.
▪ Biochemical barriers: Saliva, mucus, HCl (gastric juice), tears, and
spermine (in semen).
▪ Second Line of Defense:
▪ Mechanisms: Phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation,
antimicrobial proteins, and fever.
2. Adaptive Immune System (Specific):
o Provides specific immunity.
o Constitutes the Third Line of Defense:
▪ Cell-mediated immunity: Involves T cells.
▪ Antibody-mediated immunity: Involves B cells.
Summary of Three Lines of Defense:
1. First Line of Defense (Non-Specific):
o Physical barriers: Prevent entry of pathogens.
o Biochemical barriers: Neutralize harmful agents.
2. Second Line of Defense (Non-Specific):
o Includes cellular and chemical mechanisms like phagocytosis, inflammation, and
antimicrobial responses.

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 3. Third Line of Defense (Specific):
o Adaptive immune response:
▪ Cell-mediated and antibody-mediated actions.
13.1 First Line of Defense
1. Definition:
o Non-specific in nature, preventing entry of all types of pathogens into the body.
o Comprised of physical barriers and biochemical barriers.
2. Types of Barriers:
o Physical Barriers:
▪ Skin.
▪ Mucous membranes.
▪ Ciliated epithelium.
o Biochemical Barriers:
▪ Saliva.
▪ Tears.
▪ Mucus.
▪ Gastric juice.
Skin: Structure and Role in the Immune System
1. Overview:
o Largest organ, covering 1.8 m².
o Multifunctional organ providing protection, regulation, and sensation.
o Serves as a barrier to:
▪ Mechanical impacts.
▪ Microorganisms.
▪ Radiation.
▪ Chemicals.
o Regulates:
▪ Body temperature via sweat.
▪ Hair growth.
▪ Circulation and fluid balance.
o Synthesizes Vitamin D.
o Contains receptors for heat, cold, touch, and pain.

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 2. Layers of Skin:
o Epidermis:
▪ Outermost layer.
▪ Lacks blood supply, depending on dermis for nutrients and waste disposal.
▪ Composed of closely packed keratinized dead cells.
▪ Functions:
▪ Mechanically tough and resistant to bacterial enzyme degradation.
▪ Fatty acids create a dry, salty, and acidic environment, inhibiting
microbial growth.
▪ Dead cells are frequently shed to remove microbes.
▪ Dead skin cells are continuously shed and replaced with new cells
from below.
▪ Acts as a physical barrier to prevent pathogen entry.
1. Contains immune cells:
o Langerhans Cells: Skin-resident macrophages.
o T Cells: Help eliminate invading microbes.
Dermis:
1. The layer beneath the epidermis.
2. Composed of living cells, blood vessels, and nerves.
3. Sweat Glands:
o Secrete sweat to form part of the skin's chemical barrier.
o Sweat contains polypeptides that inhibit the growth of microorganisms on the
skin.

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 4. Sebaceous Glands:
o Secrete sebum (an oil-like substance) into hair follicles to lubricate the hair.
o Sebum contains acids that form a thin film on the skin surface, acting as a
chemical barrier to microorganisms.
Hypodermis:
1. The layer beneath the dermis.
2. Made of fat-storing adipose tissue and connective tissue.
3. Connects the skin to underlying muscles and bones.
4. Functions as an insulating layer.
Digestive Tract: Role in Immune System
1. Mucosal Lining:
o The gut is lined with mucosa, which serves as a non-specific physical barrier.
o The mucosa also acts as a biochemical barrier by secreting antimicrobial
peptides.
2. Gastric Glands:
o Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enzymes to destroy harmful
microorganisms.
3. Mucous Membranes:
o Present in the mouth, nose, respiratory tract, urinary tract, and lungs.
o Composed of epithelial cells, providing a compact non-specific physical barrier.
4. Mechanical Action:
o The process of peristalsis moves sloughed-off mucus along with undigested food
(feces) out of the digestive system.
Lymphoid Tissue in the Digestive Tract
1. Found in three main areas:
o Tonsils in the pharyngeal region.
o Peyer’s Patches in the small intestines.
o Appendix.
2. Lymphoid Tissue:
o Rich in macrophages and lymphocytes, which provide protection against
pathogens in the digestive tract.
3. Plasma Cells and Lymphocytes:
o Found wandering in the basement membrane of the small intestine.
o Additional lymphocytes are present in the epithelial layer, aiding in immune
defense.

