Fire Detection and Fire detection systems are designed to discover fires early in their

development when time will still be available for the safe evacuation of
occupants. Early detection also plays a significant role in protecting the

Alarm Systems safety of emergency response personnel. Property loss can be reduced
and downtime for the operation minimized through early detection
because control efforts are started while the fire is still small. Most alarm
systems provide information to emergency responders on the location of
the fire, speeding the process of fire control.

1
Fire safety is a critical aspect of protecting lives and
property in various environments, including industrial
facilities, commercial buildings, and residential spaces.
Flame detectors play a crucial role in fire detection
systems by providing early warnings when a fire
occurs.

2
CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE TYPE OF SYSTEM

The simplest fire protection system is the standalone,

domestic detector with built-in sounder.

In this system, the detector is connected directly to the

sounder. When a fire occurs, the detector turns on the
sounder. The occupants can then either douse the fire or, if it
is already out of control, they can leave the premises. This
system is considered as protecting life since it does nothing
to limit the fire damage if no one is present.

Larger systems can also be used to protect life.

3
detectors are connected to a fire panel, which drives the
sounders. The detectors send a signal to the panel and the panel
activates the sounders.

The panel also monitors the wiring for faults and reports these
audibly and visibly, thus improving system reliability.

This system has also been extended to protect property by

adding an output to the fire brigade and outputs to turn on
sprinklers and/or discharge gas.

All this means that the panel can initiate actions without anyone
being on the premises.

It is also necessary to decide whether people on the same

premises, but in an area where they may not hear the sounders,
need to be made aware of the fire. This can be achieved by
using remote indicator panels, repeaters and/or PC interfaces.

4
Types of Flame Detectors
5
Types of Flame Detectors

There are several types of flame detectors, each

designed to detect fires using different technologies.
The common types include:

1) Smoke Detectors
2) Heat Detectors
3) Flame (Radiation) Detectors
4) Duct Detectors

6
Smoke Detectors

1. Ionisation Detectors

Characteristics:
• Responds to small (invisible) smoke particles.
• Good results with flaming fires.

Causes of false alarms:

• By-products of cooking (e.g. burning toast).
• Exhaust fumes from vehicles.
• Contamination in dirty environments

7
Most ionisation detectors contain a dual or single sided
radioactive source of Americium 241 (typical 0.9µCurie or less).
One side of the source ionises the air in an outer chamber that is
exposed to the atmosphere, while the other ionises the air in a
semi-sealed reference chamber. This reference chamber allows
the detector to compensate for environmental change.

Applying an electrical field to the chambers results in the flow a

small electrical current in each chamber. Ingress of smoke
particles in the outer chamber reduces the current in this
chamber. This causes an imbalance between the two chambers,
which is measured by the detector. The detector will activate into
an alarm state when a predetermined imbalance level is reached.

8
2. Optical Detectors

Characteristics:
• Responds to visible smoke.
• Good for smouldering type fires (e.g. fabric,
furniture, etc.).

Causes of false alarms:

• Steam (e.g. near a shower).
• Contamination in dusty environments.

9
Most modern optical or photoelectric smoke detectors operate by
means of the light scattering principle also known as Tyndall
effect.

The sensing element consists of a smoke chamber configured as

a labyrinth. This element prevents ambient light penetrating into
the chamber. Inside the chamber is an optical arrangement
consisting of two main parts: an infrared light emitting diode and a
receiving photo diode.

Pulses of infrared light are projected every 8 to 10 seconds into

the chamber in a direction that cannot be ‘seen’ by the
photodiode.

When smoke particles enter the chamber, it scatters photons

from the infrared light source onto the photodiode to excite it into
activity. When the smoke density is high enough and this
condition persists, the electronic circuitry will generate an alarm
condition.

10
3. Multi-sensor: Optical/heat Detectors

Characteristics:
• Increased responds to visible smoke.
• Good for smouldering and flaming type fires

Causes of false alarms:

• Steam (e.g. near a shower).
• Contamination in dusty environments.

11
Under the section of multi-sensors we do not count dual sensors.
Dual sensors optical- heat, ionization heat or even triple sensors,
optical ionization heat, operate as individual sensors in a single
housing.

The optical-heat multi-sensor operates as a normal optical

detector, but its sensitivity is adjusted by the heat sensor. As the
temperature increases according to a particular signature
(algorithm), the detector’s sensitivity to smoke will increase. This
will therefor allow for faster detection.

Other multi-sensors are known where, further to adjusting the

smoke sensitivity, the heat sensor still operates as an
independent heat detector.

12
4. Beam Detectors

Characteristics:
• Responds to visible smoke.
• Used where point smoke detectors are not usable
due to height constraints or inaccessibility.
• Can operate with reflective prisms.

Causes of false alarms:

• Building movement and poor alignment.
• Fog.
• Dust.

