Comprehensive Study Notes on Protein in Nutritional Science

Role in Wellness:
Protein plays a critical role in overall wellness by supporting vital bodily functions,
including growth, tissue repair, enzyme production, and immune function. It
contributes to muscle health, hormone synthesis, and cellular structure.

Structure of Protein:
Proteins consist of chains of organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen called amino acids. These amino acids are linked by peptide
bonds, forming polypeptide chains. The sequence of amino acids determines the
protein's structure and function.
Levels of Protein Structure:
1. Primary Structure: Linear sequence of amino acids.
2. Secondary Structure: Alpha-helices and beta-sheets formed by hydrogen
bonding.
3. Tertiary Structure: Three-dimensional folding driven by interactions
between side chains.
4. Quaternary Structure: Complex formed by multiple polypeptide chains.

Protein Composition:
All proteins are made from 20 amino acids, categorized as:
 Essential amino acids (EAA): Must be consumed in food, as they cannot be
synthesized by the body.
 Non-essential amino acids (NEAA): Can be created by the liver.
All amino acids are available to cells through the amino acid pool, which allows
proteins to be synthesized as needed. Complete proteins contain all nine essential
amino acids, while incomplete proteins lack one or more essential amino acids.

Protein as a Nutrient in the Body:

Proteins serve as essential nutrients, providing the body with amino acids required
for various physiological functions.
Digestion and Absorption:
1. Mouth: Mechanical digestion of protein begins.
 2. Stomach: Pepsin, activated by hydrochloric acid, breaks down proteins into
smaller polypeptides.
3. Small intestine: Proteases (trypsin and chymotrypsin) continue digestion.
Peptidases break peptides into individual amino acids.
4. Absorption: Once absorbed, amino acids circulate in the blood to build new
proteins.
Metabolism:
 Amino acids are transported to the liver, where they are used for protein
synthesis, energy production, or converted into glucose or fat.
 The liver regulates amino acid levels in the blood and oversees nitrogen
disposal via the urea cycle.
Protein Excess:
Excess protein can lead to:
 Increased urea production: Straining the kidneys.
 Dehydration: Due to increased water loss through urine.
 Potential calcium loss: Linked to high-protein diets.

Nitrogen Balance:
Nitrogen balance measures the difference between nitrogen intake and excretion.
 Positive nitrogen balance: Occurs during growth, pregnancy, and recovery
from illness.
 Negative nitrogen balance: Indicates malnutrition, illness, or trauma.
 Equilibrium: Healthy adults typically maintain nitrogen balance.

Functions:
Growth and Maintenance:
Proteins provide the amino acids required for the repair and growth of body tissues,
including muscles, skin, and organs.
Creation of Communicators and Catalysts:
 Hormones: Proteins such as insulin regulate bodily functions.
 Enzymes: Catalyze biochemical reactions.
 Neurotransmitters: Facilitate communication between nerve cells.
Immune System Response:
Proteins are crucial for immune function, as they form antibodies that help defend
against pathogens.
Fluid and Electrolyte Regulation:
Proteins, such as albumin, help maintain osmotic pressure and prevent fluid
imbalance.
Acid-Base Balance:
Proteins act as buffers, helping to maintain the body's pH balance.
Transportation:
Proteins transport substances such as oxygen (hemoglobin), lipids (lipoproteins),
and vitamins throughout the body.

Food Sources:
Quality of Protein Foods:
 Complete proteins: Contain all nine essential amino acids (e.g., meat, fish,
dairy, eggs).
 Incomplete proteins: Lack one or more essential amino acids (e.g., grains,
legumes).
Complementary Proteins:
Combining two or more incomplete protein sources can provide all essential amino
acids (e.g., rice and beans).
Measures of Food Protein Quality:
1. Biological Value (BV): Measures how efficiently dietary protein is converted
into body tissue.
2. Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER): Assesses weight gain per unit of protein
consumed.
3. Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS): Reflects amino
acid digestibility and bioavailability.
Protein Recommended Dietary Allowance:
 Adults: 0.8 g/kg of body weight per day.
 Athletes: May require up to 1.2-2.0 g/kg of body weight per day.
Benefits and Drawbacks of Vegetarianism:
  Benefits: Lower risk of heart disease, lower blood pressure, and reduced risk
of obesity.
 Drawbacks: Potential for nutrient deficiencies (e.g., vitamin B12, iron, zinc,
omega-3 fatty acids).