Peyer’s Patches (Small Intestine):

1. Peyer’s patches are specialized lymphoid tissues located in the small intestine.
2. They play a critical role in protecting the body by detecting and responding to pathogens
in the gut.
3. The mucosal cells surrounding Peyer’s patches provide additional protection against
pathogenic microorganisms.

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Air Passage Way: Role in First Line of Defense
1. The respiratory system is exposed to high risks of pathogen entry through the air.
2. Function of the Mucosa:
o The mucosa traps dust, dirt, and microorganisms.
o The ciliated surface of the mucosa helps in flushing off the contaminants.
o Prevents the retention of harmful particles or pathogens inside the respiratory
tract.
3. This mechanism serves as an essential component of the first line of defense in the
respiratory system.
Human Respiratory Epithelium (Fig. 13.3):
1. Structure:
o Contains mucous cells that produce a mucus layer.
o Ciliated columnar epithelial cells help move mucus containing trapped particles
toward the pharynx.
o Stem cells and basement membrane support the regeneration and structure of
the epithelial layer.
2. Function:
o The movement of mucus toward the pharynx ensures the elimination of
contaminants.
o Plays a vital role in preventing the entry of pathogens into deeper respiratory
pathways.
Role of Hairs and Mucous Membrane in Air Passage Defense
1. Nasal Hairs:
o Trap dust, dirt, and other particles from inhaled air.
o Ensure that only clean air enters the respiratory tract.
2. Mucous Membrane in the Respiratory System:
o Composed of a ciliated columnar epithelial cell layer.
o Contains mucous glands that secrete mucus.
o Mucus traps dust and germs, which are then pushed upward by cilia.
o Contaminants are removed either via the esophagus or through the mouth.
13.2 Second Line of Defense (Non-Specific Defense)
1. When Activated:
o Initiated if the first line of defense (e.g., skin or mucous barriers) is breached
through cuts, burns, insect bites, etc.
2. Characteristics:
o Non-specific in nature.
o Composed of white blood cells (WBCs) and defensive proteins.
3. Major Responses:
o Phagocytosis.
o Cytotoxicity.
o Inflammation and Fever.

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13.2.1 Killing Cells of Blood
1. Mechanism:
o Pathogens that enter the body through wounds or inhaled air encounter WBCs.
o WBCs recognize and eliminate these pathogens via phagocytosis or direct killing.
(i) Phagocytosis
1. Definition:
o A process where specific WBCs engulf and digest foreign particles or
microorganisms.
2. Cells Involved:
o Neutrophils.
o Macrophages (monocytes).
o Dendritic cells.
Neutrophils
1. Abundance:
o Most abundant type of WBCs (50%-70% of total leukocytes).
2. Structure:
o Multi-lobed (3-5 lobes), non-spherical nucleus.
o Short lifespan.
3. Function:
o Specially adapted to phagocytize bacteria.
o Recognize bacterial components such as:
▪ Peptidoglycans.
▪ Flagellin protein of flagella.
▪ Lipopolysaccharides.
▪ Lipopeptides.
4. Action:
o Mature neutrophils migrate from the blood to tissues.
o Use surface receptors to identify bacterial molecules and initiate phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis of Bacteria (Fig. 13.5)
1. Process:
o When a foreign particle is recognized by neutrophils, it is internalized.
o The particle is digested through lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes in a phagosome.
2. Receptors on Neutrophils:
o Lipopolypeptide Receptor: Detects lipopolypeptides.
o Flagellin Receptor: Recognizes flagellin proteins.
o Peptidoglycan Receptor: Identifies peptidoglycans.
3. Outcome:
o The foreign material is destroyed.
o Production and secretion of antiviral interferons and other cytokines are initiated.
Monocytes (Fig. 13.6)
1. Structure:
o Have a single, bean-shaped nucleus.
o Cytoplasm is non-granulated.

