Project management

Project management is the process of supervising the work of a team to achieve all project goals within
the given constraints.[1] This information is usually described in project documentation, created at the
beginning of the development process. The primary constraints are scope, time and budget.[2] The
secondary challenge is to optimize the allocation of necessary inputs and apply them to meet predefined
objectives.

The objective of project management is to produce a complete project which complies with the client's
objectives. In many cases, the objective of project management is also to shape or reform the client's brief
to feasibly address the client's objectives. Once the client's objectives are established, they should
influence all decisions made by other people involved in the project– for example, project managers,
designers, contractors and subcontractors. Ill-defined or too tightly prescribed project management
objectives are detrimental to the decisionmaking process.

A project is a temporary and unique endeavor designed to produce a product, service or result with a
defined beginning and end (usually time-constrained, often constrained by funding or staffing)
undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives, typically to bring about beneficial change or added
value.[3][4] The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast with business as usual (or operations),[5]
which are repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional activities to produce products or services.
In practice, the management of such distinct production approaches requires the development of distinct
technical skills and management strategies.[6]

History
Until 2001, civil engineering projects were generally managed by creative architects, engineers, and
master builders themselves, for example, Vitruvius (first century BC), Christopher Wren (1632–1723),
Thomas Telford (1757–1834), and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859).[7] In the 1950s, organizations
started to apply project-management tools and techniques more systematically to complex engineering
projects.[8]

As a discipline, project management developed from several fields of application including civil
construction, engineering, and heavy defense activity.[9] Two forefathers of project management are
Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques,[10] who is famous for his use of the
Gantt chart as a project management tool (alternatively Harmonogram first proposed by Karol
Adamiecki);[11] and Henri Fayol for his creation of the five management functions that form the
foundation of the body of knowledge associated with project and program management.[12] Both Gantt
and Fayol were students of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management. His work is the
forerunner to modern project management tools including work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource
allocation.
The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era,
where core engineering fields came together to work as one. Project
management became recognized as a distinct discipline arising from the
management discipline with the engineering model.[13] In the United
States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad-hoc basis,
using mostly Gantt charts and informal techniques and tools. At that time,
two mathematical project-scheduling models were developed. The critical
path method (CPM) was developed as a joint venture between DuPont
Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant
maintenance projects. The program evaluation and review technique
(PERT), was developed by the U.S. Navy Special Projects Office in Henry Gantt (1861–1919),
conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation and Booz Allen Hamilton as the father of planning and
part of the Polaris missile submarine program.[14] control techniques

PERT and CPM are very similar in their approach but still present some
differences. CPM is used for projects that assume deterministic activity times; the times at which each
activity will be carried out are known. PERT, on the other hand, allows for stochastic activity times; the
times at which each activity will be carried out are uncertain or varied. Because of this core difference,
CPM and PERT are used in different contexts. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many
private enterprises.

At the same time, as project-scheduling models were being

developed, technology for project cost estimating, cost
management and engineering economics was evolving, with
pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the
American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE
International; the Association for the Advancement of Cost
Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project
management and the associated specialties of planning and
PERT network chart for a seven-month
scheduling, cost estimating, and project control. AACE project with five milestones
continued its pioneering work and in 2006, released the first
integrated process for portfolio, program, and project
management (total cost management framework).

In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the USA.[15] PMI publishes the original
version of A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) in 1996 with
William Duncan as its primary author, which describes project management practices that are common to
"most projects, most of the time."[16]

Project management types

Project management methods can be applied to any project. It is often tailored to a specific type of project
based on project size, nature, industry or sector. For example, the construction industry, which focuses on
the delivery of things like buildings, roads, and bridges, has developed its own specialized form of project
management that it refers to as construction project management and in which project managers can
become trained and certified.[17] The information technology industry has also evolved to develop its
own form of project management that is referred to as IT project management and which specializes in
the delivery of technical assets and services that are required to pass through various lifecycle phases
such as planning, design, development, testing, and deployment. Biotechnology project management
focuses on the intricacies of biotechnology research and development.[18] Localization project
management includes application of many standard project management practices to translation works
even though many consider this type of management to be a very different discipline. For example,
project managers have a key role in improving the translation even when they do not speak the language
of the translation, because they know the study objectives well to make informed decisions.[19] Similarly,
research study management can also apply a project manage approach.[20] There is public project
management that covers all public works by the government, which can be carried out by the government
agencies or contracted out to contractors. Another classification of project management is based on the
hard (physical) or soft (non-physical) type.