Dietary Patterns of Protein:

Protein and Malnutrition:
Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in nutrient intake.
Malnutrition Factors:
1. Inadequate intake: Due to poverty, food insecurity, or illness.
2. Poor absorption: Resulting from gastrointestinal disorders.
3. Increased needs: During growth, pregnancy, or illness.
Groups at Risk in North America:
1. Elderly: Due to reduced appetite and economic challenges.
2. Low-income populations: Facing food insecurity.
3. Individuals with chronic illnesses: Such as cancer or gastrointestinal
disorders.
Chronic Hunger:
Chronic hunger is long-term food deprivation that leads to undernutrition, affecting
growth, development, and overall health. Protein-energy malnutrition continues to
be a global concern.

Protein intake can inhibit effectiveness of Levodopa

Protein can affect wound healing
Legumes are only a source of protein if they are consumed with other proteins
Antibiotics can alter the synthesis of proteins
All growth relies on amino acids
Proteins are essential for growth and repair of tissue
They are essential macro molecules
CRP levels help mark the inflammatory response within the body
Protein comes from live source
Nitrogen makes it different
¼ of plate should be energy source foods
Amino acid absorption occurs through active transport due to B6

b12 is the only natural in animal-based foods

Insulin is a protein
Kwashiorkor vs. Marasmus
Kwashiorkor and Marasmus are two severe forms of malnutrition caused by
nutrient deficiencies, but they differ in their causes, symptoms, and outcomes.
Below is a detailed comparison and explanation of each condition:

Kwashiorkor
Definition:
 A form of malnutrition caused by severe protein deficiency, often with
adequate calorie intake.
Causes:
1. Diets lacking protein but sufficient in carbohydrates (e.g., maize, rice,
cassava).
2. Poor weaning practices in children.
3. High prevalence in regions with food insecurity and limited protein sources.
4. Diseases that impair protein absorption or utilization.
Symptoms:
1. Edema:
o Swelling in the face, hands, feet, and abdomen due to low albumin
levels.
2. Fatty Liver:
o Enlarged liver due to fat accumulation.

3. Hair Changes:
o Hair becomes thin, brittle, and may lose pigmentation ("flag sign").

4. Skin Lesions:
o Dark, peeling patches (desquamation) and sores.

5. Growth Retardation:
 o Stunted physical growth.

6. Apathy and Irritability:

o Lethargy and lack of interest in surroundings.

7. Weakened Immune System:

o Increased susceptibility to infections.

Treatment:
1. Gradual Reintroduction of Protein:
o Begin with protein-rich, easily digestible foods like milk or therapeutic
formulas.
2. Treatment of Edema and Infections:
o Address underlying infections and manage electrolyte imbalances.

3. Nutritional Education:
o Long-term dietary improvements, focusing on balanced nutrition.

Complications:
 Permanent Stunting: Physical and mental delays if not treated promptly.
 High Mortality Rate: Especially in severe cases with infections.

Marasmus
Definition:
 A form of malnutrition caused by a severe deficiency of calories and
protein, leading to overall starvation.
Causes:
1. Insufficient Calorie Intake:
o Severe poverty, famine, or neglect.

2. Chronic Illness:
o Conditions like cancer or AIDS that increase energy demands or impair
nutrient absorption.
Symptoms:
1. Severe Weight Loss:
o Extreme muscle wasting and fat loss.

2. "Skin-and-Bones" Appearance:
 o Prominent ribs and bony structures.