13
A transmitter unit projects a modulated infrared light beam onto a receiver
unit. The received signal is analysed, and in the event of smoke being
present for a predetermined time, a fire condition is raised.

When smoke is present in the beam path, the received signal is reduced to
a level determined by the density of the smoke. In the event of the smoke
reducing the signal strength between the obscuration threshold and +/- 90
% for a period of 8 to 10 seconds, the fire alarm output is activated. Several
obscuration levels can be chosen to optimise performance for every
environment.

An automatic gain control prevents nuisance alarms caused by long time

signal degradation, e.g. in the case of dirt build up.

Total obscuration (> 90%) will generate a fault alarm.

14
5. Aspirating Early Warning Detectors

Characteristics
• More sensitive than optical or ionisation detectors.
• Higher cost, but fire can be avoided rather than
doused.

Causes of false alarms

• Dust

15
Air is sucked into the detector via tubes.
The unit contains a laser source to
detect smoke particles.

16
Heat Detectors

1. Point Type Heat Detectors

Characteristics:
• Responds to a rapid rise in temperature.
• Can trigger at a pre-set temperature level.
• Not affected by dust or smoke
• Heat detectors are appropriate for fires with full
combustion (alcohol type fires where there is no smoke)

Causes of false alarms:

• Mounting above source of heat e.g. above an oven

17
Heat detectors contain a pair of matched NTCs (negative temperature coefficient
thermistors). One thermistor is exposed to the environment and is therefore in
good thermal contact with the surrounding air. As such, it responds quickly to
changes in air temperature.

The other NTC is insulated from the surrounding air and responds more slowly.

Under stable conditions, both NTCs are in thermal equilibrium with the
surrounding air and will have the same resistance value. If the air temperature
increases rapidly, a temperature difference develops between the two NTCs and
the resistance of the exposed thermistor becomes less than that of the insulated
one. The ratio of the resistance of the thermistors is monitored electronically and
a fire alarm is generated when the ratio exceeds a factory pre-set level. The
feature of monitoring the ratio change between the two thermistors determines
the ‘rate of rise’ response of a detector.

If the air temperature raises slowly, no significant temperature difference

develops between the thermistors. At high temperatures however, a fixed value
thermistor determines the fixed temperature alarm.

In some makes of heat detectors a transistor is exposed to the environment and

a processor calculates the rate of rise and thermo-maximum value. These
detectors are called thermo-velocimetric or thermo-differential detectors with
fixed level.

For special applications heat detectors can be supplied without the rate of rise
feature.
18
2. Linear heat detectors

Characteristics:
• Typically used on conveyer belts, cable
ducts, industrial machinery etc.
• Applications are know where these
sensors are used to signal forest fires.
• The wiring is the detector.

Causes of false alarms:

• Breaks in the cable because of physical
damage.
• Electro Magnetic interference from
outside sources

19
Linear heat detectors consist of a heat sensitive cable
connected to a control unit. The temperature can be
adjusted in the control box. In some cases it is possible
that the cable itself can determine the alarm temperature.

Some types of linear sensors use a type of coaxial cable

where the heat changes the capacitance characteristic of
the cable. This capacitance change is then detected and
an algorithm will determine the alarm threshold.

Earlier types of sensors use a cable that twists under high

temperature. At a certain temperature the twisting is such
that the wires make contact and an alarm is generated.

20
Flame (Radiation) Detectors

1. Ultra Violet (UV) Detectors

Characteristics:
• Responds to flames that emit UV, e.g. petrol fires.
• Typical applications include storage areas, warehouses,
factories, hospitals, museums, art galleries etc.

Causes of false alarms:

• Spurious sources of UV such as sparks, quarts halogen
lights (without a glass cover) Arc- welding and lightning.
• Oil, grease, silicone, dust, water vapour and smoke
absorb UV and inhibit early detection.
• Glass will filter out UV light sources and inhibit detection

21
These types of detectors are mostly used for detection of fires
from combustible, carbon based fuels.

Normally the circuitry for the detector will be designed to observe

an ultra violet ‘flame’ signal for a pre-set time interval (from as low
as 0.2 seconds up to 8 seconds) before activating into alarm.
This provides a high degree of false alarm immunity and can
therefor filter out spurious UV signals from sources like lightning
and arc welding.

The sensitivity of the unit depends largely on the size of the

flame, the distance from the flame as well as the type of fuel
causing the flame. Some combustible fuels will generate more
ultra violet rays when in fire than others.

22
2. Infra-Red (IR) Detectors

Characteristics:
• Responds well to hydrocarbon fires (e.g. petrol), but not
very well to ammonia, hydrogen or sulphur fires.
Immune to arc welding flicker.

Causes of false alarms:

• Flickering or modulated radiation (e.g. a heater behind
a slow fan).

