Prime-counting function

In mathematics, the prime-counting function is the

function counting the number of prime numbers less
than or equal to some real number x.[1][2] It is denoted
by π(x) (unrelated to the number π).

A symmetric variant seen sometimes is π0(x), which is

equal to π(x) − 1⁄2 if x is exactly a prime number, and
equal to π(x) otherwise. That is, the number of prime
numbers less than x, plus half if x equals a prime.

Growth rate
Of great interest in number theory is the growth rate of The values of π(n) for the first 60 positive integers
the prime-counting function.[3][4] It was conjectured in
the end of the 18th century by Gauss and by Legendre to
be approximately

where log is the natural logarithm, in the sense that

This statement is the prime number theorem. An equivalent statement is

where li is the logarithmic integral function. The prime number theorem was first proved in 1896 by Jacques
Hadamard and by Charles de la Vallée Poussin independently, using properties of the Riemann zeta function
introduced by Riemann in 1859. Proofs of the prime number theorem not using the zeta function or complex analysis
were found around 1948 by Atle Selberg and by Paul Erdős (for the most part independently).[5]

More precise estimates

In 1899, de la Vallée Poussin proved that [6]

for some positive constant a. Here, O(...) is the big O notation.

More precise estimates of π(x) are now known. For example, in 2002, Kevin Ford proved that[7]
Mossinghoff and Trudgian proved[8] an explicit upper bound for the difference between π(x) and li(x):

For values of x that are not unreasonably large, li(x) is greater than π(x). However, π(x) − li(x) is known to change
sign infinitely many times. For a discussion of this, see Skewes' number.

Exact form
1
For x > 1 let π0(x) = π(x) − ⁠ ⁠ when x is a prime number, and π0(x) = π(x) otherwise. Bernhard Riemann, in his
2
work On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude, proved that π0(x) is equal to[9]

where

μ(n) is the Möbius function, li(x) is the logarithmic

integral function, ρ indexes every zero of the Riemann
ρ
zeta function, and li(x⁠n ⁠) is not evaluated with a branch Riemann's explicit formula using the first 200 non-trivial zeros of
ρ the zeta function
cut but instead considered as Ei( n ⁠log x) where Ei(x) is
the exponential integral. If the trivial zeros are collected
and the sum is taken only over the non-trivial zeros ρ of the Riemann zeta function, then π0(x) may be approximated
by[10]

1
The Riemann hypothesis suggests that every such non-trivial zero lies along Re(s) = ⁠ ⁠.
2

x
Table of π(x), ⁠log x ⁠, and li(x)
x
The table shows how the three functions π(x), ⁠log x ⁠, and li(x) compared at powers of 10. See also,[3][11] and[12]
 x
x x ⁠log x ⁠
x π(x) π(x) − ⁠log x ⁠ li(x) − π(x) ⁠π(x) ⁠
% error
10 4 0 2 2.500 −8.57%

102 25 3 5 4.000 +13.14%

103 168 23 10 5.952 +13.83%

104 1,229 143 17 8.137 +11.66%

105 9,592 906 38 10.425 +9.45%

106 78,498 6,116 130 12.739 +7.79%

107 664,579 44,158 339 15.047 +6.64%

108 5,761,455 332,774 754 17.357 +5.78%

109 50,847,534 2,592,592 1,701 19.667 +5.10%

1010 455,052,511 20,758,029 3,104 21.975 +4.56%

1011 4,118,054,813 169,923,159 11,588 24.283 +4.13%

1012 37,607,912,018 1,416,705,193 38,263 26.590 +3.77%

1013 346,065,536,839 11,992,858,452 108,971 28.896 +3.47%

1014 3,204,941,750,802 102,838,308,636 314,890 31.202 +3.21%

1015 29,844,570,422,669 891,604,962,452 1,052,619 33.507 +2.99%

1016 279,238,341,033,925 7,804,289,844,393 3,214,632 35.812 +2.79%

1017 2,623,557,157,654,233 68,883,734,693,928 7,956,589 38.116 +2.63%

1018 24,739,954,287,740,860 612,483,070,893,536 21,949,555 40.420 +2.48%

1019 234,057,667,276,344,607 5,481,624,169,369,961 99,877,775 42.725 +2.34%

1020 2,220,819,602,560,918,840 49,347,193,044,659,702 222,744,644 45.028 +2.22%

1021 21,127,269,486,018,731,928 446,579,871,578,168,707 597,394,254 47.332 +2.11%

1022 201,467,286,689,315,906,290 4,060,704,006,019,620,994 1,932,355,208 49.636 +2.02%

1023 1,925,320,391,606,803,968,923 37,083,513,766,578,631,309 7,250,186,216 51.939 +1.93%

1024 18,435,599,767,349,200,867,866 339,996,354,713,708,049,069 17,146,907,278 54.243 +1.84%

