CHAPTER : TWELVE

THE OTTOMAN/ TURKISH EMPIRE/THE EASTERN QUESTION 1815 -

1914

BACKGROUND OTTOMAN EMPIRE /TURKISH EMPIRE

Ottoman Empire was Turkish Empire founded by Othman Osman I who was a Turkish War lord /
leader in the 14th century and that is why the Empire came to be known as the Ottoman Empire.
The Turks were a Mohammedan people who entered the Balkans thus Eastern Europe from Asia
minor in the 14th Century and captured the Great city of Constant nope present day Istanbul on the
shores of Black sea .Hence they were the rulers of this Empire whose leaders used the title of the
Sultan and was known as the Turkish Empire because was founded the Ottomans whom were
Turkish Muslims from Asian Continent and crossed into Europe in 1354.

It was upon this conquest of the Balkans by the Turkish Muslims that Ottoman Beylik was
transformed into a transcontinental Empire because it covered parts of three continents thus
Europe, Asia and Africa hence it was multi-racial in nature. It should be borne in mind that during
the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of its power under the Reign of Suleiman the
Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multiNational, multilingual Empire controlling much of
Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. For example, it
included Rumania, former Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Moldavia, and Albania, part of
Hungary, Cyprus, the Crimean Coast and Greece that were on the European continent. On the Asian
continent, the Empire covered Saudi Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Turkey and present day Iraq
whereas on the African continent, the Ottoman Empire covered Egypt, Algeria and Tunisia.

The Ottoman Empire reached its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century,
stretching from the Persian Gulf in the East to Hungary in the northwest and from Egypt in the
south to the Caucasus in the North. Napoleonic Wars in European Continent did not upset this
Empire because at the beginning of the 17th century, the Empire contained 32 provinces and
numerous vassal states. Some were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were
granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries with Constantinople as its capital
and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the center of
interactions between the Eastern and Western Worlds for six centuries.
However, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Turkey’s political and military might in Europe
was steadily declining as the Christian people in the Balkans such the Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians
Montenegro’s were mistreated their colonial maters the Turkish Muslims .This attracted the
attention of powerful European states especially Russia whose Emperor, Tsar Nicholas 1 described
Turkey as “Sick man of Europe”. For instance, by the 19th century, the Empire faced challenges
in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation; it ceased to enter conflicts on its own
and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain, and
Russia.

THE EASTERN QUESTION AND BALKAN CRISIS

The expression ‘‘Eastern question’’ does not apply to any one particular problem, but instead
includes a variety of issues raised during the 18 th, 19th, and 20th centuries in the Ottoman /Turkish
Empire. This diplomatic problem was posed by the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, centering
on the contest for control of former Ottoman territories for strategic competition and political
considerations of the European Great Powers in light of the political consideration. It was Therefore,
the internal problems of the Turkish Empire which led the European powers to question among
themselves on the survival of the Empire that, ‘‘should the Turks be expelled from Europe or
be left to stay?, and if they were expelled who was going to take over from them and
when, where and to what extent?’’. Lord Morley described the question as, ‘‘that intractable
and interwoven tangle of conflicting interests ,rival peoples and antagonistic faiths’’.
Therefore, collapse of the Empire seemed imminent, the European powers engaged in a power
struggle to safeguard their military, strategic and commercial interests in the Empire’s domains.
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However, there was no immediate solution by the major European powers since they had
conflicting interests in the Balkan region which came to be known as the Balkan crisis that was
brought to an end in the early 20th century when Turkish Empire allied with Germany and joined
World War I with the imperial ambition of recovering its lost territories but War destroyed her
remains and the Empire was no more by the end of World War I.

Balkan crisis was the armed conflicts in the Turkish Empire that consequently led the Turks to
suffer severe military defeats due to the desire of her subjects to secure territorial integrity through
Nationalist movements against the Turkish overlord ship which directly or indirectly attracted
attention of major European powers with conflicting interests in the Balkan region over Turkey’s
aggressive policies against her subjects.

There were a series of armed conflicts in the Balkan region which caused instability in the European
territories ruled by the Ottoman Empire. They are normally dated to 1774, when the Russo-Turkish
War of 1768-1774 which ended in defeat for the Ottomans and European powers engaged in a
power struggle to safeguard their military, strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman
domains. For example, during the Serbian Revolution 1804 – 15, Greek War of independence, 1821-
1832,Syrian Question, 1831-1841,Straits Convention of 1841,Crimean War, 1854-1856,Paris Treaty,
1856,Berlin Congress, 1878,Austria’s annexation of Bosnia – Herzegovina 1908,Balkan Wars 1912 –
13 and Sarajevo double murder 1914 which led to the occupation and partition of some parts of
Turkey following the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in World War I hence the founding of the Republic of
Turkey in the heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy and caliphate in the Continent
of Europe.

THE EVENTS THAT CAUSED OF INSTABILITY IN OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1815-1914

The Balkans were parts of the Ottoman Empire which was a multi-racial and multi-National
Empire controlling much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and
the Horn of Africa. For example, it included Rumania, former Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Moldavia, and Albania, part of Hungary, Cyprus, the Crimean Coast and Greece that
were on the European continent. On the Asian continent, the Empire covered Saudi Arabia,
Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Turkey and present day Iraq whereas on the African continent, the
Ottoman Empire covered Egypt, Algeria and Tunisia. It was characterised by armed conflicts in
the period between 1815 and1914.These states were found in the Balkan peninsular which
belonged to the Ottoman Empire. The armed conflicts in the Turkish Empire that consequently
led the Turks to suffer severe military defeats due to the desire of her subjects to secure
territorial integrity through Nationalist movements against the Turkish overlord ship which
directly or indirectly attracted attention of major European powers with conflicting interests in
the Balkan region over Turkey’s aggressive policies against her subjects. The armed conflicts
included the 1804-133 Serbian revolution, 1820-29 Greek War of defence, 1834-41Syrian
question, 1854-56 Crimean War,1875-1878 Bulgarian Crisis, 1896 Armenians massacres, 1908
Bosnian crisis, 1912-1913Balkan Crisis and 1914 Sarajevo murder in which European powers
since they had conflicting interests in the Balkan region as stipulated in the following analysis:

1. The Serbian revolution of 18o4-1833.The Serbian revolution was led by Karadorde

Petrovic in the first pharse between 1804 and 1833 during which Serbia managed to
emancipate herself from the Turkish Empire and existed as a SoveReign European nation.
Therefore, the revolution marked the foundation of modern Serbia. In the second phase the
Serbian revolution was between 1804-1813 led by Milos Obrenvoic who demanded for National
unity of the Sebian nation by calling upon provision f freedom of religion, Serbian history,
formal written rules of lawand Serbs to stop paying the jizya tax because they hadnot been
grantueed by the Turkish Empire government.Itwas upon this background that Serbia was
guaranteed partial parliament,established her own Constitution and officially recorganised as
independent State , acknowleged as hereditary monarchy and given complete independence in
1856 Paris peace Treaty that concluded the Crimean War.

