Physiology of Digestive System
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What do animals need to live?
▪ Animals make energy using:
◆ food
◆ oxygen food
▪ Animals build bodies
using:
◆ food for raw materials
▪ amino acids, sugars,
fats, nucleotides ATP
◆ ATP energy for synthesis O2
Getting & Using Food
▪ Ingest
◆ taking in food
▪ Digest
◆ mechanical digestion
▪ breaking up food into smaller pieces
◆ chemical digestion
▪ breaking down food into molecules small enough to be absorbed into cells
▪ enzymes
▪ Absorb
◆ absorb across cell membrane
▪ diffusion
▪ active transport
▪ Eliminate
◆ undigested material passes out of digestive system
DIGESTION
a complex process that consists of physical and chemical changes that
prepare food for absorption. Mechanical digestion breaks food into tiny
particles, mixes them with digestive juices, moves them along the
alimentary canal, and finally eliminates the digestive wastes from the
body. Chemical digestion breaks down large, non-absorbable food
molecules into smaller, absorbable molecules that are able to pass
through the intestinal mucosa into blood and lymph. Chemical digestion
consists of numerous chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes in saliva,
gastric juice, pancreatic juice, and intestinal juice.
Enzymes and Chemical Digestion
Enzymes are specialized protein molecules that act as catalysts and they are very specific. Enzymes responsible for
speeding up the break- down of fats, for example, have no effect on carbohydrates or proteins. The names of many
enzymes end with the suffix -ase combined with the word that describes the type of substance involved in the chemical
reaction. Lipase, for example, is a fat-digesting enzyme that acts on lipids (fats) and protease enzymes serve to break
down protein nutrients.
SALIVARY GLANDS
Three pairs of salivary glands—the parotids, submandibulars, and sublinguals—secrete most of the saliva produced each
day in the adult. Some salivary secretions are serous in nature if they are thin, watery, and free of mucus. Serous-type
saliva contains the digestive enzyme salivary amylase. This enzyme begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates.
Another type of saliva is thick and rich in mucus but contains no enzymes. Some saliva is a mixture of both serous- and
mucous-type secretions.
The Parotid glands, the largest of the salivary glands, lie just below and in front of each ear at the angle of the jaw. The
parotids produce a serous type of saliva.
Submandibular glands are called mixed salivary glands. The submandibular ducts open into the mouth on either side of
the lingual frenulum.
Sublingual glands are the smallest of the salivary glands. They lie in front of the submandibular glands, under the
mucous membrane covering the floor of the mouth. The sublingual glands produce only a mucous type of saliva.
Human digestive system
Stomach
▪ Functions
◆ food storage
▪ can stretch to fit ~2L food
◆ disinfect food
▪ HCl = pH 2
kills bacteria
◆ chemical digestion
▪ pepsin
enzyme breaks down
proteins
But the stomach is made out of protein!
What stops the stomach from digesting itself?
mucus secreted by stomach cells protects
stomach lining
stomach
▪kills germs
▪break up food
▪digest proteins
▪store food
sphincter
sphincter
Ulcers
▪ Used to think ulcers were caused
by stress H. pylori
◆ tried to control with antacids
▪ Now know ulcers caused by
bacterial infection of stomach
◆ Helicobacter pylori
◆ now cure with antibiotics
ABSORPTION
Absorption is the process by which molecules of amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, and
glycerol go from the inside of the intestines into the circulating fluids of the body.
Many important minerals, such as sodium, are actively transported through the
intestinal mucosa. Water follows by osmosis. Other nutrients, such as monosaccharides
and amino acids, are also actively transported through the intestinal mucosa and diffuse
into the blood of capillaries in the intestinal villi. Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse into
the absorptive cells of the GI tract and then are secreted into the lymphatic vessels. The
“water-soluble vitamins” (vitamin C and the B vitamins) are dissolved in water and
absorbed primarily from the small intestine. The fat-soluble vitamins” (vitamins A, D,
E, and K) are absorbed along with the end products of fat digestion in the small
intestine. Bacterial action in the colon also produces some vitamin K that is absorbed
through the lining of the large intestine
Small intestine
▪ Function
◆ chemical digestion
▪ major organ of digestion & absorption
◆ absorption through lining
▪ over 6 meters!