1025 176,846,309,399,143,769,411,680 3,128,516,637,843,038,351,228 55,160,980,939 56.546 +1.77%

1026 1,699,246,750,872,437,141,327,603 28,883,358,936,853,188,823,261 155,891,678,121 58.850 +1.70%

1027 16,352,460,426,841,680,446,427,399 267,479,615,610,131,274,163,365 508,666,658,006 61.153 +1.64%

1028 157,589,269,275,973,410,412,739,598 2,484,097,167,669,186,251,622,127 1,427,745,660,374 63.456 +1.58%

1029 1,520,698,109,714,272,166,094,258,063 23,130,930,737,541,725,917,951,446 4,551,193,622,464 65.759 +1.52%

x
In the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, the π(x) column is sequence OEIS: A006880, π(x) − ⁠
log x ⁠
is
sequence OEIS: A057835, and li(x) − π(x) is sequence OEIS: A057752.

The value for π(1024) was originally computed by J. Buethe, J. Franke, A. Jost, and T. Kleinjung assuming the
Riemann hypothesis.[13] It was later verified unconditionally in a computation by D. J. Platt.[14] The value for π(1025)
is by the same four authors.[15] The value for π(1026) was computed by D. B. Staple.[16] All other prior entries in this
table were also verified as part of that work.
The values for 1027, 1028, and 1029 were announced by David Baugh
and Kim Walisch in 2015,[17] 2020,[18] and 2022,[19] respectively.

Algorithms for evaluating π(x)

A simple way to find π(x), if x is not too large, is to use the sieve of
Eratosthenes to produce the primes less than or equal to x and then to
count them.

A more elaborate way of finding π(x) is due to Legendre (using the Graph showing ratio of the prime-counting
x
inclusion–exclusion principle): given x, if p1, p2,…, pn are distinct function π(x) to two of its approximations, ⁠log x ⁠
prime numbers, then the number of integers less than or equal to x and Li(x). As x increases (note x-axis is
which are divisible by no pi is logarithmic), both ratios tend towards 1. The ratio
x
for ⁠ ⁠converges from above very slowly, while
log x
the ratio for Li(x) converges more quickly from
below.

(where ⌊x⌋ denotes the floor function). This number is therefore equal
to

when the numbers p1, p2,…, pn are the prime numbers less than or equal to the square root of x.

The Meissel–Lehmer algorithm

In a series of articles published between 1870 and 1885, Ernst Meissel described (and used) a practical combinatorial
way of evaluating π(x): Let p1, p2,…, pn be the first n primes and denote by Φ(m,n) the number of natural numbers
not greater than m which are divisible by none of the pi for any i ≤ n. Then

3
Given a natural number m, if n = π(√m ) and if μ = π(√m ) − n, then

Using this approach, Meissel computed π(x), for x equal to 5 × 105, 106, 107, and 108.

In 1959, Derrick Henry Lehmer extended and simplified Meissel's method. Define, for real m and for natural
numbers n and k, Pk(m,n) as the number of numbers not greater than m with exactly k prime factors, all greater than
pn. Furthermore, set P0(m,n) = 1. Then

3
where the sum actually has only finitely many nonzero terms. Let y denote an integer such that √m ≤ y ≤ √m , and
set n = π(y). Then P1(m,n) = π(m) − n and Pk(m,n) = 0 when k ≥ 3. Therefore,
The computation of P2(m,n) can be obtained this way:

where the sum is over prime numbers.

On the other hand, the computation of Φ(m,n) can be done using the following rules:

1.

2.

Using his method and an IBM 701, Lehmer was able to compute the correct value of π(109) and missed the correct
value of π(1010) by 1.[20]

Further improvements to this method were made by Lagarias, Miller, Odlyzko, Deléglise, and Rivat.[21]

Other prime-counting functions

Other prime-counting functions are also used because they are more convenient to work with.

Riemann's prime-power counting function

1
Riemann's prime-power counting function is usually denoted as Π0(x) or J0(x). It has jumps of ⁠ ⁠at prime powers pn
n
and it takes a value halfway between the two sides at the discontinuities of π(x). That added detail is used because the
function may then be defined by an inverse Mellin transform.

Formally, we may define Π0(x) by

where the variable p in each sum ranges over all primes within the specified limits.

We may also write

where Λ is the von Mangoldt function and

The Möbius inversion formula then gives

where μ(n) is the Möbius function.