Common among all the project management types is that they focus on three important goals: time,
quality, and cost. Successful projects are completed on schedule, within budget, and according to
previously agreed quality standards i.e. meeting the Iron Triangle or Triple Constraint in order for
projects to be considered a success or failure.[21]

For each type of project management, project managers develop and utilize repeatable templates that are
specific to the industry they're dealing with. This allows project plans to become very thorough and
highly repeatable, with the specific intent to increase quality, lower delivery costs, and lower time to
deliver project results.

Approaches of project management

A 2017 study suggested that the success of any project depends on how well four key aspects are aligned
with the contextual dynamics affecting the project, these are referred to as the four P's:[22]

Plan: The planning and forecasting activities.

Process: The overall approach to all activities and project governance.
People: Including dynamics of how they collaborate and communicate.
Power: Lines of authority, decision-makers, organograms, policies for implementation and
the like.
There are a number of approaches to organizing and completing project activities, including phased, lean,
iterative, and incremental. There are also several extensions to project planning, for example, based on
outcomes (product-based) or activities (process-based).

Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration must be given to the overall project
objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilities of all participants and
stakeholders.[23]

Benefits realization management

Benefits realization management (BRM) enhances normal project management techniques through a
focus on outcomes (benefits) of a project rather than products or outputs and then measuring the degree to
which that is happening to keep a project on track. This can help to reduce the risk of a completed project
being a failure by delivering agreed upon requirements (outputs) i.e. project success but failing to deliver
the benefits (outcomes) of those requirements i.e. product success. Note that good requirements
management will ensure these benefits are captured as requirements of the project and their achievement
monitored throughout the project.

In addition, BRM practices aim to ensure the strategic alignment between project outcomes and business
strategies. The effectiveness of these practices is supported by recent research evidencing BRM practices
influencing project success from a strategic perspective across different countries and industries. These
wider effects are called the strategic impact.[24]

An example of delivering a project to requirements might be agreeing to deliver a computer system that
will process staff data and manage payroll, holiday, and staff personnel records in shorter times with
reduced errors. Under BRM, the agreement might be to achieve a specified reduction in staff hours and
errors required to process and maintain staff data after the system installation when compared without the
system.

Critical path method

Critical path method (CPM) is an algorithm for determining the schedule for project activities. It is the
traditional process used for predictive-based project planning. The CPM method evaluates the sequence
of activities, the work effort required, the inter-dependencies, and the resulting float time per line
sequence to determine the required project duration. Thus, by definition, the critical path is the pathway
of tasks on the network diagram that has no extra time available (or very little extra time)."[25]

Critical chain project management

Critical chain project management (CCPM) is an application of the theory of constraints (TOC) to
planning and managing projects and is designed to deal with the uncertainties inherent in managing
projects, while taking into consideration the limited availability of resources (physical, human skills, as
well as management & support capacity) needed to execute projects.

The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an organization (throughput). Applying the first three of the
five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for all projects, as well as the resources, are identified.
To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priority over all other activities.

Earned value management

Earned value management (EVM) extends project management with techniques to improve project
monitoring.[26] It illustrates project progress towards completion in terms of work and value (cost).
Earned Schedule is an extension to the theory and practice of EVM.

Iterative and incremental project management

In critical studies of project management, it has been noted that phased approaches are not well suited for
projects which are large-scale and multi-company,[27] with undefined, ambiguous, or fast-changing
requirements,[28] or those with high degrees of risk, dependency, and fast-changing technologies. The
cone of uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers
from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the
realization of a new or novel product.

These complexities are better handled with a more exploratory or iterative and incremental approach.[29]
Several models of iterative and incremental project management have evolved, including agile project
management, dynamic systems development method, extreme project management, and Innovation
Engineering®.[30]

Lean project management

Lean project management uses the principles from lean manufacturing to focus on delivering value with
less waste and reduced time.