23
Infrared flame detectors respond to low frequency modulated radiation (3
to 15 Hz) emitted from flames during the combustion of hydrocarbons and
other materials.

The flame flicker technology makes the detector independent of flame

intensity enabling it to operate through smoke a layer of oil, dust, water
vapour or ice. Gas flames, not visible to the human eye e.g. hydrogen,
may also be detected.

The detector’s photoelectric sensor, responding to adjacent IR

wavelengths, enables it to discriminate between flames and spurious
sources of IR radiation. The sensor is connected to a signal processor that
counts only those signals above a pre-set threshold for a short period of
time e.g. 3 seconds, then generating an alarm.

The combination of filters and sensors allows the detectors to be immune

to flickering sunlight.

24
Duct Detectors

Characteristics:
• Typically used in air extraction
systems, computer rooms etc.

Causes of false alarms:

• Same as for standard detectors
 The volume of air into the duct detector
needs to be carefully calculated for
optimal performance.

25
The basic principle of a duct detector is to divert
some of the air from a duct (such as an air
conditioning duct) through a sampling chamber.
This enables standard smoke detectors
(ionisation or optical) to be mounted outside the
duct and monitor smoke particles inside the duct.
Standard detectors will of course not function
inside the duct because of the high airflow
through the duct.

26
Installation standards
27
 Smoke Detectors - Optical & Ionisation

 Standard positioning

Maximum distance from any

7m
point to detector
Maximum floor area 100 m2
SPACING Maximum distance between
12 m
detectors In general
Maximum distance between
18 m
detectors In corridors
CEILING HEIGHT General limits 10.5 m maximum
High limits 15 m maximum

In general, smoke detectors cover at a maximum height of 12 m, a circular area with a radius of 7 metres.

Placing detectors in a room with 12 to15 m high ceilings should be confirmed by fire tests. When ceilings get in excess of 15 m
high, other means of detection should be considered. Detectors must cover every part of the floor surface.

A grid with spacing of 10 metres normally meets these requirements.

Always place detectors at least 300 mm from a wall, and preferably in the correct orientation. A detector mounted against a wall will
have a lower response time than a ceiling monted detector, because of the orientation of the smoke inlets. If a detector has to be
mounted against a wall for some reason, ensure that it is at least 300 mm away from the ceiling.
28
The proper ‘sensing element’ should be at a distance of the ceiling,
according to the table below. This to avoid that a cussion of hot air prevents
the entry of smoke into the sensor

Distance of sensing element to roof in cm

Height of the
room in m a < 15° 15 ° < a < 30° a > 30°
Min Max Min Max Min Max
6 3 20 20 30 30 50
6–8 7 25 25 45 45 60
8 – 10 10 30 30 50 50 70
10 – 12 15 35 35 60 60 80
29
 Special applications
- Sloping roofs

In rooms with roofs having a slope greater than 20° and/or

where the inside of roof is also the ceiling, one will place a
row of detectors in the very top of the roof. The roof in this
case is symmetrical.

In angled walls and ‘saw tooth’ roofs where the roof is not
symmetrical, every ‘tooth’ needs to once again be equied with
detectors. The detectors will be placed on the side with the
smallest angle, at least 1 m from the top. The exact location
may be calculated as indicated in Figure 19 b

30
On a curved roof, the slope that needs to
be considered is the roof slope with the
smallest angle.

The image on the side shows how to

determine the slope of a curved roof. The
principle of subsequent device placement
will be the same as for the ‘sawtooth’ roof
described above.

31
- Roofs with large beams

When the height of the beams or the technical ducts is smaller than
0.15 m, the roof can be considered flat.

When the height of the beams is equal to or greater than 0.15 m, the
detectors will be placed in the void between the beams. When
detectors are placed in these voids, and the total surface of the void is
greater than 0.6 Smax (where Smax is the maximum surface protected
by the detector) then each surface must have at least 1 detector.

When the surface of the void is smaller than 0.6 Smax, then the rules
of the table below apply.

Void surface Location of detectors

0.6 Smax Every 2 voids

0.4 Smax Every 3 voids
0.3 Smax Every 4 voids
0.2 Smax Every 5 voids

32
- Rooms with forced ventilation

The vents of perforated ceilings, through

which air is circulated in the room, must be
closed over the total surface area within a
radius of 1 m surrounding the sensor.

33
- False ceilings and floors

In false ceilings and floors with a height lower than 1 m, the standard amount of
detectors must be multiplied with the factor below:

Zone Factor
Non climatised 2
Climatised 3

- Computer rooms
In computer rooms where air circulation through false ceilings exists, the standard
amount of detectors must be multiplied with the factor below:

Distance of smoke detector to the floor (in m), Factor

multiplied with the amount of air refreshes per hour

Smaller than 40 3
Larger than 40 2

34