▪ small intestine has huge surface area = 300m2
(~size of tennis court)
▪ Structure
◆ 3 sections
▪ duodenum = most digestion
▪ jejunum = absorption of nutrients & water
▪ ileum = absorption of nutrients & water
PANCREAS
The pancreas is both an exocrine gland that secretes pancreatic juice into
ducts and an endocrine gland that secretes hormones into the blood.
Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest all three major kinds of
foods. It also contains sodium bicarbonate, an alkaline substance that
neutralizes the hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice that enters the
intestines.
Pancreatic islets (of Langerhans), cluster of endocrine cells in the
pancreas, producing the insulin and glucagon, which control the balance of
glucose in the bloodstream. Insulin promotes the uptake and metabolism of
glucose by the body’s cells and prevents the release of glucose from the
liver. Glucagon releases the glucose from the liver and the fatty acids from
the fat tissue.
Pancreas
▪ Digestive enzymes
◆ digest proteins
▪ trypsin, chymotrypsin
◆ digest starch
▪ amylase
▪ Buffers
◆ neutralizes
acid from
stomach
Duodenum
▪ 1st section of small intestines
◆ acid food from stomach
◆ mixes with digestive juices from:
▪ pancreas
▪ liver
▪ gall bladder
stomach
▪kills germs
▪break up food
▪digest proteins
▪store food
pancreas
▪produces enzymes to
digest proteins & starch
LIVER AND GALLBLADDER
The liver is classified as the largest an exocrine gland; Because its cells secrete a
substance called bile into ducts. The hepatic ducts drain bile out of the liver into the
small intestine (duodenum). Chemically, bile contains significant quantities of
cholesterol and substances (bile salts) that act as detergents to mechanically break up
fats. Because fats must be broke up into smaller particles to aid digestion.
The gallbladder concentrates and stores bile produced in the liver. Fats in in the food
stimulate the secretion of the hormone cholecystokinin, or CCK, from the intestinal
mucosa of the duodenum. This hormone then stimulates the contraction of the
gallbladder, and consequently bile flows into the duodenum.
If gallstone would have formed, it would block the common bile duct and prevent the
drain of bile into the duodenum. Feces would then appear gray-white because the
pigments from bile give feces its characteristic color. Furthermore, excessive amounts
of bile would be absorbed into the blood. A yellowish skin discoloration called
jaundice would result.
Liver
▪ Function
◆ produces bile
▪ bile stored in gallbladder until needed
▪ breaks up fats
act like detergents
to breakup fats
bile contains colors from
old red blood cells
collected in liver =
iron in RBC rusts & makes
feces brown
stomach
▪ kills germs
▪ break up food
▪ digest proteins
▪ store food
liver
▪produces bile
- stored in gall bladder
▪break up fats
pancreas
▪produces enzymes to
digest proteins & starch
Absorption by Small Intestines
▪ Absorption through villi & microvilli
◆ finger-like projections
◆ increase surface area for absorption
liver
▪produces bile
- stored in gall bladder small intestines
▪break up fats
▪breakdown food
- proteins
- starch
- fats
▪absorb nutrients
Large intestines (colon)
▪ Function
◆ re-absorb water
▪ use ~9 liters of water every
day in digestive juices
▪ > 90% of water reabsorbed
not enough water absorbed
◼ diarrhea
too much water absorbed
◼ constipation
large intestines
absorb water
Appendix
Vestigial organ
Rectum
▪ Last section of colon (large intestines)
◆ eliminate feces
▪ undigested materials
extracellular waste
◼ mainly cellulose from plants
◼ roughage or fiber
masses of bacteria