Project lifecycle
There are five phases to a project lifecycle; known as process groups. Each process group represents a
series of inter-related processes to manage the work through a series of distinct steps to be completed.
This type of project approach is often referred to as "traditional"[31] or "waterfall".[32] The five process
groups are:

1. Initiating
2. Planning
3. Executing
4. Monitoring and Controlling
5. Closing
Some industries may use variations of these Typical development phases of an engineering
project stages and rename them to better suit the project
organization. For example, when working on a
brick-and-mortar design and construction, projects
will typically progress through stages like pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic design, design
development, construction drawings (or contract documents), and construction administration.

While the phased approach works well for small, well-defined projects, it often results in challenge or
failure on larger projects, or those that are more complex or have more ambiguities, issues, and risks[33] -
see the parodying 'six phases of a big project'.

Process-based management
The incorporation of process-based management has been driven by the use of maturity models such as
the OPM3 and the CMMI (capability maturity model integration; see Image:Capability Maturity
Model.jpg
Project production management
Project production management is the application of operations management to the delivery of capital
projects. The Project production management framework is based on a project as a production system
view, in which a project transforms inputs (raw materials, information, labor, plant & machinery) into
outputs (goods and services).[34]

Product-based planning
Product-based planning is a structured approach to project management, based on identifying all of the
products (project deliverables) that contribute to achieving the project objectives. As such, it defines a
successful project as output-oriented rather than activity- or task-oriented.[35] The most common
implementation of this approach is PRINCE2.[36]

Process groups
Traditionally (depending on what project management
methodology is being used), project management includes a
number of elements: four to five project management process
groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology or
terminology used, the same basic project management processes
or stages of development will be used. Major process groups
generally include:[38]

Initiation
Planning
Production or execution
Monitoring and controlling
The project development stages[37]
Closing
In project environments with a significant exploratory element
(e.g., research and development), these stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go
decisions) at which the project's continuation is debated and decided. An example is the Phase–gate
model.

Project management relies on a wide variety of meetings to coordinate actions. For instance, there is the
kick-off meeting, which broadly involves stakeholders at the project's initiation. Project meetings or
project committees enable the project team to define and monitor action plans. Steering committees are
used to transition between phases and resolve issues. Project portfolio and program reviews are
conducted in organizations running parallel projects. Lessons learned meetings are held to consolidate
learnings. All these meetings employ techniques found in meeting science, particularly to define the
objective, participant list, and facilitation methods.
Initiating
The initiating processes determine the nature and scope
of the project.[39] If this stage is not performed well, it is
unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the
business' needs. The key project controls needed here are
Initiating process group processes[37] an understanding of the business environment and
making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated
into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and
a recommendation should be made to fix them.

The initiating stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas. These areas can be
recorded in a series of documents called Project Initiation documents. Project Initiation documents are a
series of planned documents used to create an order for the duration of the project. These tend to include:

project proposal (idea behind project, overall goal, duration)

project scope (project direction and track)
product breakdown structure (PBS) (a hierarchy of deliverables/outcomes and components
thereof)
work breakdown structure (WBS) (a hierarchy of the work to be done, down to daily tasks)
responsibility assignment matrix (RACI - Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, Informed)
(roles and responsibilities aligned to deliverables / outcomes)
tentative project schedule (milestones, important dates, deadlines)
analysis of business needs and requirements against measurable goals
review of the current operations
financial analysis of the costs and benefits, including a budget
stakeholder analysis, including users and support personnel for the project
project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedules
SWOT analysis: strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to the business

Planning
After the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of detail (see an example of a
flowchart).[37] The main purpose is to plan time, cost, and resources adequately to estimate the work
needed and to effectively manage risk during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a
failure to adequately plan greatly reduces the project's chances of successfully accomplishing its goals.

Project planning generally consists of[40]

determining the project management methodology to follow (e.g. whether the plan will be
defined wholly upfront, iteratively, or in rolling waves);
developing the scope statement;
selecting the planning team;
identifying deliverables and creating the product and work breakdown structures;
identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities
in their logical sequence;
estimating the resource requirements for the activities;
estimating time and cost for activities;
 developing the schedule;
developing the budget;
risk planning;
developing quality assurance measures;
gaining formal approval to begin work.
Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope management, identifying roles
and responsibilities, determining what to purchase for the project, and holding a kick-off meeting are also
generally advisable.