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2. The Greek war of independence of 1821-1832. The Greeks were noble race of
people that enjoyed a rich history and Great past ever since the establishment of the Turkish
Empire.However, the Greeks had been made ubjects of the the Turkish Empire but with some
limited concessions like free from military service and monopoly of trade and commerce.The
Greks on the other hand were over exploited oppressed by bthe Turkish mal administration
forcing them to pay kharaj tax for sole reason of remaining alive in the Empire,land, tax,
commerce taxwhose collection was done with a lot of brutality by the Turkish governors.This
led the Greeks to rember the contributions of their Great ancestors through literature of
revolutionary ideas spread by philoshers like Socrates,Aristotle,Plato to the development of
European culture.This fermented hatred against foreign domination which made them demand
for independence after the formation of secret friendly society known as ‘‘Philike Hetaire’’
spearheaded propaganda against Turkish oppression exploitation and autocratic administration
.The Greeks Therefore, rebelled against the Turkish in the Navarina battle in which 50,000
Mohammedians were killed Morea hence they gained their independence under a youthful
prince Otto of Bavaria in 1832 .This was declared by new British foreign secretary who
arranged with Great European powers like France and Russia to extend the Greek boundaries
further North.
3. The Syrian question of 1834-1841. This was the second event in the Eastern
question was the Syrian question. This was the struggle between the Sultan of Turkey Mahmud
11 and Egyptian leaders Mehmet Ali in order to suppress the Greek Revolution.It ought to be
recalled that Egypt was a tributary state of Turkish Empire under Mehameti Ali threatened to
secede by 1805 because had established himself as a powerful ruler and a man of modern
ideas which enabled him to organise Egyptian army . In 1826, Sultan Mahmoud of Turkey was
unable to quell the Greece war of independence which compelled him to seek for military aid
from Egypt to envade Syria but promised to give him Syria Syria Damascus and Morea as a
reward for his services. The sultans failed to fulfill his promise and consequently Mehmet Ali
invaded Syria in 1831. He sent his son Ibrahim Pasha with an Egyptian army to invade Syria
and Pasha even managed to move up to Constantinople within a year and the Sultan was then
forced to abandon Syria, Damascus and Palestine.Mahameti Ali was rewarded the Mediterrean
Island of Crete instead of Syria, Syria Damascus and Morea which the Sultan failed to surrener
to Muhameti Ali. In 1832, Mahemeti ali realised that Syeria was small and militaty weakness of
of the Sultan, This forced him to send Egyptian army to to invade Syeria and Turkish forces
were completely wiped out and with a year Ibrahim pasha was threatening Constantinople. The
Sultan had no apportion but to appeal to Russia for Assistance against Mehmet Ali. Since the
treaty of Adrianople of 1829, sir Nicolas 1 had come to the conclusion that Russian interest
would better be served by Maintaining a weak Turkish Empire. Russia offered to help the Sultan
against Ibrahim Pasha but under hard conclusions.This resulted into Russia and Turkey signing
the famous Treaty of Ukiarskelessi of April 1833. This document contains officially only a treaty
of alliance between Turkey and Russia upon which Russia was given chance to influence
European affairs in the Balkans and Turkish Empire because Turkey promised mutual
assistance to each other when peace and security would be endangered in Balkans.
4. The Straits Convention of 1841. This was an agreement signed by major European
powers Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia and France on the Sea outlets of Bosporus and
Dardanelles during the 1841 London Conference summoned by Palmerstone the British
foreign secretary. The convention was basically meant to revise the terms of treaty of
Ukiarskelessi of April 1833by closing the two straits Bosporus and Dardanelles which gave
Russia accessibility of the Dardanelles and Bosporus at the expense of other European powers
had ultimately threatened the British economic and naval interest in the Balkan region. This
was because the Ukiarskelessi Treaty of April 1833had a Straits clause that “Turkey would
close the straits of Dardanelles and Bosporus to Warships of all nations in times of
war apart from Russia” that means whenever a war would occur in the Balkans. The
Convention attempted to resolve conflicts between Britain and Turkey in the Eastern question.
Britain had supported Turkey in her policy to remain intact especially at a time when Russia’s
ambition into the Balkans threatened the integrity of the Turkish Empire as well as Britain
interest in the Mediterranean Sea. The Convention was Therefore, was signed between
Palmerstone of Britain and the sultan of Turkey, who by calling the London Conference had
helped the sultan to regain his lost territory of Syria, Crete, Morea and Palestine from Mehmet
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 Ali. Britain triumphed over both Russia and Turkey since she was to gain control of the Straitsas
the Straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles on the Black sea were closed to all warships of all
nations including those of Russia in times of peace.
5. Russia’s intervention Moldavia and Wallachia for protection of Christian
subjects in the Turkishe Empire. It should be recalled that Russia signed a Treaty with
Turkey in 1774 which concluded the six years Kujuk kainardji War.This Treaty offered a vargue
right of uninterfered rights in the affairs of the Turkish Empire but it was contested by othe
European powers Russia’s 1774 Treaty of Kujuk kainardji with Turkey during the Reign of the
Tsar Catherline II conflicted with France which resulted into the Crimean War 1854-1856.The
Treaty enabled Russia to have permanent diplomatic base in Constantnople and given
responsibility of protecting the Greek Christians in the Empire and also to interfere in the
internal affairs of the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia so as to secure some freedom for
the Greeks Orthodox Christianswhich was Russia favourable opportunity for expansion in the
Balkans.This consequently attracted attention of other powers especially Britain and France
which led to the Crimean War which the Allied powers Britain, France, Turkey seemed
victorious over Russia.The War concluded in 1856 by signing of the peace Paris Treaty in which
the Sultan promised fair treatment of the Balkan Christians on provision of equal treatment his
Mohammedans and complete independence was given to Moldavia and Wallachia though they
were to accept Turkish overlordship hence contributed to the scrumbing and eventual collapse
of the Ottoman Empire.
6. The Crimean war of 1854-1856.This was broke out on the Crimea in Balkan
Pennisular peninsula in the Black Sea fought between Russia on one side against Turkey,
Britain and France and later on joined by Piedmont present day Italy. It was by far the most
acute phase of the Eastern question following the Russian occupation of the Turkish provinces
of Moldavia and Wallachia in July and destruction of Turkish fleet at Sinope, November 1853,
France and Britain declared war on Russia. It was Therefore, a European war that broke to
spell peace that had been ushered in by the Vienna settlement in Europe. It was one of the
most useless and wasteful war ever fought on the European continent . This led allied powers
Britain and France to emerge victorious against Russia which accepted defeat by conceding
the terms of Paris peace of 1856.The treaty neutralized the Black sea Warships as no
European power was allowed on it be Russia or Turkey because Russia was stopped from
establishing her Navy bases in the Black Sea and abandon her claims to protect the orthodox
Christians in the Turkish Empire whereas Danube Rivers were interNationalized hence was set
free to the Merchant vessels of all Nations.
7. The Bulgarian crisis of 1875-1878 The Turkish oppressive and explotative system of
their Christian subjects in ine Bulka Penninsular resulted in the Bulgarian Nationalsm.The
Turkish Sultan Muhammod had died and replaced by Sultan Abdul Aziz who continued to
mistreat to mistreat his subjects by denying them religious freedom, forcing of oppressive
feudal system, double taxation by Turkish officials and native land owners tax with a lot of
brutality. This attracted the attention of the rival European powers Austria and Russia
encouraged the states in Balkan peninsular-Bosina, Herzogovania, Macedonia and Bulgaria as
usual to revolt aganst the Turkish overlordship. In 1877 1876, the War had resulted into murder
of 12,000 Chritians and 30,000 others and creation of Big Bulgaria by Russia during the Treaty
of San Stefano, March 1878.The Big Bulgaria was was stretching from the Black Sea to the
mountains of Albania,to the West, and River Danube to the Aegean Sea.This was opposed by
Britain and Austria led the new European statesman Bismarck to call for Berlin Conference of
1878 in which Austria was given a ight to occupy Bosinia and Herzogovania while Britan Cyprus
as styled friends who had become robbers while Russia fortified Batum.
8. The Bulgarian crisis of 1885. This was the second Bulgarian crisis was a violation
of the Berlin Treaty of 1878 which set Europe again in trouble over Bulgaria as Eastern
Rumelia, the South-eastern strip of Bulgaria. It should be recalled that had been taken away in
1878 Berlin Treaty that concluded the Berlin Congress and declared an autonomous province of
Turkish Empire demanded for a reunion with Bulgaria under prince Alexander which was an
indication that the Berlin Congress did not bring total peace in Europe and Turkish Empire in
particular.It was against this background that Serbia declared a war against Bulgaria because it
proved a threate in antagonizing the European Balance of power. However, the war attracted
attention of major powers like Germany, Britain and Austria which acknowleged the
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 BulgarianUnion with a view that it was more viable for prevailing peace and checKing on
further Russian influence in the Balkan region.The Bulgarians Therefore, refused to accept
foreign influences asthey were now more willing to be independent under the slogan,
‘‘Bulgaria for Bulgarians’’ than accepting Russian protectionism than sustaining a
perennially decaying Turkish Empire. This crisis eventually led Bulgarians not to renew ties with
Germany and Austria because they were regarded as false friends which becme a platform for
formation of two antagonistic rivalries thus Austro-Russian and Austro-Serbian and this drifted
them into World War 1 where Russia was joined Serbia, Britain and France and declared War
on Austria, Germany, and Bulgaria and Turkey in 1914.
9. The amassacres of 1896. In 1896 that Turkey again experienced insecurity and
instability was serious question in the Bulkan Christians as why the Turkish Sultans couldnot
fulfill their promises of fair treatment of their Christian subjects between 1740-1878 Berlin
treaty according to terms of several treaties they had singed with the Great European
powers.For example 1740 arnold treaty wihich guaranteed France guardian shoip to protect
Christians in Holy places of palestinenotably in the Church of of Nativity of Bethlehem andHoly
Church of the Sepullchere at Jerusalem connected with the Holy life of Christ which were
traditional centres of pilgrimage for Christians, the 1829 Adriapole treaty to protect the Greeks,
1833 Unkiar Skelessi treaty with Russia,1856 Paris treaty for protection of Christians in
Wallachia and Moldavia.When Sultan Muhamod II died was replaced Sultan Abdul Aziz who
made his usual promise s of good behiour to his Christian subjects to treat the Christian
subjects who were fairly treated for a period of almost 14 years until 1896.. Therefore, from
1896-1898,armenian Question as the Christian subjects resisted against the oppressive and
exploitaive administration of the Turkish rule under Sultan Abdul Hamid resolved to teach his
Christian subjects a lesson because he was interested in seeing Armenia turning into another
Bulgaria.He resumed massacres against Christians of Armenia which resulted into over 50,000
people who lost their lives. This question remained unsolved as it did not directly draw
attention of Great powers though England protested but lacked concerted effort, Russia was
still nursing the frustrations over Bulgariaand feared to suffer similar fate whereas Germany
was no longer a supreme power in settling interNational desputes because otto Von Bismarck
the European statesman had resigned for politics as early as 1890.
10. The Balkan crisis of 1908. It ought to be recalled that Austria as a Great European power
was given a right to occupy not to annex Bosina and Herzogovania while Cyprus to Britain
according to the terms of the Berlin Treaty of 1878 yet Serbia,Montenegro and Romania were
declared inpendent. This never pleased Turkey because of inadequate protection Bismarck the
peace maker of Europe due to declaration of many of her dominions independent. However, in
October 1908, Austria-Hungary violated the Berlin Treaty of 1878. This led Serbia to bitterly
oppose the annexation and seek for Russian assistance but Russia failed to comply because of
Russio-Japanese war of 1905 which had divastated her. Though Germany threaned to support
Austria during the war , Serbia renounced her opposition to the annexation of Bosinia and
Hergovonia which created tension, mistrust,and flair of militant Nationalism in Bosinia that led
to Sarajevo murder of 1914 which was immediate cause of World War 1.
11. The Balkan crisis of 1912.This was the first Balkan War 1912-13 of aggression by the young
nations of Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria which had formed the Balkan League on
one side andagainst the interNationally isolated Ottoman Empire. This was a climax of the
Balkan crisis or problems surrounding the existence/ survival of the Turkish Empire in Europe
which aimed aimed at driving Turkey out of her dominions in Europe. The serb army first
entered the ottoman territory inhatited by ethnic Albanians in October 12 as part of compaign
in the then going Balkan war which led the Serbian army to capture Durres on
November,29th ,1912 without any resistance from Turkey.This signified that was defeated
which increased Serbia’s influence in the Balkans and her rivalry with Austria – Hungary and
Albania gained her independence as the Kingdom of Sebia established the Country, appointed
the governor of the Country, its district offices, Mayor of the city and commander of the
military garrison.Serbia later withdrew the armyafter signing of London treaty of May 13 th ,1913
allowing Albania State to exist peacefully.Therefore, the war succeeded in driving out ottoman
Empire from European provinces of Albania, Macedonia,Sandak and Thracewhich the Balkan
states gained West of from the Enos-Midia line on the Black sea coast to Enos on the Aegean
Sea Coast.
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12. The Balkan crisis of 1913. In the Second Balkan War, the allies in the Balkan Legue fought
among themselves for the Ottoman spoils to share Machedonia and the remains of the
Ottoman Empire. The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 initiated a period of conflict that ravaged
southeastern Europe until 1918 and endured there in one form or another into the 21st
century. These Balkan wars originated in the aspirations of the Nationalist states of
southeastern Europe; having previously achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire
during the 19th century.The Nationalist states who were members of the Balkan League wished
to incorporate members of their Nationalities remaining under Ottoman rule and thus achieves
their maximum Nationalist claims. In this way, the states of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and
Serbia sought to emulate the 19th century Nationalist successes of Germany and Italy. It was
against this background that Bulgaria attacked its former allies of yong nations of Serbia and
on June, 16, 1913. The Greeks and Sebian armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter
attacked entering Bulgaria.This war also provoked Romanian intervention against Bulgaria for
Bulgaria having previously engaged in disputes with Romania due to Bulgaria’s refusal to
cedethe fortress of Silistra to Romania.The wars heightened Nationalism, intensified Austro –
Russian and Austro – Serbian rivalries which sparked off World War 1 in 1914.
13. The Sarajevo murder of 1914 This was climax of the Balkan crisis that sealed existence of
the Turkish rule in Europe.It was the immediate cause of World war I as a result of double
murder of an Austrian Prince Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie who were on a
State visit at Sarajevo the capital of Bosnia.The murder was by a young Bosnian student of
Serbian origin, Gabriel Princip on June 28 th,1914 who belonged to a Black hand movement , a
Terrorist group sponsored by However, Serbia having failed to comply with Austrian ultimatum
and Austria declared war on Serbia.This eventually attracted the attention of European powers
like Germany and Italy to spport Austriaon one side whereas Britain,France and Russia allied
with Serbia on the other side until 1918. Therefore, between 1916-1918, British,
Austrilian,NewZealand,and Indian troops drove the Turks back through Palestine towards
Turkey itself and the British foces defeated Turks at Meggido in September 1918 as the allies
continued to advance, the Turks surrendered on November, 3 rd,1918 which became the climax
of the Balkan crisis.

THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1821-1832

Greece was one of the states under the Turkish administration on the Balkan Peninsula. The
Greeks belonged to the SLAV race and the Orthodox Christian Church and Therefore, had a link
with Russia in terms of race and religion. They were dominant in trade and had some
privileges in the Empire. Inspite of that, they revolted in 1821 against the Turkish rule under
their leader Alexander Hypsilanti. Therefore, Geek war of independence was the first major
aspect or event of the Eastern question was the struggle by the Greeks for their independence
from the Ottoman Empire which began 1821-1833 following the arrangements of the map of
Europe by the Vienna settlement of 1815 .The Greeks were a noble race of the people that
enjoyed a rich history and Great past. They were conquered and made subjects of the Ottoman
Empire For example, complete control of education, and religion and were exempted from
military service and had monopoly over trade and commerce. At this time the Greeks, the
Turkish authority covered many subjects like the Serbs, Slavs, and Greeks Syrians Romanians
among others. Despite of the above concessions or privileges enjoyed by the Greeks, the
Turkish rule was corrupt, inefficient, and punctuated by a period of savage repression and
ruthlessness whenever there attempted to revolt .However during the19th century a spirit of
Nationalism increased to regain their independence and in 1821, one of the minority Christian
communities of the Greeks rebelled against the Turkish overload ship due to the following
reasons.

CAUSES OF THE GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1821-1832

1. Rise of Greek Nationalism. The Greeks were descendants of a noble race of people
with Great past. They hated inferior position in which the Turkish placed them. They
remembered the contributions of their Greater ancestors and philosophers to the development
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 of European civilization For example, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle. Though they had been
accorded respect in fields of education, commerce and religion, their desire to cease being
subjects of Turks whom they had hated still remained high. Consequently the growth of spirit of
Nationalism among the Greeks created the desire for independence and self-rule.
2. Turkish mal-administration. With the advent of the 19 th century, the Turkish
administrative structure was in sheer need for reform as was characterised by
corruption and cruelty, inefficiency. Severe repression of the minority among other. The
governors in the provinces ruled at will, they were given responsibility of collecting taxes from
Greek subjects and forwarding them to the Sultan of Turkey. The methods used tax collection
by the Greeks was very brutal. Besides they continued to receive no substantial benefit from
government in terms of justice and security as they subjected to arbitrary arrest, imprisonment
and often persecution for their Christian Orthodoxies. This was bad enough to provoke the
Greeks revolt for their independence.
3. Military weakness of the Turkish government. The Greeks rebelled in 1821 having
realised the continuous rebelling Turkish authority which was inefficient, corrupt, brutal and
cruel so the Greeks knew that time was ripe enough to disintegrate the Empire and declare
their independence. The Turkish army and navy were too weak to defend the Sultan. This
encouraged the oppressed Nationalities like the Greeks to rebel against the Sultan
4. The religious differences. The Greeks were Orthodox Christians while the Turks were
Muslims but the Greeks hated to be dominated by Muslims. They had been denied total
freedom to practice their religion. For example, Christian children were taken away from their
parents and brought up as Muslims. The Greek Christians were bitterly discriminated and
branded infidels or non-believers by their Muslim overloads. Though they give some degree of
religious freedom such as recognition of Greek Orthodox Church and their headquarters at
Constantinople which was made answerable to the good behaviour of the Christians in the
Turkish Empire. The Greeks revolted to revive their Ancient glory and religious freedom.
5. Influence of the French Revolution of 1789.The French Revolution was one of the most
important events recorded in human history contributed to the growth of Nationalism in the
whole of Europe Greece inclusive. The liberalities liberal ideas of the French Revolution thus
liberty, equality and fraternity as well as opposition to oppression were a source of inspiration.
Napoleon the Great continued to spread these ideas to the rest of European countries
especially those under foreign domination which later transformed Greek Nationalism.
6. Napoleon Bonaparte I’s influence on Europe. He contributed to the outbreak of Greek war
of independence having spread Revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity and this
partly influenced the growth of Greek Nationalism. This became the cornerstone in inspiring
Greek patriots to declare war of independence in 1821.
7. Weakness of the Vienna settlement of 1815.The mistakes and failures of the Vienna
settlement to solve the problems instead reaffirmed the Sultan authority over a cross section of
the new Nationalities was also understanding factor in causing the Greek war of independence.
8. Weakness of the Congress system. The Greek Nationalists were encouraged by the
growing weakness of the Congress system. After 1820, division and suspicion among the major
powers in the Congress system had increased. Therefore, the Congress system which had
remained operational since Alx-La-Chapelle 1818 proved to prove a failure in 1821.Actually the
Greek war of independence became one of the issues difficult to deal with at the Congress of
Verona in 1822 leading to disagreements among Great powers such as Britain, Russia and
France who chose to support the Greeks while Austria and Prussia opposed the cause and
desire to remain intact. As a result the Greeks received some sympathy from the very major
European powers like Britain, Russia and France that had voted to suppress revolts. This
eventually led to the Greek war of independence.
9. The sickness of Turkey in the 19th century contributed e the Greek way of
independence. By the end of the 19century, the once strongest Ottoman Empire under the
control of turkey had begun weakening with the declining social, political and economic
strength of Turkey. This gave opportunity formal vassal states to struggle for independence
and it was the same opportunity the Greeks used, hence staging the Greek way of
independence.
10. The role of Greek Middle class. The growing prosperity of Greek merchants constituted of
the elites and Merchants who monpolised trade and commerce and became wealthy but such
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 concessions did not alter the fact that they were enslaved race; subjected to arbitrary of local
governors. They played a Great role in unification struggle. They spread a message of
independence and created a sense of revolt among the Greeks. They also moblised their
resources and joined the Greek patriots of a secret society of Friends known as “Hetairia
Philike” under Hypsilanti who moblised ,organised and led the Revolution to except the Turks
from scared Greece soil hence Greek war of independence
11. The role and activities of the Society of Friends called Hetairia Philika. In March 821,
the Greeks under the leadership of General Alexander Hypsilanti who became the president of
friendship society known as Philike Hetairia which was made of a small force entered Moldavia
from Russia and declared two provinces independent .He claimed to have support from the
Great powers like Russia and Britain which was a liberal state in Europe.
12. The rise to power of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia. He had the ambition of breaKing the
Turkish Empire so she eagerly supported the Greeks .He assured the Greeks as a protector of
the Orthodox Christians and Russia being a Slavic state was eager to support fellow Slavs in
Greece and if anything nursed the intentions of dissolving the Turkish Empire.
13. The rise of liberalism among the Greeks led to the Greek war of independence . For
long the Greeks controlled their own trade and participated in interNational trade with other
European countries like France, Belgium, and Britain. This made the Greeks come not close
contact with the contagious liberal ideas of Western Europe .since they did not have political
freedom to freely participate in the running of the Country and this annoyed them hence
leading to Greek war of independence.
14. The rise of Greek patriots/Nationalism. Notable was Alexander Hypsilanti and
Capodistrious. Hypsilanti had been a General in Russian army. They formed a secret society
known as Philike Hetairia which was a society of friends. In short, this society was suppressed
by Turkey due to the misconduct of its Revolutionaries carried out brutal massacres against
Muslims which made the society to capture liberal support from many Greeks in the end Tsar
Alexander abandoned Philike Hetairia and later fled into exile in Austria where he was later
imprisoned. Thus the Greek patriots played a role in moblising the Greeks to fight for their
independence.
15. The influence of Poetry caused the Greek war of independence. For example, the Poets
like Rhigupse wrote many poems highlighting the Greek Nationalism, freedom and Turkish
corruption. The writings of the Rhigupse were read by many Greeks elites like teachers,
lawyers, doctors and professors who moblised, organised, led and commanded the mob to start
a Revolution against the Turkish administration in order to end their discrimination and enjoy
their freedom.
16. The influence of Education contributed to the Greek war of independence. The Greeks
had acquired education from their own schools and from European countries, this made them
conscious of they lives which were suffocated by the Turkish administrators. This made them
rise up against unfair Turkish administration hence the Greek way of independence.
17. The influence of American war of independence of 1776-1783.This was another source
of inspiration of the Greek war of independence because they fought and defeated the British
colonial masters to gain their independence through their doctrine that; “Jesus died to make
us holy, we Americans must die to make men free.” It was on this account that Greeks
were determined with zeal to gain their independence in 1821.
18. The emergency of Common Greek language in the early 19 th Century. The Greeks of
various kinds previously separated by different dialects were in the 19 th century exposed to a
new common and written language that was between the Ancient Greeks and pleasantly
speech. The birth of new literacy language between the peasant speech and classical Greeks
created National consciousness. This increased the spirit of Nationalism and the desire for
independence.
19. The desire to revive the past glory of the Greeks. The educated class of the Greeks
recalled the glorious culture, customs, language and briefs of the past. They felt it was their
responsibility to revive the Greece Ancient Empire. This became a source of inspiration for the
Greek war of independence in 1821.
20. The British support/influence. The British public opinion was in favour of the Greeks
For example, Lord Byron the British poet openly supported the Greeks and even took up arms