3. Growth Retardation:
o Delayed development due to lack of energy.

4. Apathy and Weakness:

o Extreme lethargy and fatigue.

5. Dry and Wrinkled Skin:

o Lack of subcutaneous fat causes an aged appearance.

Treatment:
1. Nutritional Rehabilitation:
o Gradual increase in calorie intake starting with therapeutic foods like F-
75 and F-100 formulas.
2. Rehydration:
o Oral rehydration solutions (ORS) to address dehydration without
exacerbating malnutrition.
3. Micronutrient Supplementation:
o Vitamins and minerals, especially iron, zinc, and vitamin A.

Complications:
 Refeeding Syndrome: Electrolyte shifts during re-nourishment.
 Infections: Due to a weakened immune system.
 Death: If untreated or in cases of severe starvation.

Comparison: Kwashiorkor vs. Marasmus

Feature Kwashiorkor Marasmus

Protein deficiency with Severe deficiency of calories and

Cause
adequate calories protein

Edema, fatty liver, skin lesions, Severe weight loss, "skin-and-

Symptoms
hair changes bones" appearance

Body
Swollen (due to edema) Emaciated and thin
Appearance

Energy
Lethargy, apathy Extreme weakness and fatigue
Levels
Feature Kwashiorkor Marasmus

Growth Stunted Severely stunted

Mortality
High, especially with infections High if untreated
Risk

Protein reintroduction, infection Caloric reintroduction, hydration,

Treatment
management and supplements

Prevention for Both Conditions:

1. Balanced Diet: Ensure adequate intake of protein, calories, vitamins, and
minerals.
2. Breastfeeding and Proper Weaning: Promote exclusive breastfeeding for
the first six months and introduce protein-rich weaning foods.
3. Public Health Interventions: Address poverty, food insecurity, and
education on nutrition.
4. Early Detection: Monitor at-risk populations to prevent severe malnutrition.
By understanding these conditions, healthcare providers can implement effective
prevention and treatment strategies to reduce malnutrition-related mortality.
Canadian Dietary Guidelines (Expanded)
The Canadian Dietary Guidelines emphasize the importance of a balanced diet
that prioritizes health and sustainability. Regarding protein intake, the guidelines
provide specific recommendations to support optimal nutrition:
1. Encourage Consumption of Plant-Based Proteins:
o Plant-based proteins, such as legumes (lentils, chickpeas, beans),
nuts, seeds, tofu, and soy products, are rich in essential nutrients
like fiber, vitamins, and minerals while being low in saturated fat.
o These sources are also environmentally sustainable, requiring fewer
resources to produce than animal-based proteins.
o Regular inclusion of plant proteins contributes to heart health, reduces
cholesterol levels, and supports overall wellness.
2. Recommend Moderate Intake of Animal Proteins:
o Animal proteins (e.g., lean meats, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy) are
excellent sources of high-quality protein and vital nutrients such as
iron, vitamin B12, and omega-3 fatty acids.
o However, excessive consumption, especially of red and processed
meats, is linked to higher risks of chronic diseases, including heart
disease and certain cancers.
o The guidelines encourage choosing lean cuts of meat and limiting
processed meats while focusing on smaller portion sizes.
o Fish and seafood, rich in omega-3 fatty acids, are recommended 2-3
times per week to support cardiovascular and brain health.
3. Promote Dietary Diversity:
o Incorporating a variety of protein sources ensures a well-rounded
intake of essential amino acids and nutrients.
o Mixing plant and animal protein sources can create a nutritionally
complete diet while reducing reliance on any single source.
4. Cultural and Personal Preferences:
o The guidelines recognize the diverse cultural and individual dietary
preferences in Canada, advocating for flexibility and accessibility in
meeting protein needs.
5. Health and Environmental Considerations:
o Reducing saturated fat intake by replacing some animal proteins with
plant-based alternatives supports cardiovascular health and aligns with
sustainable food practices.
o Encouraging Canadians to make mindful food choices promotes not
only personal health but also the health of the environment.