For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the final product may be
performed concurrent with the project planning activities and may help to inform the planning team when
identifying deliverables and planning activities.

Executing
While executing we must know what are the
planned terms that need to be executed. The
execution/implementation phase ensures that the
project management plan's deliverables are
executed accordingly. This phase involves proper
allocation, coordination, and management of
human resources and any other resources such as
materials and budgets. The output of this phase is
the project deliverables.
Executing process group processes[37]
Project documentation
Documenting everything within a project is key to being successful. To maintain budget, scope,
effectiveness and pace a project must have physical documents pertaining to each specific task. With
correct documentation, it is easy to see whether or not a project's requirement has been met. To go along
with that, documentation provides information regarding what has already been completed for that
project. Documentation throughout a project provides a paper trail for anyone who needs to go back and
reference the work in the past. In most cases, documentation is the most successful way to monitor and
control the specific phases of a project. With the correct documentation, a project's success can be tracked
and observed as the project goes on. If performed correctly, documentation can be the backbone of a
project's success

Monitoring and controlling

Monitoring and controlling consist of those processes performed to observe project execution so that
potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective action can be taken, when
necessary, to control the execution of the project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed
and measured regularly to identify variances from the project management plan.

Monitoring and controlling include:[41]

Measuring the ongoing project activities ('where we are');

 Monitoring the project variables (cost,
effort, scope, etc.) against the project
management plan and the project
performance baseline (where we should
be);
Identifying corrective actions to address
issues and risks properly (How can we get
on track again);
Influencing the factors that could
circumvent integrated change control so Monitoring and controlling process group
only approved changes are implemented.
processes[37]
Two main mechanisms support monitoring and
controlling in projects. On the one hand, contracts
offer a set of rules and incentives often supported by potential penalties and sanctions.[42] On the other
hand, scholars in business and management have paid attention to the role of integrators (also called
project barons) to achieve a project's objectives.[43][44] In turn, recent research in project management has
questioned the type of interplay between contracts and integrators. Some have argued that these two
monitoring mechanisms operate as substitutes[45] as one type of organization would decrease the
advantages of using the other one.

In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and control process also provides feedback between project
phases, to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project
management plan.

Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:[38]

Continuing support of end-users

Correction of errors
Updates to the product over time
In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively
and quickly user problems are resolved.

Over the course of any construction project, the work scope

may change. Change is a normal and expected part of the
construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary
design modifications, differing site conditions, material
availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering,
and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond Monitoring and controlling cycle
executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to
be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is
referred to as change management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes
or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is
made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end
product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, "as built." The
requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts. Construction document management
is a highly important task undertaken with the aid of an online or desktop software system or maintained
through physical documentation. The increasing legality pertaining to the construction industry's
maintenance of correct documentation has caused an increase in the need for document management
systems.

When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is
important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate,
the forecasted result may not justify the original proposed investment in the project. Successful project
management identifies these components, and tracks and monitors progress, so as to stay within time and
budget frames already outlined at the commencement of the project. Exact methods were suggested to
identify the most informative monitoring points along the project life-cycle regarding its progress and
expected duration.[46]

Closing
Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and
the ending thereof. Administrative activities include the
archiving of the files and documenting lessons learned.

This phase consists of:[38]

Closing process group processes[37]
Contract closure: Complete and settle each
contract (including the resolution of any open
items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phase.
Project close: Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the
project or a project phase
Also included in this phase is the post implementation review. This is a vital phase of the project for the
project team to learn from experiences and apply to future projects. Normally a post implementation
review consists of looking at things that went well and analyzing things that went badly on the project to
come up with lessons learned.