8
 to fight for them. Britain and France not wishing Russia to intervene a lone came forward to
support the Greeks.
21. The arrogance and prejudice of Turkish officials towards the Greeks. Though the
Greeks were accorded some respect in field of education, trade and religion, they were highly
persecuted by Turks. Therefore, the feeling that the Turks looked down upon them as inferior
infidels forced them to rebel in order to cease being subjects of the Turks to gain total freedom
from them and manage their own affairs.
22. Suppression of human rights by the Sultan government was another cause of the
Greek war of independence. The Turkish government censored the Greek Newspapers and
denied them freedom of speech and expression. Thus reading from such parameters, the Greek
Nationalists realised that it was a critical condition in Turkish Empire were ripe for a rebellion
hence they decided to revolt in 1821
23. Russian influence/ Support of the Greek cause. Russia had the ambition of breaKing
the Turkish Empire so she eagerly supported the Greeks .Russia assured the Greeks as a
protector of the Orthodox Christians and Russia being a Slavic state was eager to support
fellow Slavs in Greece and if anything nursed the intentions of dissolving the Turkish Empire.
Therefore, Alexander Hypsilanti and his movement received both moral and military assistance
from Russia and in addition to that the Greek Nationalists also lived in exile in Russia. This
support of Russia inspired the Greeks to agitate for the independence and self-rule.
24. Political instabilities in the Ottoman Empire. This became a Great source of inspiration of
the Greeks .Mahomet Ali of Egypt had gained autonomy, the Serbian revolt of 1804 and later
1815 had succeeded, Ali Pasha the Sultan of Janina had gained independence in 1820.There
was also Morean crisis of 1820 which encouraged the Greeks to revolt for their independence.
25. Over taxation of Greeks by Turkish rulers. The Turks imposed a tax system which was
very oppressive to the Greeks. All the government revenue to sustain the Turkish governors
and Turkish government had to come from the conquered people like the Greeks. The Greeks
were required to pay capitation (Kharaj) for the sole reason of remaining alive in the Turkish
Empire. They also paid land tax, commerce tax and other general taxes which were high and
exploitative .The Greeks hated these taxes because they never benefited from them For
example, according them enough services like security. Besides that they were taxed by thugs
whose methods of tax collection were very brutal as they used to massacre them. It was on this
account that inspired the Greeks to demand for impendence hence the revolt of 1821.
26. Oppression of the Greek Peasants by Turkish rulers. Although the Turkish government
gave the Greeks some freedom they were oppressed. For instance, the Peasants were owners
of their land and in this respect they were far better than the Serf population of Austria and
Russia. However, the Greeks were still subjected to barbaric rule. The Turkish governors who
ruled did so at their own will. They were very corrupt and inefficient in their administration and
often carried out savage repression whenever they were signs of any revolt. This created
urgent desire for independence among the Greeks.
27. Influence of Serbian revolt of 1804-1817.The Serbians under the peasant leader Kara
George had rebelled and driven the Turks O from their Country although they were later
defeated in 1813.In 1815, they rose again under Milosch Obrenovito who gained a title of a
prince of Serbians from the Sultan. This led the Greek patriots like Hetairia Philike after reading
from such parameters release that the critical conditions in Turkish Empire were ripe for a
rebellion
28. Domination of the Turkish in all spheres of life. The Turks remained a conquering people
who stood a apart from the Greeks and never attempted to absorb them into their Turkish
civilization but rather segregated them as inferior and infidels. Such social and political
discrimination created urgent desire for independence among the Greeks who moblised,
organised, led and commanded the mob to start a Revolution against the Turkish
administration in order to end the Turkish domination in government affairs.
29. Corruption on the Turkish officials. The Greeks were inspired to revolt because they were
required to pay capitation for the sole reason of remaining alive in the Turkish Empire. They
also paid land tax, commerce tax and other general taxes .The Greeks hated these taxes
because they never benefited from them which inspired the Greeks to demand for
independence hence the revolt of 1821.

9
 THECOURSE OF GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

1. In March 821, the Greeks under the leadership of General Alexander Hypsilanti who
became he president of friendship society known as Philike Hetairia caused a revolt .
This started in the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia along River Danube and the border
between Russia and Turkey.
2. The most of the rich people in the two principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were
the Greeks and General Alexander Hypsilanti exploited this opportunity with a small force
entered Moldavia from Russia and declared two provinces independent since he claimed to
have support from the Great powers like Russia and Britain which was a liberal state in Europe
but General Alexander Hypsilanti was later defeated by the Turkish forces at Skalene and
forced to exile in Austria only to be imprisoned by Metternich for the rest of his seven years.
3. In April 1821, another revolt broke out in Morea in Balkan peninsular. Where the
Greek rebels were ruthless and killed whatever Turkish Muslim they could get according to the
instructions given by Hetairia Philike and within few weeks about 5,000 Muslims had been
butchered by the Morea Nationalists within the two weeks.
4. The Turks retaliated ruthlessly where the Sultan of Turkey also ordered Muslims to
kill all Christians they could come across and they massacred thousands of Greeks
on Aegean Island but the worst massacre occurred on Chios Island where over 27,000
Christians were killed including the patriarch of Orthodox Church who was hanged outside the
Cathedral on Easter day and later threw their bodies in River Bosporus.
5. The Turkish Muslim massacres especially the murder of Bishops alarmed people
throughout Europe arouse interNational sympathy For example, Lord Byron the British
poet openly supported the Greeks and even took up arms to fight for them though he was
stopped by Metternich.
6. Lord Byron ’s death in 1824 again attracted more support for the Greeks throughout
Europe For example, Russia was also annoyed and wanted to intervene military so as to assist
the Greeks but Metternich persuaded Alexander of Russia that he must not assist the Greeks
in the Revolution.
7. In 1826, Sultan of Turkey appealed to Mehmet Ali who was a leader of Egypt to
assist him suppresses the Greeks. The Sultan promised Mehmet Ali rewards of Syria, Crete
and Morea. Mehmet Ali sent the Egyptian troops under the command of his son Ibrahim Pasha
who captured Crete, entered Greece and ordered troops to wipe the Greeks from the face of
the earth.
8. Russia’s demand to intervene in the Greek war of independence by supporting the
Greeks militarily was now irresistible because it was strengthened by the death of Tsar
Alexander and rise of uncompromising Tsar Nicholas I who was determined to protect
Christians
9. By 1826, it should be recalled that Tsar Alexander of Russia had died and was
succeeded by Tsar Nicholas I who was very much willing to assist the Greeks against the
Turks but before he declared war Britain and France sent representatives to meet the Tsar at
St. Petersburg in order to solve the problem.
10. Lord Canning the British foreign secretary was determined not to allow Russia to
intervene alone. Thus the major European powers Britain, France and Russia concluded the
London treaty of1827. They agreed that Greece should be self-governing under Turkish over
Lordship as they continue paying tributes to Sultan of Turkey.
11. The Major three European powers Britain, Russia and France also agreed to enforce
a true peace agreement but Austria and Prussia as major powers also rejected his proposal
arrangement because of their conservatism and could not reserve the results but Britain,
Russia and France insisted on the decision. The divergent ideologies divided the major
European power in the Congress system and this confirmed to the collapse of the Congress
system.
12. The conservative nature of Austria and Prussia led Sultan of Turkey rejected the
above proposal arrangement of the London Conference of 1827 and went ahead in his
war against the Greeks. This showed Sultan’s indirect willingness to accept them in the war.
13. The British, Russians and French formed a fleet under the command of Admiral
Codington who joined the Greeks to force the Sultan accept the Greek independence
10
 and stop the Egyptians from massacring the Greeks. In the process the Turkish fleet was
destroyed and defeated their troops in the battle of Navaron in October 1827 which forced the
Sultan to accept the Greek independence.
14. In 1828, a provisional government in Greece was established accordingly under the
leadership of Count. Capodistrious eek who had been serving in Russia as a foreign
minister. nThe Sultan of Turkey declared a holy war because he was dissatisfied with
the new order of major European powers Britain and France having supported the Greeks
militarily in the struggle for their self-rule .As a result this attracted Russia which sent her army
against Turkey and gained military success when it captured Constantinople within a short time
and the Sultan of Turkey accepted defeat and was forced to sign the treaty of Adrianople of
1829.
15. The 1829 treaty of Adrianople led Turkey recorganise the Greek independence upon
the Greek payment of annual attribute and self-rule was also recorganised Moldavia and
Wallachia were to be independence, and Turkey gave Russia rights to control River Bosporus
and Dardanelles in Asia Minor whereas Serbia was given autonomy.
16. The 1829 treaty of Adrianople treaty dissatisfied other European powers since the
Greek war of independence Therefore, increased Russia’s prestige in the Balkans and this
scared other European powers especially Britain.
17. The major powers Britain and France also sensed that if the Greeks were meant to
pay annual tribute to the Sultan of Turkey a problem of overpayment of tribute would
occur that would give Russia an opportunity to exploit and intervene again in the Balkan affairs.
As a result all other major powers agreed to total independence of Greece so as to prevent
excuses of Russia’s intervention in the Balkan.
18. In 1830, London Conference was summoned upon which the Greeks were granted
total independence as the boundaries of Greece were drawn from Turkey
19. In 1832, Britain, France and Russia signed a treaty by which Greece became an
independent monarchy with a youthful Prince Otto Bavaria as their King who began his
Reign the following year. This marked the end of the Greek war of independence as the first
event of the Eastern question.
All in all, what can be noted is that, the Greeks attained their independence with the
assistance of European Great powers that were influenced by different motives For example,
Russia in the pretext of protecting the fellow Orthodox Christians came in to disintegrate the
Ottoman Empire so as to gain influence in the region and little wonder that after 1827 she
remained in the provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia and Britain which also had interests in the
region remained suspicious over Russia and came in to assist the Greeks on humanitarian
grounds, France joined Britain to support the Greeks on humanitarian grounds while Austria
never wanted Russian influence in the region and she feared the disintegration of the Ottoman
Empire because of the struggles like the Greek war of independence which would send an
example to her subject states to revolt.