Knowing the relationship between the logarithm of the Riemann zeta function and the von Mangoldt function Λ, and
using the Perron formula we have

Chebyshev's function
The Chebyshev function weights primes or prime powers pn by log p:

For x ≥ 2,[22]

and

Formulas for prime-counting functions

Formulas for prime-counting functions come in two kinds: arithmetic formulas and analytic formulas. Analytic
formulas for prime-counting were the first used to prove the prime number theorem. They stem from the work of
Riemann and von Mangoldt, and are generally known as explicit formulae.[23]

We have the following expression for the second Chebyshev function ψ:

where

Here ρ are the zeros of the Riemann zeta function in the critical strip, where the real part of ρ is between zero and
one. The formula is valid for values of x greater than one, which is the region of interest. The sum over the roots is
conditionally convergent, and should be taken in order of increasing absolute value of the imaginary part. Note that
the same sum over the trivial roots gives the last subtrahend in the formula.

For Π0(x) we have a more complicated formula

Again, the formula is valid for x > 1, while ρ are the nontrivial zeros of the zeta function ordered according to their
absolute value. The first term li(x) is the usual logarithmic integral function; the expression li(xρ) in the second term
should be considered as Ei(ρ log x), where Ei is the analytic continuation of the exponential integral function from
negative reals to the complex plane with branch cut along the positive reals. The final integral is equal to the series
over the trivial zeros:

Thus, Möbius inversion formula gives us[10]

valid for x > 1, where

is Riemann's R-function[24] and μ(n) is the Möbius function. The latter series for it is known as Gram series.[25][26]
Because log x < x for all x > 0, this series converges for all positive x by comparison with the series for ex. The
logarithm in the Gram series of the sum over the non-trivial zero contribution should be evaluated as ρ log x and not
log xρ.

Folkmar Bornemann proved,[27] when assuming the conjecture that all zeros of the Riemann zeta function are
simple,[note 1] that

where ρ runs over the non-trivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function and t > 0.

The sum over non-trivial zeta zeros in the formula for π0(x) describes the fluctuations of π0(x) while the remaining
terms give the "smooth" part of prime-counting function,[28] so one can use

as a good estimator of π(x) for x > 1. In fact, since the second term approaches 0 as x → ∞, while the amplitude of
√x
the "noisy" part is heuristically about ⁠ , estimating π(x) by R(x) alone is just as good, and fluctuations of the
log x ⁠
distribution of primes may be clearly represented with the function

Inequalities
Ramanujan[29] proved that the inequality
holds for all sufficiently large values of x.

Here are some useful inequalities for π(x).

log 113
The left inequality holds for x ≥ 17 and the right inequality holds for x > 1. The constant 1.25506 is 30⁠ 113 ⁠to 5
log x
decimal places, as π(x) ⁠ x ⁠has its maximum value at x = p30 = 113.[30]

Pierre Dusart proved in 2010:[31]

More recently, Dusart has proved[32] (Theorem 5.1) that

for x ≥ 88789 and x > 1, respectively.

Going in the other direction, an approximation for the nth prime, pn, is

Here are some inequalities for the nth prime. The lower bound is due to Dusart (1999)[33] and the upper bound to
Rosser (1941).[34]

The left inequality holds for n ≥ 2 and the right inequality holds for n ≥ 6. A variant form sometimes seen substitutes
An even simpler lower bound is[35]

which holds for all n ≥ 1, but the lower bound above is tighter for n > ee ≈15.154.

In 2010 Dusart proved[31] (Propositions 6.7 and 6.6) that

for n ≥ 3 and n ≥ 688383, respectively.

In 2024, Axler[36] further tightened this (equations 1.12 and 1.13) using bounds of the form

proving that
for n ≥ 2 and n ≥ 3468, respectively. The lower bound may also be simplified to f(n, w2) without altering its validity.
The upper bound may be tightened to f(n, w2 − 6w + 10.667) if n ≥ 46254381.

There are additional bounds of varying complexity.[37][38][39]

The Riemann hypothesis

The Riemann hypothesis implies a much tighter bound on the error in the estimate for π(x), and hence to a more
regular distribution of prime numbers,

Specifically,[40]

Dudek (2015) proved that the Riemann hypothesis implies that for all x ≥ 2 there is a prime p satisfying

See also
Bertrand's postulate
Oppermann's conjecture
Ramanujan prime

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Notes
1. Montgomery showed that (assuming the Riemann hypothesis) at least two thirds of all zeros are simple.

External links
Chris Caldwell, The Nth Prime Page (http://primes.utm.edu/nthprime/) at The Prime Pages.
Tomás Oliveira e Silva, Tables of prime-counting functions (http://sweet.ua.pt/tos/primes.html).
Dudek, Adrian W. (2015), "On the Riemann hypothesis and the difference between primes", International Journal
of Number Theory, 11 (3): 771–778, arXiv:1402.6417 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1402.6417),
Bibcode:2014arXiv1402.6417D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014arXiv1402.6417D),
doi:10.1142/S1793042115500426 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS1793042115500426), ISSN 1793-0421 (https://se
arch.worldcat.org/issn/1793-0421), S2CID 119321107 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119321107)

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