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 2. Abundance:
o Constitute 2-8% of the total WBCs.
3. Origin and Function:
o Originate from myeloid stem cells.
o Life span is about 2-5 days in blood circulation.
o Migrate to tissues, where they enlarge and differentiate into:
▪ Macrophages.
▪ Dendritic Cells.
o Can live for months to years.
4. Role:
o Play an important role in innate immunity by phagocytosis of foreign particles.
Macrophages
1. Characteristics:
o Derived from monocytes, which are a type of agranulocyte.
o Lack pigments in their cytoplasm.
2. Structure:
o Largest among all leukocytes.
o Have a large, indented, horse-shoe shaped nucleus.
3. Function:
o Phagocytize foreign particles, worn-out cells, and pathogens.
4. Action:
o Circulating monocytes leave the blood, enter tissues, and differentiate into
macrophages.
5. Adaptability:
o Macrophages adapt to specific tissue conditions, acquiring specialized names:
▪ Alveolar macrophages: Found in the lungs.
▪ Kupffer cells: Located in the liver.
▪ Microglia: Found in the central nervous system.
6. Functions:
o Phagocytosis: Engulf and digest pathogenic microorganisms.
o Antigen Presentation:
1. Present antigens of pathogens to T-cells (lymphocytes).
2. Serve as Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs).
o Cytokine Secretion:
1. Release signaling molecules called cytokines to activate other immune
cells.
o Initiate Inflammation:
1. Begin the inflammatory process.
o Nitric Oxide Secretion:
1. Kill phagocytized pathogenic organisms by releasing nitric oxide.
Dendritic Cells
1. Characteristics:
o Another type of white blood cell (WBC) involved in antigen presentation.

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 o Named for their long cytoplasmic projections, known as dendrites.
2. Functions:
o Present antigens of phagocytized pathogens to T-cells.
o Migrate to secondary lymphoid tissues upon activation (e.g., tonsils, Peyer’s
Patches, spleen).
3. Lifecycle:
o After completing their task of T-cell activation, dendritic cells die, unlike
macrophages which persist.
Cytotoxicity
1. Definition:
o The ability of substances or immune cells to damage or kill a target cell.
o Protects the body by killing:
▪ Virally infected cells.
▪ Cancer cells or tumor cells.
▪ Cells infected by certain microorganisms.
2. Mechanism:
o Involves Natural Killer (NK) Cells or Cytotoxic T (Tc) Cells:
▪ Both cell types originate from the bone marrow and lymphoid lineage.
o Differ in their mode of activation and targeting:
▪ NK Cells: Act immediately and non-specifically.
▪ Tc Cells: Require specific antigen presentation for activation.
Natural Killer Cells (NK Cells)
1. Role:
o NK cells are lymphocytes involved in detecting and eliminating:
▪ Virally infected cells.
▪ Cancer cells.
2. Activation:
o Unlike Cytotoxic T (Tc) Cells, NK cells do not require prior activation by
antigen-presenting cells (APCs).
3. Recognition Mechanism:
o NK cells recognize the target cell by checking the presence of Major
Histocompatibility Complex-I (MHC-I), which serves as an "identity card."
o Normal Cells:
▪ MHC-I is intact, and NK cells remain inactive.
o Infected or Abnormal Cells:
▪ MHC-I is absent or modified, activating NK cells to destroy the target.
4. Killing Mechanism:
o NK cells release cytotoxic granules, containing:
▪ Perforin: Forms pores in the plasma membrane of the target cell.
▪ Granzyme: Enters the target cell through the pores and induces lysis.
Cytotoxic T Cells (Tc Cells)
1. Role:
o Tc cells belong to the lymphocyte family of WBCs.