REASONS FOR SUCCESS /TRIUMPH OF GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

1. The growing weakness of the Congress system. This was because the Greek war of
independence led the Great European powers divided For example, Austria and Prussia’s
conservatisms opposed the Greeks while Britain, Russia and France supported the Greeks and
this inevitably led to the success of the Greek war of independence.
2. The role of foreign assistance especially from Britain, Russia and France in the
battle of Navarino and signing of Adrianople treaty. The British, Russians and French
formed a fleet under the command of Admiral Codington who joined the Greeks to force the
Sultan accept the Greek independence and stop the Egyptians from massacring the Greeks and
this led to destruction of Turkish fleet and defeated of her troops in the battle of Navaron in
October 1827 which forced the Sultan to accept the Greek independence.
3. Declining military strength of Turkey. By the end of the 19century, the once strongest
Ottoman Empire under the control of Turkey had begun weakening with the declining social,
political and economic strength of Turkey. This gave opportunity formal vassal states to
11
 struggle for independence and it was the same opportunity the Greeks used and they
succeeded in attaining their independence from the Turks in 1833.
4. Weakness of Metternich system. Metternich’s system of vowing to burry liberalism and
Nationalism was challenged because he persuaded Tsar Alexander I not to support the Greeks
but when Tsar Nicholas I came to power was uncompromising and more willing to suppress the
Turkish which led to success of the Greeks to gain their independence
5. Death of Tsar Alexander1 in 1825 and rise of Nicholas who had an ambition of
breaKing the Turkish Empire so she eagerly supported the Greeks .He assured the
Greeks as a protector of the Orthodox Christians and Russia being a Slavic state was eager to
support fellow Slavs in Greece and if anything nursed the intentions of dissolving the Turkish
Empire Greatly contributed to the success of Greek war of independence..
6. Role of able leaders like Hetairia Philike, Capodistrious and Prince Alexander
Ypsilanti. For example, General Alexander Hypsilanti exploited this opportunity with a small
force entered Moldavia from Russia and declared two provinces independent since he claimed
to have support from the Great powers like Russia and Britain which was a liberal state in
Europe which resulted into success of Greek war of independence.
7. Bankruptcy of the Turkish Empire was of an advantage to the Greeks since there
was growing prosperity of their merchants constituted of the elites and Merchants who
monpolised trade and commerce and became wealthy but such concessions did not alter the
fact that they were enslaved race; subjected to arbitrary of local governors. They played a
Great role in unification struggle. As a result they also moblised their resources and joined the
Greek patriots of a secret society of Friends known as “Hetairia Philike” under Hypsilanti who
moblised ,organised and led the Revolution to except the Turks from scared Greece soil
success of Greek war of independence
8. The emergency of Common Greek language in the early 19 th Century was a unifying
factor for success of Greek war of independence. The birth of new literacy language
between the peasant speech and classical Greeks created National consciousness. This
increased the spirit of Nationalism and the desire for independence which was successful by
1833.
9. The massacres of the Greek rebels by Turks Muslims arouse public sympathy for a
Revolution. The Turkish Muslim massacres especially the murder of Bishops alarmed people
throughout Europe arouse interNational sympathy For example, Lord Byron the British poet
openly supported the Greeks and even took up arms to fight for them though he was stopped
by Metternich. Besides Lord Byron ’s death in 1824 again attracted more support for the
Greeks throughout Europe For example, Russia was also annoyed and wanted to intervene
military so as to assist the Greeks
10. The role of European diplomacy and Great men like Lord Canning, Palmerstone who
signed the treaties in favour of the Greeks. Thus the major European powers Britain,
France and Russia concluded the London treaty of1827. They agreed that Greece should be
self-governing under Turkish over Lordship as they continue paying tributes to Sultan of
Turkey.in 1829 treaty of Adrianople led Turkey recorganise the Greek independence upon the
Greek payment of annual attribute and self-rule and in 1832, Britain, France and Russia signed
a treaty by which Greece became an independent monarchy with a youthful Prince Otto
Bavaria as their King who began his Reign the following year.
11. The outbreak of rebellions in Janina led by Ali pasha and the need to maintain
desired forces on the border with Russia confined a big number of Ottoman Empire
troops who would have helped to suppress the Greeks war of independence.
12. The foreign support from the people of Europe contributed to the success of the
Greek war of independence. A case of reference was the financial moblisation and morale
support made by the people in Paris, London, Munich, Madrid and Genoa. They volunteered and
formed the masses to coordinate the Revolutionary activities of the struggle for Greek
Nationalism.
13. The growth of Nationalism and liberalism in Europe due to Political instabilities in
the Ottoman Empire. This became a Great source of inspiration of the Greeks .Mahomet Ali
of Egypt had gained autonomy, the Serbian revolt of 1804 and later 1815 had succeeded, Ali
Pasha the Sultan of Janina had gained independence in 1820.There was also Morean crisis of

12
 1820 which encouraged the Greeks to revolt for their independence which led to their victory in
1833.
14. The role of Philike Hetairia -Society of Friends began the revolt in the principalities
of Moldavia and Wallachia along River Danube and the border between Russia and
Turkey where the Greek rebels were ruthless and killed whatever Turkish Muslim they could
get according to the instructions given by Hetairia Philike and within few weeks about 5,000
Muslims had been butchered by the Morea Nationalists within the two weeks. This attracted the
volunteers from other counties to support the Greeks until they gained their independence
from the Turkish mal-administration.
15. Conflicts among Great European powers due to selfish interests. The conservative
nature of Austria and Prussia led Sultan of Turkey rejected the above proposal arrangement of
the London Conference of 1827 and went ahead in his war against the Greeks. This showed
Sultan’s indirect willingness to accept them in the war. Consequently upon this the British,
Russians and French formed a fleet under the command of Admiral Codington who joined the
Greeks to force the Sultan accept the Greek independence and stop the Egyptians from
massacring the Greeks. In the process the Turkish fleet was destroyed and defeated their
troops in the battle of Navarino in October 1827 which forced the Sultan to accept the Greek
independence hence success of Greek war of independence.
16. Role of religion as a unifying factor among the Greeks. The Greeks revolted to revive
their Ancient glory and religious freedom. They were Orthodox Christians while the Turks but
they were denied total freedom to practice their religion. For example, Christian children were
taken away from their parents and brought up as Muslims. The Greek Christians were bitterly
discriminated and branded infidels or non-believers by their Muslim overloads. Though they
give some degree of religious freedom such as recognition of Greek Orthodox Church and their
headquarters at Constantinople which was made answerable to the good behaviour of the
Christians in the Turkish Empire as a unifying factor among the Greeks which resulted into their
success when they gained their independence in 1833.
17. The nature of the Ottoman Empire being heterogeneous with many Nationalities .It
became hard for Sultan to contain opposition against his regime. The Empire was vast that
covered parts of Europe, North Africa and Asia with Nationalities of different cultural, religious,
historical and linguistic backgrounds. So it was not easy to be ruled by the Sultan based at
Constantinople and when the Greeks rebelled it became had for the sultan to acquire support
from different Nationalities to suppress the revolt hence success of the Greek war of
independence.
18. Disloyalty of the Turkish governors of the Sultan of Turkey. The governors in the
provinces ruled at will, they were given responsibility of collecting taxes from Greek subjects
and forwarding them to the Sultan of Turkey but with the advent of the 19 th century, the
Turkish administrative structure were in sheer need for reform as was characterised by
corruption and cruelty, inefficiency, severe repression of the minority among other. Therefore,
Greeks hated these taxes because they never benefited from them which inspired the Greeks
to demand for independence hence the revolt of 1821 which ended successfully with the
granting of the granting of independence in 1833.
20. Economic weakness of Turkey vis-à-vis the economic strength of the Greeks i.e. the
rich middleclass. From 1456 when the Empire was formed, Turkey was the Greatest
commercial nation that dominated trade across the Mediterranean and Black sea in the far and
near east of the European continent. However, in the nineteenth century, the Empire lost her
monopoly in trade as her foreign trade in the Far East and Mediterranean Sea steadily declined
which deprived her of the needed wealth to sustain the military and political organization
capable of sustaining an extensive area and this worsened European powers such as Britain,
Russia, and France became interested in the Balkan region and aggressively took over the
trade rights, which further worsened the economic difficulties and undermined the military
strength of the Empire leading to the decay of the Ottoman Empire hence success of the Greek
war of independence.
21. The battle of navarino October 1827 and the destruction of the Turks-Egyptian fleet
rendered the independence of Greece inevitable. it should be recalled that the british,
Russians and french formed a fleet under the command of admiral codington who joined the
Greeks to force the Sultan accept the Greek independence and stop the Egyptians from
13
 massacring the Greeks. In the process the Turkish fleet was destroyed and defeated their
troops in the battle of Navarino in October 1827 which forced the Sultan to accept the Greek
independence.
22. The death of Castlereagh in 1822 and rise of George Canning in Britain as anew
British foreign minister. George Canning the new foreign Minister was not committed to the
concert of Europe. George Canning persuaded an isolation policy in the Congress system as
this was reflected during the events in the Congress of Verona he held the view that “ Things
are going back to the wholesome state. Every nation for itself and God for us all.” This is why in
many incidences Castlereagh opposed most of the proposals made in most of the Congresses.
Such a policy there deprived Congress of an essential naval power and whose isolation
provided way for Revolutionary wave to take their own course hence the collapse of the
Congress system. This consequently contributed to the success of the Greek war of
independence.
23. The impact of the 1789 French Revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity
led to the success of the Greek war of independence. The liberalities liberal ideas of the
French Revolution thus liberty, equality and fraternity as well as opposition to oppression were
a source of inspiration. Napoleon the Great continued to spread these ideas to the rest of
European countries especially those under foreign domination which later transformed Greek
Nationalism. Therefore, The French Revolution was one of the most important events recorded
in human history contributed to the growth of Nationalism and success of the Greek war of
independence.
19. The outbreak of1830 Revolutions in Italy and Germany states which weakened
Metternich and his system. Russia’s demand to intervene in the Greek war of
independence by supporting the Greeks militarily was now irresistible because it was
strengthened by the death of Tsar Alexander and rise of uncompromising Tsar Nicholas I who
was determined to protect Christians. The divergent ideologies divided the major European
power in the Congress system and this confirmed to the collapse of the Congress system and in
1828, a provisional government in Greece was established accordingly under the leadership of
Count. Capodistrious a Greek who had been serving in Russia as a foreign minister and by1832,
Britain, France and Russia signed a treaty by which Greece became an independent monarchy
20. The Revolution was widely supported by all Greeks. This was because the struggle
for independence was influenced by the exiled Greeks in Britain, France, and Russia
with their liberal ideologies. This was especially the elites in the Middle class who included men
like Alexander Hypsilanti and strengthened Greek National consciousness as they had been
exposed to liberal ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity brought by the French Revolution
of1789 became the president of friendship society known as Philike Hetairia caused a revolt
which started in the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia and within the two weeks about
5,000 Muslims had been butchered by the Morea Nationalists. This strengthened spirit of
Nationalism among the Greeks who succeeded as they gained their independence by 1833.
24. The role played by local militia men like Kapi militia men employed by rich Greek
land loads against Turkey. A case of reference was in April 1821, when a revolt broke out in
Morea in Balkan peninsular and the Greek rebels were ruthless and killed whatever Turkish
Muslim they could get according to the instructions given by Hetairia Philike and within few
weeks about 5,000 Muslims had been butchered by the Morea Nationalists within the two
weeks which laid a ground for success of the Greek war of independence.
21. Unity and strength of the Greek Nationalism. The growth of spirit of Nationalism among
the Greeks created the desire for independence and self-rule because The Greeks were
descendants of a noble race of people with Great past. They hated inferior position in which
The Turkish placed them. They remembered the contributions of their Greater ancestors and
philosophers to the development of European civilization For example, Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle. Though they had been accorded respect in fields of education, commerce and
religion, their desire to cease being subjects of Turks whom they had hated still remained high
and this led to their success when they staged Revolution against Turkish Revolution.
25. Unpopularity and weakness of the Turkish regime especially that of Sultan Mahmud
II causing many uprisings like the Serbian revolt and Greek revolts. The ruthlessness of
the Turkish rulers, declining military power of the Sultan and encouragement from imperial
powers especially Russia. For example,, the Serbs revolted in 1804 and 1815, the Egyptians
14
 under Mohammed Ali threatened to secede by 1805, the Greeks revolted between 1821 and
1833. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Empire became embroiled in struggles of
Nationalism as many subordinate states demanded for independence which disorganised the
Empire and paved away for the success of the Greek war of independence.