Project control and project control systems

Project control (also known as Cost Engineering) should be established as an independent function in
project management. It implements verification and controlling functions during the processing of a
project to reinforce the defined performance and formal goals.[47] The tasks of project control are also:

the creation of infrastructure for the supply of the right information and its update
the establishment of a way to communicate disparities in project parameters
the development of project information technology based on an intranet or the determination
of a project key performance indicator system (KPI)
divergence analyses and generation of proposals for potential project regulations[48]
the establishment of methods to accomplish an appropriate project structure, project
workflow organization, project control, and governance
creation of transparency among the project parameters[49]
Fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved by applying specific methods and
instruments of project control. The following methods of project control can be applied:

investment analysis
 cost–benefit analysis
value benefit analysis
expert surveys
simulation calculations
risk-profile analysis
surcharge calculations
milestone trend analysis
cost trend analysis
target/actual comparison[50]
Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on track, on time, and within budget.[41] Project
control begins early in the project with planning and ends late in the project with post-implementation
review, having a thorough involvement of each step in the process. Projects may be audited or reviewed
while the project is in progress. Formal audits are generally risk or compliance-based and management
will direct the objectives of the audit. An examination may include a comparison of approved project
management processes with how the project is actually being managed.[51] Each project should be
assessed for the appropriate level of control needed: too much control is too time-consuming, too little
control is very risky. If project control is not implemented correctly, the cost to the business should be
clarified in terms of errors and fixes.

Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication, time, change, procurement, and human
resources. In addition, auditors should consider how important the projects are to the financial statements,
how reliant the stakeholders are on controls, and how many controls exist. Auditors should review the
development process and procedures for how they are implemented. The process of development and the
quality of the final product may also be assessed if needed or requested. A business may want the auditing
firm to be involved throughout the process to catch problems earlier on so that they can be fixed more
easily. An auditor can serve as a controls consultant as part of the development team or as an independent
auditor as part of an audit.

Businesses sometimes use formal systems development processes. This help assure systems are
developed successfully. A formal process is more effective in creating strong controls, and auditors
should review this process to confirm that it is well designed and is followed in practice. A good formal
systems development plan outlines:

A strategy to align development with the organization's broader objectives

Standards for new systems
Project management policies for timing and budgeting
Procedures describing the process
Evaluation of quality of change

Characteristics of projects
There are five important characteristics of a project:

(i) It should always have specific start and end dates.

(ii) They are performed and completed by a group of people.

(iii) The output is the delivery of a unique product or service.

(iv) They are temporary in nature.

(v) It is progressively elaborated.

Examples are: designing a new car or writing a book.

Project complexity
Complexity and its nature play an important role in the area of project management. Despite having a
number of debates on this subject matter, studies suggest a lack of definition and reasonable
understanding of complexity in relation to the management of complex projects.[52][53]

Project complexity is the property of a project which makes it difficult to understand, foresee, and keep
under control its overall behavior, even when given reasonably complete information about the project
system.[54]

The identification of complex projects is specifically important to multi-project engineering

environments.[55]

As it is considered that project complexity and project performance are closely related, it is important to
define and measure the complexity of the project for project management to be effective.[56]

Complexity can be:

Structural complexity (also known as detail complexity, or complicatedness), i.e. consisting

of many varied interrelated parts.[57] It is typically expressed in terms of size, variety, and
interdependence of project components, and described by technological and organizational
factors.
Dynamic complexity refers to phenomena, characteristics, and manifestations such as
ambiguity, uncertainty, propagation, emergence, and chaos.[54]
Based on the Cynefin framework,[58] complex projects can be classified as:

Simple (or clear, obvious, known) projects, systems,

or contexts. These are characterized by known
knowns, stability, and clear cause-and-effect
relationships. They can be solved with standard
operating procedures and best practices.
Complicated: characterized by known unknowns. A
complicated system is the sum of its parts. In
principle, it can be deconstructed into smaller
simpler components. While difficult, complicated
problems are theoretically solvable with additional
resources, specialized expertise, analytical,
reductionist, simplification, decomposition Simple, complicated, complex, and really
techniques, scenario planning, and following good complex projects - based on the Cynefin
practices.[59][60] framework