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 o Specifically recognize and kill:
▪ Virally infected cells.
▪ Tumor cells.
2. Maturation:
o Produced in the bone marrow but migrate to the thymus for maturation.
o After maturation, they are released into the bloodstream as naïve T cells.
o Tc cells develop CD8 type co-receptor along with their T Cell Receptor (TCR).
o Bind with Major Histocompatibility Complex-I (MHC-I) present on all
nucleated cells.
o Macrophages and dendritic cells use MHC-II for antigen presentation.
2. Chemical Signals:
o Require activation from cells like dendritic and T helper cells.
o Recognize viral antigens expressed on the MHC-I of infected cells.
3. Response Mechanism:
o Tc cells release Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) and Interferon-gamma
(IFN-γ) to activate macrophages and dendritic cells.
o Release Perforin and Granzyme to destroy infected target cells.
4. Function:
o Act as “serial killers,” moving from one infected cell to another.
13.2.2 Protective Proteins
1. Complement System:
o Protective proteins circulate in body fluids to defend against microorganisms.
o Recognize bacteria as foreign (non-self) and activate a series of reactions.
2. Action:
o Some complement proteins damage the plasma membranes of target cells.
o Others attract immune cells (e.g., mast cells, neutrophils, macrophages) to
enhance the immune response.
13.2.3 Inflammatory Response
1. Definition:
o Inflammation is a non-specific immune response, often triggered by infection,
tissue damage, or irritants.
2. Types of Inflammation:
o Acute:
▪ Short-term inflammation characterized by redness, swelling, pain, and
heat.
o Chronic:
▪ Long-term inflammation linked to diseases like cardiovascular disorders
and allergies.
3. Mechanism:
o Damaged tissue releases histamine and prostaglandins:
▪ These dilate nearby blood vessels and attract neutrophils and macrophages
to the infection site.
o Phagocytosis eliminates bacteria at the site of infection.

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 4. Outcome:
o Can result in pus or abscess formation.
o Represents a localized "war" in the infected tissue.
Fig. 13.9: Inflammatory Response
1. Stages of Inflammation:
o Initial Stage:
▪ Pathogen enters through a pinprick or injury.
▪ Damaged cells release histamine and prostaglandins to signal infection.
o Attraction of Phagocytes:
▪ Chemotactic factors attract phagocytic cells to the site of infection.
o Phagocytosis:
▪ Phagocytes engulf and destroy pathogens and remove cell debris.
2. Outcome:
o Dead cells may form pus, which is white, yellow, orange, or greenish with a bad
odor.
Inflammatory Response in Arthritis
1. Example of Misdirected Immune Response:
o Normally, immune cells attack foreign particles like bacteria and viruses.
o In autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, the immune system
attacks its own cells/antigens.
2. Effects:
o Inflammation occurs in the synovial membranes of joints.
o Leads to swelling, pain, and deformity in joints.
o May cause damage to other body parts over time.
13.2.4 Temperature Response or Fever (Pyrexia)
1. Definition:
o Fever occurs when the body temperature rises above normal.
o It is a symptom, not a disease.
2. Causes:
o Can result from:
▪ Infection.
▪ Heatstroke.
▪ Brain tumors.
▪ Toxins or certain medications.
3. Pyrogens:
o Fever-inducing substances:
▪ Endogenous Pyrogens: Released by the body’s own cells.
▪ Exogenous Pyrogens: External sources like pathogens.
4. Important Pyrogens:
o Interleukin-1 (IL-1).
o Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF).
o Interleukin-6 (IL-6).
o Interferons (INF-alpha).

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 5. Mechanism:
o Pyrogens are released into the bloodstream by phagocytic macrophages.
o Transported to the hypothalamus (body’s thermostat).
o Result: Increase in body temperature as part of the immune response.
Fever (Pyrexia):
1. Mechanism:
o The hypothalamus produces signaling molecules like prostaglandins, increasing
thermogenesis and reducing heat loss.
o This leads to a rise in body temperature, or fever.
2. Effects of Fever:
o Inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi.
o Facilitates phagocytosis by immune cells.
3. Harmful Effects:
o Energy Loss: Considerable energy is lost as heat.
o Symptoms: Causes fatigue, dehydration, body aches, and seizures.
o High Temperatures: Above 105°F, enzymes and proteins may denature.
o Cell Damage: May denature human cells, causing potential death.
Antipyretic Drugs
1. Purpose:
o Prescribed to reduce or control fever by inhibiting prostaglandin secretion in the
hypothalamus.
2. Types:
o Salicylates: e.g., Aspirin.
o Acetaminophen: e.g., Paracetamol.
o Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs): e.g., Ibuprofen.
3. Mechanism:
o Most antipyretics inhibit cyclooxygenase enzymes to lower prostaglandin levels
in the brain.

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