THE EFFECTS OF GREEK WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

1. Greece obtained her independence. This independence came in 1827 with the signing of
London treaty by which it was agreed by Britain, France and Russia that Greece should be self-
governing though under Turkish over lordship. This was again reaffirmed in 1829 Adrianople
treaty by which Turkey recorganised Greece independence but tributes was to be paid to them
by Greeks. In 1832, Britain, France and Russia signed another treaty recognized Greece as
independent. Their King was Prince Otto of Bavaria.
2. It inspired others revolts in Europe for example, 1830 revolts. For example, in Italy,
Germany, Belgium. It thus inspired the spirit of rebellion in those states.
3. It weakened the position of the Ottoman Empire and hence its collapse. The success of
the Revolution left a big decline in the Empire which was never to be reversed. It became
weaker militarily losing one territory after another. By 1870 all the Balkan states had risen
against turkey For example, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bulgaria and Montenegro.
4. It resulted into the Syrian question of 1840. This was a struggle between the
Egyptian leader Mehmet Ali and the sultan of Turkey to control Syria. In order to
suppress the Greeks the sultans of Turkey had hired Mehmet Ali but promised him Syria as a
reward for his services. The sultans failed to fulfill his promise and consequently Mehmet Ali
invaded Syria in 1831. He sent his son Ibrahim Pasha with an Egyptian army to invade Syria
and Pasha even managed to move up to Constantinople within a year and the Sultan was then
forced to abandon Syria, Damascus and Palestine to Ibrahim. This created instability which
drew the attention of the Great powers.
5. It led to the signing of Unkiar Skelessi Treaty of July 1833 between Turkey and
Russia to restrain European relations. This was a secret offensive and defensive alliance of
the two powers pledging to one another military assistance where peace and security will
endanger. By its terms, the Sultan agreed to close the Dardanelles an entrance of the Black
Sea to war ships of all Nations except Russia. Unfortunately this syndicate was revealed by
Britain under Palm stone that was extremely angry over the affair because it was a British
policy of constantly keeping away Russia out of the Mediterranean Sea by denying her entry
over the straits. This became Palm stone’s determination to counsel the Unkiar Skelessi Treaty
of July 1833 as soon as possible.
6. It exposed the hidden interest of European powers in the Balkans, For example,
Britain. Russian claims to protect Orthodox Christian in the Turkish Empire were a cover up of
her imperial and economical ambitions. Although she was a sigNorth Atlantic Treaty
Organisationry to the Troppau protocol that spelt out the need to suppress Revolutions she
openly came forward to support the Greek Revolution. On the other hand Britain wanted the
Turkish Empire to survive so as to protect her economic interest. This exposed double
standards of Britain. Britain claimed to protect the integrity of Turkey but she showed double
standards of Britain when she supported Greek to have independence. This was because
Britain was bent on protection of her economic interests by preventing a possible Russian
advance on the Mediterranean schemes
7. It led to the collapse of the Congress System due to disagreement between powers
that arose during this war. The Great War powers had a divided attitude towards the Greek
Revolution. According to the treaty of London of 1827, Britain France and Russia agreed that
Greece should be self-governing. However Austria and Prussia never accepted to recognize this
arrangement and even refused to sign. This created division among the Great powers and
eventual collapse of the Congress system.
8. There was loss of life and property. In Morea alone Hypsilanti’s Revolution killed
more than 50000 Moslems. When the Turks retaliated thousands of Greeks were killed
including the patriarch of the Orthodox Church who was hanged outside his cathedral. Lord
Byron the British poet also died in this war hence many people died in the course of the war.

15
9. Russian influence in the Ottoman Empire increased. According to the treaty of Adrianople
of 1829 Russia forced Turkey to recognize Greek self- government, give Moldavia and
Wallachia some degree of independence. Russia also gained control over the mouth of the
Danube River. As a result, Russia became very powerful and came to influence the politics of
the region.
10. It increased hostility between Britain and Russia. This was a big threat to European
peace as diplomacy almost collapsed. The 1841 Straits Convention was basically meant to
reverse the terms of the Unkiar Skelessi Treaty of July 1833 between Turkey and Russia. This
was a Great threat to Britain’s economic and navy interests. The Straits convention was
Therefore, signed to between Britain and Turkey containing the Article that turkey was to close
the Straits of Dardanelles and Bosporus to warships o all nations in times of peace. The
convention Therefore, scared the triumph for Britain since the threats of Roman and Russia
expansion had been checked and Sultan’s powers as Turkey began to depend on Britain. The
two powers Britain and Russia remained suspicious of one another and later this culminated
into the Crimean war of 1854-1856.
11. It led to the independence of Greece because the Greeks had been under the
political control of the Turkish Muslims for many years. However, the Revolution
succeeded and this enabled them to attain political independence. The new independent state
of Greece emerged on the map of Europe whose boundaries were drawn by major European
powers like Britain, Russia and France in1832.These boundaries were demarcated form those
of the Turkish Empire.
12. The success of the Greek uprising challenged Metternich conservatism in Europe.
This is because had vowed to burry Liberalism and Nationalism forever in Europe. It should be
recalled that though no government actively intervened in the war, private individuals like Lord
Byron of Britain volunteered to support the Greeks but Metternich persuaded Alexander of
Russia that he must not assist the Greeks in the Revolution. However, the Greeks up rising
succeed against Metternich’s wish which was the beginning of the decline of the conservatism
in Europe.
13. It changed the work of the Vienna settlement of 1815. The Vienna Settlement of 1815
had preserved the status quo in Eastern Europe because Turkish control in Greece was not
affected. Therefore,, the political map of the Ottoman Empire remained covering Greece as one
of its vassal states. However, the map was altered by the emergence of an independent
Greece.
14. The ruthless massacre of the Greek Christians the Turkish Muslims won them
sympathy from several people throughout Europe. Some of them surrendered their lives
in order to fight for the Greeks For example, Lord Byron, a Great of Great Britain established
him n Greece volunteered to support the Greek cause later he died at the battle front of
Misolonghi while fighting in the defence of the Greeks against the Turkish.
15. It prompted European diplomacy between 1821-1830.The peace makers of different
major European powers met at St Petersburg in Russia in 1826 to discuss the Great cause of
the Greek war, they also met in London Conference of 1827 to discuss on the same matter
because it was the Greek war of independence that led to another London Conference of 1830
which finally granted the Greece independence and self-governance hence prompted
diplomacy in the European continent.
16. It created cooperation between Greece and other major European powers. For
example, there was cooperation between Greece on one side and Britain, Russia and France on
the other hand upon their efforts during the deliberations in the Congresses, military support
and treaty signing the Greeks gained their independence from the Turkish Empire. It was on
this account that economic cooperation was promoted between the Great and smaller power in
continental Europe.
17. It accelerated the sickness of Turkey. This was because Turkey was weakened militarily
when her fleet was destroyed at Navarino and when Russia defeated he in 1829, she was also
weakened economically when she lost tributes from Greece which acquired
independence .Therefore, it led to decline of Turkish Empire.
18. It increased the hostilities of the Moslems towards the non-Moslems.The tension
between the Muslims and Christians had begun a soon as the Greek war of independence broke
out. For example, only within six weeks into the war did the 25,000 Muslims Turks meet their
16
 death at the hands of the Greek Orthodox Christians on the Island of Chios. The Turks even
continued mistreating the Christians leading to the outbreak of the Crimean war 1854-1856.
19. It was a very destructive war which led heavy losses of lives .There was heavy losses of
property to the extent that the Greeks killed ever Muslim they could lay in their hands on.
Actually only six weeks into the war about 25,000 Muslims had perished. The Turks had
retaliated through the Aegean massacres where they murdered 27,000 Orthodox Christians,
women, men and children alike. On Easter Sunday 1822, the Constantinople cathedral or
Patriarch of the Greeks Orthodox Church was hanged outside the cathedral meanwhile a lot of
monetary and non-monetary resources were destroyed during the war.
20. Louis Philliphe of France lost support for having supported the wrong side
contributing to his downfall in 1848.The way Louis Philliphe handled the Mehmet Ali’s
affair by yielding to the British pressure to withdraw his support from Mehmet Ali annoyed the
French glory seekers like the Bonapartists. Thiers wanted the war against Britain but Louis
Philliphe opposed to the war. Consequently Theirs was dismissed, this was a Great
disappointment and many Frenchmen regarded Louis Philliphe as a coward for having
succumbed to British wishes which made him unpopular in the eyes of the Bonapartists leading
to his downfall.
21. It led to the signing of the treaty of Adrianople. This was again reaffirmed in 1829
Adrianople treaty by which Turkey recorganised Greece independence but tributes was to be
paid to them by Greeks. This was the 1827 London treaty which granted the Greece self-
governance was not recorganised by the Sultan of Turkey.
26. The positions of the Christian were strengthened in the Turkish Empire.The
massacring of thousands of Greeks on Aegean Island but the worst massacre occurred on
Chios Island where over 27,000 Christians were killed including the patriarch of Orthodox
Church who was hanged outside the Cathedral on Easter day and later threw their bodies in
River Bosporus alarmed people throughout Europe arouse interNational sympathy For example,
Lord Byron the British poet openly supported the Greeks, Russia also annoyed and wanted to
intervene military so as to assist the Greeks but Metternich stopped her. This led the major
European powers Britain, France and Russia concluded the London treaty of1827. They agreed
that Greece should be self-governing under Turkish over Lordship as they continue paying
tributes to Sultan of Turkey.
22. It indicated the triumph of liberalism against the old order of Metternich. The war
undermined the conservative elements in Europe which were anti –liberal and anti-Nationalistic
under Metternich. He failed completely to persuade both Lord Castlereagh and George Canning
of Britain over the liberal and Nationalistic Revolution. That is Lord Castlereagh opposed the
Troppau protocol of 1820 as a tool of suppressing liberty. Britain continued to support the
oppressed masses in Greeks which resulted into Revolutions in 1830’sand 1848 among the
Italian states, Germany states, Poland and Belgium and which undermined Metternich system.