Complex are characterized by unknown unknowns,

and emergence. Patterns could be uncovered, but
 they are not obvious. A complex system can be described by Euclid's statement that the
whole is more than the sum of its parts.
Really complex projects, a.k.a. very complex, or chaotic: characterized by unknowables.
No patterns are discernible in really complex projects. Causes and effects are unclear even
in retrospect. Paraphrasing Aristotle, a really complex system is different from the sum of its
parts.[61]
By applying the discovery in measuring work complexity described in Requisite Organization and
Stratified Systems Theory, Elliott Jaques classifies projects and project work (stages, tasks) into seven
basic levels of project complexity based on such criteria as time-span of discretion and complexity of a
project's output:[62][63]

Level 1 Project – improve the direct output of an activity (quantity, quality, time) within a
business process with a targeted completion time up to 3 months.
Level 2 Project – develop and improve compliance to a business process with a targeted
completion time of 3 months to 1 year.
Level 3 Project – develop, change, and improve a business process with a targeted
completion time of 1 to 2 years.
Level 4 Project – develop, change, and improve a functional system with a targeted
completion time of 2 to 5 years.
Level 5 Project – develop, change, and improve a group of functional systems/business
functions with a targeted completion time of 5 to 10 years.
Level 6 Project – develop, change, and improve a whole single value chain of a company
with targeted completion time from 10 to 20 years.
Level 7 Project – develop, change, and improve multiple value chains of a company with
target completion time from 20 to 50 years.[64]
Benefits from measuring Project Complexity are to improve project people feasibility by matching the
level of a project's complexity with an effective targeted completion time, with the respective capability
level of the project manager and of the project members.[65]

Positive, appropriate (requisite), and negative complexity

Similarly with the Law of requisite variety and The law of
requisite complexity, project complexity is sometimes required
in order for the project to reach its objectives, and sometimes
it has beneficial outcomes. Based on the effects of complexity,
Stefan Morcov proposed its classification as Positive,
Appropriate, or Negative.[66][61]

Positive complexity is the complexity that adds

value to the project, and whose contribution to The Positive, Appropriate and Negative
project success outweighs the associated negative complexity model proposed by Stefan
consequences. Morcov[61]
Appropriate (or requisite) complexity is the
complexity that is needed for the project to reach its
objectives, or whose contribution to project success balances the negative effects, or the
cost of mitigation outweighs negative manifestations.
Negative complexity is the complexity that hinders project success.
Project managers
A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers are in charge of
the people in a project. People are the key to any successful project. Without the correct people in the
right place and at the right time a project cannot be successful. Project managers can have the
responsibility of the planning, execution, controlling, and closing of any project typically relating to the
construction industry, engineering, architecture, computing, and telecommunications. Many other fields
of production engineering, design engineering, and heavy industrial have project managers.

A project manager needs to understand the order of execution of a project to schedule the project
correctly as well as the time necessary to accomplish each individual task within the project. A project
manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives on behalf of the client.
Project Managers tend to have multiple years' experience in their field. A project manager is required to
know the project in and out while supervising the workers along with the project. Typically in most
construction, engineering, architecture, and industrial projects, a project manager has another manager
working alongside of them who is typically responsible for the execution of task on a daily basis. This
position in some cases is known as a superintendent. A superintendent and project manager work hand in
hand in completing daily project tasks. Key project management responsibilities include creating clear
and attainable project objectives, building the project requirements, and managing the triple constraint
(now including more constraints and calling it competing constraints) for projects, which is cost, time,
quality and scope for the first three but about three additional ones in current project management. A
typical project is composed of a team of workers who work under the project manager to complete the
assignment within the time and budget targets. A project manager normally reports directly to someone of
higher stature on the completion and success of the project.

A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact needs of
the client, based on knowledge of the firm they are representing. The ability to adapt to the various
internal procedures of the contracting party, and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is
essential in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, client satisfaction, can be
realized.

A complete project manager, a term first coined by Robert J. Graham in his simulation, has been
expanded upon by Randall L. Englund and Alfonso Bucero. They describe a complete project manager as
a person who embraces multiple disciplines, such as leadership, influence, negotiations, politics, change
and conflict management, and humor. These are all "soft" people skills that enable project leaders to be
more effective and achieve optimized, consistent results.