THE SYRIAN QUESTION 1831-1841.

The Syrian question was the second violet event in the Eastern question between 1831-1841.
It as an open conflict between Sultan Mahmud 11 of Turkey and his vassal Mehmet Ali of Egypt
over Syria and the conflicting relationships it caused among other European powers. This is
because when the Greeks acquired independence the Sultan of Turkey refused to reward
Mehmet Ali the promised territories of Syria, Damascus, Crete and Morea upon the assistance
of suppressing the Greek uprising of 1821.

THE COURSE OF SYRIAN QUESTION 1831-1841.

1. This was the second event in the Eastern question was the Syrian question. This was
the struggle between the Sultan of Turkey Mahmud 11 and Egyptian leaders Mehmet Ali in
order to suppress the Greek Revolution. In order to suppress the Greek Revolution the sultan
had hired Mehmet Ali. He gave him a promise of territories of Syria Damascus and Morea.
However with failures to defeat them the Greeks Sultan gave Mehmet only Crete.
17
2. In 1831, Mehmet Ali sent his son Ibrahim Pasha to overrun/rule Syria. The Turkish
forces were completely wiped out and with a year Ibrahim pasha was threatening
Constantinople. The Sultan had no apportion but to appeal to Russia for Assistance against
Mehmet Ali. Since the treaty of Adrianople of 1829, sir Nicolas 1 had come to the conclusion
that Russian interest would better be served by Maintaining a weak Turkish Empire. Russia
offered to help the Sultan against Ibrahim Pasha but under hard conclusions.
3. The Sultan of Turkey was now desperate for assistance but Britain and France had
turned all attention to the Belgium revolt. In his disparity, the Sultan got assistance from
Russia who for the first time tried to support Turkey rather than tear her down. This would give
Russia chance to influence European affairs in the Balkans and Turkish Empire.
4. This resulted into Russia and Turkey signing the famous Treaty of Ukiarskelessi of
April 1833. This document contains officially only a treaty of alliance between Turkey and
Russia. However, it had a secret clause which started the following terms; Russia and Turkey
promised mutual assistance to each other when peace and security would be endangered in
Balkans.
5. The Treaty also had a Straits(outlets to the Sea) clause that “Turkey would close
the straits of Dardanelles and Bosporus to Warships of all nations in times of war
apart from Russia”.
6. It should be noted that if need arouse that is to say Russians demand.” The above
treaty benefited Russian Military and politically annoyed other powers especially Britain. It
meant Russia could carry an aggressive policy in the Mediterranean Sea and retire safely into
the Black sea.
7. The British Foreign Minister Palmerstone learnt of the secret clause between
Turkey and Russia on the Straits later became determined to have the Treaty of Ukiar
Skelessi cancelled.so this gave Britain opportunity to revise the treaty of Ukiar Skelessi soon
arrived.
8. In 1833, Sultan Mahmoud who was dissatisfied with Mahomet Ali’s occupation of
Syria was preparing counter attack against his forces and forces were trained by Prussians
while Mehmet Ali also had equipped him on preparation for defence and he had acquired
support from France.
9. In 1839 the Syrian question resumed when Turkey forces invaded Syria with the aim
of driving out Mehmet Ali would enjoy the title of pasha of Egypt on the hereditary basis and
even retain the southern half of Syria.
10. The above proposal was opposed by Mehmet Ali and Thiers who had support from
France .The French under Mehmet Ali Thiers as a chief minister hoped to use Mehmet Ali as a
tool to extend their influence in the Middle East.
11. The Turkish forces which invaded Syria were severely defeated by the French who
backed Mehmet Ali’s forces and all Turk Generals surrendered to Egyptians.
12. When the two refused, the Great powers decided to withdraw the offer given to
Mehmet Ali and to restrict his influence to Egypt. A force was sent to Syria to drive out
Ibrahim Pasha. Hence the appearance of Britain warship that Alexander forced Mehmet Ali to
accept defeat.
13. This caused alarm from other European powers and Palmerstone the British Foreign
Minister summoned the 1840 London Conference to deal with the problem but this
Conference isolated France and she was not summoned.
14. In 1840, Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, entered into London
convection/Conference so as to settle the Syrian question. Mehmet Ali was confirmed as
a hereditary ruler of Egypt and Syria returned to Turkey.
15. The powers which attended the London Conference included Russia, Austria,
Prussia, England and they came up with an agreement known as the London Convention of
1841.
16. In 1841 the Great powers with France inclusive signed the straits convention. They
agreed that Mehmet Ali be offered half of Syria, recorganised as hereditary ruler of Egypt and
was given ten days on which to agree these terms but Turkey would close to the Warships of
all nations including Russia so that no state would threaten Constantinople.
17. However, when Mehmet Ali refused to agree upon the terms of the London
convention, a combined force of Britain, Russia and Austria invaded him out of Syria and
18
 Create. The British forces occupied Alexandria in Egypt and forced him to give up Syria and
Create.
18. The straits convention was a diplomatic victory for Britain especially her foreign
secretary palmer stone having revised the famous Treaty of Ukiarskelessi of April 1833 as
he solved the Eastern question.

THE CAUSES OF THE SYRIAN QUESTION OF 1841.

1. The collapse of the Congress system by 1830 which left the Turkish Empire exposed to various
conflicts contributed to the Syrian question. It should be recalled that the Congress system had
maintained peace by uniting mainly major European powers. However, when it collapsed, all
European powers fell apart as stated by Lord Canning of Britain that; “Things are going back
to the a whole some state. Every nation for itself and God for us all.” This meant that
joint diplomatic approach as a tool of solving continental problems of Europe had come to an
end. Therefore, the 1831 crisis between Egypt and Ottoman Empire magnified and translated
into the severe Syrian question
2. The Greek war of independence caused the Syrian question .It was upon the need to
suppress the Greek uprising that Sultan of Turkey called upon military assistance
from Mehmet Ali. Mehmet Ali participated in this war expecting a big reward. However this
turned out to the false promise because he was only given Crete. In 1831 he invaded Syria by
force and this culminated into a crisis hence the Syrian question.
3. The granting of the Greeks independence caused the Syrian question. This was
because it made the Sultan of Turkey disappointed hence he refused to reward Mehmet Ali the
promised territories of Syria, Damascus, and Morea .This annoyed Mehmet Ali who used force
to occupy Syria in 1831, hence the Syrian question.
4. The growing military strength of Egypt under Mehmet Ali. This was motivating factor
for the invasion of Syria. Mehmet Ali had modernized Egyptian economy and army on western
lines. He was thus confident of his success against Turkey gave rise to the Syrian question in
the Balkans.
5. The declining military strength of Turkey. It was Turkey’s military weakness that made
her incapable of suppressing the Greek uprising that forced the Sultan to seek assistance from
Mehmet Ali. With promises of territories which he was not rewarded after the Greek war of
independence. This encouraged Mehmet Ali to invade Syria and thus forced to seek assistance
from Russia against Mehmet Ali. This attracted the attention of other powers especially Britain.
6. The fear among European powers the military strength of Mehmet Ali made them to
intervene and save Turkey from collapsing. This when Mehmet Ali refused to agree upon the
terms of the London convention, a combined force of Britain, Russia and Austria invaded him
out of Syria and Create. The British forces occupied Alexandria in Egypt and forced him to give
up Syria and Create.
7. The support extended to Mehmet Ali of Egypt by France against Turkey in 1839
intensified conflicts among European powers to accelerate the Syrian question. Louis
Philliphe upon his influence of Foreign Minister Adolf Theirs had extended military support to
Mehmet Ali in Syria and in 1839 the Turkish forces were severely defeated by Egyptian forces.
This attracted other European powers like Britain, Austria and Russia to who developed hostility
against France hence accelerating conflicts which was the Syrian question.
8. The Belgium Revolution of 1830 created conflicts among European powers over
Mehmet Ali’s occupation of Syria hence causing the Syrian question. When the Sultan
of Turkey called upon assistance of Great European powers against Mehmet Ali’s invasion of
Syria, Britain and France could not offer the assistance because they were committed in the
struggle of Belgium Revolution. This gave Russia chance to offer military assistance to Turkey
and this resulted into the signing of secret treaty of Ukiarskelessi of April 1833 between Turkey
and Russia which had a Straits clause that Turkey would close the straits of Dardanelles and
Bosporus to Warships of all nations in times of war apart from Russia whose terms created
conflicts between Russia and other European powers, hence escalating the Syrian question.
9. The Prussian military assistance to Turkish Empire contributed to the Syrian
question. Sultan Muhammad Mahmoud was forced to seek for Prussian military assistance