Multilevel success framework and criteria - project success vs.

project performance
There is a tendency to confuse the project success with project management success. They are two
different things. "Project success" has 2 perspectives:

the perspective of the process, i.e. delivering efficient outputs; typically called project
management performance or project efficiency.
 the perspective of the result, i.e. delivering beneficial outcomes; typically called project
performance (sometimes just project success).[67][68][69]
Project management success criteria are different from project success criteria. The project management
is said to be successful if the given project is completed within the agreed upon time, met the agreed upon
scope and within the agreed upon budget. Subsequent to the triple constraints, multiple constraints have
been considered to ensure project success. However, the triple or multiple constraints indicate only the
efficiency measures of the project, which are indeed the project management success criteria during the
project lifecycle.

The priori criteria leave out the more important after-completion results of the project which comprise
four levels i.e. the output (product) success, outcome (benefits) success and impact (strategic) success
during the product lifecycle. These posterior success criteria indicate the effectiveness measures of the
project product, service or result, after the project completion and handover. This overarching multilevel
success framework of projects, programs and portfolios has been developed by Paul Bannerman in
2008.[70] In other words, a project is said to be successful, when it succeeds in achieving the expected
business case which needs to be clearly identified and defined during the project inception and selection
before starting the development phase. This multilevel success framework conforms to the theory of
project as a transformation depicted as the input-process / activity-output-outcome-impact in order to
generate whatever value intended. Emanuel Camilleri in 2011 classifies all the critical success and failure
factors into groups and matches each of them with the multilevel success criteria in order to deliver
business value.[71]

An example of a performance indicator used in relation to project management is the "backlog of

commissioned projects" or "project backlog".[72]

Risk management
The United States Department of Defense states that "Cost, Schedule, Performance, and Risk" are the
four elements through which Department of Defense acquisition professionals make trade-offs and track
program status.[73] There are also international standards. Risk management applies proactive
identification (see tools) of future problems and understanding of their consequences allowing predictive
decisions about projects. ERM system plays a role in overall risk management.[74]

Work breakdown structure and other breakdown structures

The work breakdown structure (WBS) is a tree structure that shows a subdivision of the activities
required to achieve an objective – for example a portfolio, program, project, and contract. The WBS may
be hardware-, product-, service-, or process-oriented (see an example in a NASA reporting structure
(2001)).[75] Beside WBS for project scope management, there are organizational breakdown structure
(chart), cost breakdown structure and risk breakdown structure.

A WBS can be developed by starting with the end objective and successively subdividing it into
manageable components in terms of size, duration, and responsibility (e.g., systems, subsystems,
components, tasks, sub-tasks, and work packages), which include all steps necessary to achieve the
objective.[33]
The work breakdown structure provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall
planning and control of a contract and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from
which the statement of work can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can
be established.[75] The work breakdown structure can be displayed in two forms, as a table with
subdivision of tasks or as an organizational chart whose lowest nodes are referred to as "work packages".

It is an essential element in assessing the quality of a plan, and an initial element used during the planning
of the project. For example, a WBS is used when the project is scheduled, so that the use of work
packages can be recorded and tracked.

Similarly to work breakdown structure (WBS), other decomposition techniques and tools are:
organization breakdown structure (OBS), product breakdown structure (PBS), cost breakdown structure
(CBS), risk breakdown structure (RBS), and resource breakdown structure (ResBS).[76][61]

International standards
There are several project management standards, including:

The ISO standards ISO 9000, a family of standards for quality management systems, and
the ISO 10006:2003, for Quality management systems and guidelines for quality
management in projects.
ISO 21500:2012 – Guidance on project management. This is the first International Standard
related to project management published by ISO. Other standards in the 21500 family
include 21503:2017 Guidance on programme management; 21504:2015 Guidance on
portfolio management; 21505:2017 Guidance on governance; 21506:2018 Vocabulary;
21508:2018 Earned value management in project and programme management; and
21511:2018 Work breakdown structures for project and programme management.
ISO 21502:2020 Project, programme and portfolio management — Guidance on project
management
ISO 21503:2022 Project, programme and portfolio management — Guidance on
programme management
ISO 21504:2015 Project, programme and portfolio management – Guidance on portfolio
management
ISO 21505:2017 Project, programme and portfolio management - Guidance on governance
ISO 31000:2009 – Risk management.
ISO/IEC/IEEE 16326:2009 – Systems and Software Engineering—Life Cycle Processes—
Project Management[77]
Individual Competence Baseline (ICB) from the International Project Management
Association (IPMA).[78]
Capability Maturity Model (CMM) from the Software Engineering Institute.
GAPPS, Global Alliance for Project Performance Standards – an open source standard
describing COMPETENCIES for project and program managers.
HERMES method, Swiss general project management method, selected for use in
Luxembourg and international organizations.
The logical framework approach (LFA), which is popular in international development
organizations.
PMBOK Guide from the Project Management Institute (PMI).
PRINCE2 from AXELOS.
 PM2: The Project Management methodology developed by the [European Commission].[79]
Procedures for Project Formulation and Management (PPFM) by the Indian Ministry of
Defence [80]
Team Software Process (TSP) from the Software Engineering Institute.
Total Cost Management Framework, AACE International's Methodology for Integrated
Portfolio, Program and Project Management.
V-Model, an original systems development method.

Program management and project networks

Some projects, either identical or different, can be managed as program management. Programs are
collections of projects that support a common objective and set of goals. While individual projects have
clearly defined and specific scope and timeline, a program's objectives and duration are defined with a
lower level of granularity.

Besides programs and portfolios, additional structures that combine their different characteristics are:
project networks, mega-projects, or mega-programs.

A project network is a temporary project formed of several different distinct evolving phases, crossing
organizational lines. Mega-projects and mega-programs are defined as exceptional in terms of size, cost,
public and political attention, and competencies required.[61]

Project portfolio management

An increasing number of organizations are using what is referred to as project portfolio management
(PPM) as a means of selecting the right projects and then using project management techniques[81] as the
means for delivering the outcomes in the form of benefits to the performing public, private or not-for-
profit organization.

Portfolios are collections of similar projects. Portfolio management supports efficiencies of scale,
increasing success rates, and reducing project risks, by applying similar standardized techniques to all
projects in the portfolio, by a group of project management professionals sharing common tools and
knowledge. Organizations often create project management offices as an organizational structure to
support project portfolio management in a structured way.[61] Thus, PPM is usually performed by a
dedicated team of managers organized within an enterprise project management office (PMO), usually
based within the organization, and headed by a PMO director or chief project officer. In cases where
strategic initiatives of an organization form the bulk of the PPM, the head of the PPM is sometimes titled
as the chief initiative officer.

Project management software

Project management software is software used to help plan, organize, and manage resource pools,
develop resource estimates and implement plans. Depending on the sophistication of the software,
functionality may include estimation and planning, scheduling, cost control and budget management,
resource allocation, collaboration software, communication, decision-making, workflow, risk, quality,
documentation, and/or administration systems.[82][83]

Virtual project management

Virtual program management (VPM) is management of a project done by a virtual team, though it rarely
may refer to a project implementing a virtual environment[84] It is noted that managing a virtual project is
fundamentally different from managing traditional projects,[85] combining concerns of remote work and
global collaboration (culture, time zones, language).[86]

See also

Related fields
Agile construction
Architectural engineering
Construction management
Cost engineering
Facilitation (business)
Industrial engineering
Project Production Management
Project management software
Project portfolio management
Project management office
Project workforce management
Software project management
Systems engineering

Related subjects
Agile management is the application of the principles of Agile software development and
Lean Management to various management processes, particularly product development.
Decision-making
Game theory
Earned value management
Human factors
Kanban (development)
Kickoff meeting is the first meeting with the project team and with or without the client of the
project.
Operations research
Outline of project management
Postmortem documentation is a process used to identify the causes of a project failure, and
how to prevent them in the future.
 Process architecture
Program management
Project accounting
Project governance
Project management office
Project management simulation
Return on time invested
Small-scale project management
Software development process
Social project management
Systems development life cycle (SDLC)

Lists
Comparison of project management software
Glossary of project management
List of collaborative software
List of project management topics
Timeline of project management

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External links
Guidelines for Managing Projects (http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/200906090032
28/http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file40647.pdf) from the UK Department for Business,
Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR)
Media related to Project management at Wikimedia Commons

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