19
 when major European powers like Britain and France had compelled him to surrender to
Mehmet Ali his pledge of Syria during the Greek war of independence. This was because they
were unable to give military support due to their occupation in the Belgium revolt of 1830 and
this gave Sultan false confidence to crush Egyptian forces unfortunately before the intervention
of other Great powers the results were reverse by 1839
10. Russia and Turkey signing the famous Treaty of Ukiarskelessi of April 1833. This
created conflicts among European powers to cause the Syrian question. The treaty had the
Straits clause which gave Russia accessibility of the Dardanelles and Bosporus at the expense
of other European powers .This annoyed other European powers especially Britain and France
whose security was threatened as Russia could change their navies, this escalated into the
Syrian question.
11. The determination of the Sultan Muhammad II to preserve the integrity of Turkey
her existence as a European after losing Greece led to the resistance against Mehmet Ali
which accelerated the Syrian question. This forced the Sultan to seek assistance from Russian
against Egypt. In 1839 the Sultan tried to recapture Syria and the Eastern question was
resumed in the Balkans.
12. Russia’s desire to extend her influence in the Balkans/imperialism. Tsar Nicholas
wanted to exploit the Sultan’s request for assistance against Mehmet Ali. He wanted to break
the Turkish Empire and take full control of the region. This is evident in the terms of the region.
This is evident in the terms of the treaty of Unkiarskelessi 1833 in which Russia sought to
increase her influence at the expense of the other powers.
13. British economic and imperial ambitions in the Balkans. She was determined to
prevent the collapse of the Turkish Empire because such situation would favor the
increase of Russian influence in the Balkan Russian expansion is what Britain feared most
because it would threaten her economic and military interests in the region. Consequently she
was opposed to the treaty of Unkiarskelessi and worked hard to have it revised. She supported
the Sultan in the Crisis in an attempt to supervised Russia and avoid her harming the British
Strategic interest and this came to be known as the Syrian question.
14. French ambitions to extend their influence in Middle East contributed to the crisis.
France on the basis of public opinion and economic interests supported Mehmet Ali and
thus fueling the Crisis. The French republic under the leadership of Theirs as chief minister was
in favors of promoting French glory. To some Frenchmen this looked like revival of the
Napoleonic Egyptian campaign of 1798 resulted into Syrian question.
15. Character of Mehmet Ali to gain the remaining promised territories of Damascus and
Morea upon the assistance of suppressing the Greek uprising. He was too ambitious
and power Hungry. He took this as an opportunity to weaken Turkey and strength his own
independence. He was ready for conflicts and war at all cost which led to the rise of Syrian
question.
16. The mistrust and suspicion among the Great powers towards Russia caused the
Syrian question.. The Treaty of Ukiarskelessi of April 1833had a Straits clause that “Turkey
would close the straits of Dardanelles and Bosporus to Warships of all nations in
times of war apart from Russia” that means whenever a war would occur in the Balkans.
The Great powers’ interests were always conciliating as to who should have an upper hand in
the affairs of the Turkish Empire. This was especially between Britain and Russia because
Russia’s influence in the Balkan was to block commercial and political interests of other
European powers and this resulted into the Syrian question.
17. The 1840 London Conference interfered conflicts among European powers to
escalate the Syrian question. Palmerstone the British Foreign Minister summoned the 1840
London Conference to deal with the problem but this Conference isolated France and she was
not summoned. This consequently led France almost wage war against Britain and on other
European powers but Louis Philliphe was advised to maintain peace. Despite of this, the
isolation of France intensified the Syrian question.
18. The failure of the 1840 London Conference to completely solve the Syrian q2uestion
led to the continuation of the conflict. It should be recalled that when Mehmet Ali refused
to agree upon the terms of the London convention, a combined force of Britain, Russia and
Austria invaded him out of Syria and Create. The British forces occupied Alexandria in Egypt
and forced him to give up Syria and Create.
20
19. The role of men on spot like Adolf Thiers, Palmerstone and Tsar Nicholas I
contributed to the Syrian question. Tsar Nicholas wanted to exploit the Sultan’s request for
assistance against Mehmet Ali which was interpreted by Palmer stone as an inference with
British economic and imperial ambitions in the Balkans. Hence Adolf Thiers as a chief minister
hoped to use Mehmet Ali as a tool to extend their influence in the Middle East. This inspired
Palmerstone the British Foreign Minister summoned the 1840 London Conference to deal with
the problem by inviting Great powers Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, entered into London
convection/Conference so as to settle the Syrian question.
20. The strategic importance of Syria led Britain determined to prevent the collapse of
the Turkish Empire because such situation would favor the increase of Russian influence in
the Balkan Russian expansion. This is what Britain feared most because it would threaten her
economic and military interests in the region. She supported the Sultan in the Crisis in an
attempt to supervised Russia and avoid her harming the British Strategic interest and this
came to be known as the Syrian question.

THE EFFECTS OF THE SYRIAN QUESTION OF 1841.

1. It led to loss of life and property. This affected not only Egypt and Turkey but also other
powers that got involved that were Britain and Russia. For example, the Egyptian forces
bombarded and destroyed the towns like Beirut and Acre hence both the soldiers and civilians
were massively killed in the battle of konal in 1832 and Nezib 1839.even after the defeat of
sultan Muhammad Mahmoud Ii he died shortly.
2. The war exhausted Turkish military Ibrahim Pasha a military genius invaded Turkey
and defeated her disastrously before the intervention of European powers which led the Sultan
of Turkey to surrender Syria and Crete to Egypt.
3. It led to the defeat of Egypt. Mehmet Ali was defeated, humiliated and lost control of Syria;
He was over whelmed by the Military strength of the Great powers. However he was
consolidated by the Great powers when he was the hereditary ruler of Egypt with the title
Pasha of Egypt.
4. It increased tension among the Great powers. This disrupted peace in European as they
almost declared war on each other. Britain and Russia allied with the Sultan of Turkey against
France and Egypt. Europe was thus in a situation of tension between 1831 and 1841.
5. British gained diplomatic victory. This was through the signing of the London convention of
1840and the opportunity to revise the Unkiarskelessi treaty and thus prevent Russian
expansion. By the new treaty, Turkey was to close not only the Dardanelles but also the
Bosporus to the warships of all nations including Russia.
6. Russian expansion in the Balkans was temporarily halted. Her gains in the treaty of
Ukiarskelessi of 1833 between Turkey and Russia in which Russia sought to increase her
influence at the expense of the other powers were nullified. She was thus out maneuvered by
the diplomacy of British. She thus remained bitter waiting for another opportunity.
7. It justified that the Ottoman Empire was a sick man of Europe. This was because sultan
of Turkey failed to contain Greek war of independence which led him to seek for military
assistance from his vassal Egypt and failure to fulfill his promise reward to Mehmet Ali. This
culminated into the Syrian question where she had not again contained instead asked for
military support from major European powers. Hence she could not be diagnosed by a single
quality of drags.
8. The Turkish Empire survived collapse. It should be recalled that Turkey in 1834
surrendered Syria, Crete and Arabia to Egypt and had not regained them by 1839.However,
this arose from the military defeat of Mehmet Ali by the Great powers Britain, Russia and
Austria which combined force invaded him out of Syria and Crete and the subsequent terms of
the straits convention of 1841 which limited Russia influence. She also recovered her lost
territories like Syria Crete and Arabia from Egypt.
9. It led Egypt to acquire her independence from Turkey .this independence was
recorganised by Great powers Britain, Austria and Russia where Mehmet Ali was declared a
hereditary pasha/ ruler of Egypt during the 1841 London Conference.

21
10. It contributed to the unpopularity and downfall of Louis Philippe in France. The
French people saw him as a liability who had betrayed French interests in the Balkan region.
During the Syrian Crisis, France was isolated and diplomatically defeat. She was not even
invited to the London convention of 1840. This hurt the Frenchmen especially the Bonapartists
and they withdrew their support from Louis Philippe who became unpopular and met his
downfall in 1848.
11. It led to resignation of Adolf Thiers a chief Minister of France in 1840.this was because
he influenced the government of the Orlean’s Monarchy to support Mehmet Ali in the
acquisition of Syria which led France’s isolation during the summoning of London Conference of
1840.The French masses Therefore, demonstrated against him having humiliated France on the
interNational screen this led his resignation in 1840.
12. It led to the signing of the Straits convention of 1841 in London which terminated or
reversed the terms of the secret treaty of Ukiarskelessi. In the Straits convention, both
Dardanelles and Bosporus were closed to war ships of all nations including Russia who had
secured accessibility to the Straits during the secret treaty of Ukiarskelessi. This promoted
peace and cooperation among European powers.
13. It led to the outbreak of the Crimean war. Russia felt cheated and humiliated by the
Straits convention of 1841. The convention deprived Russia accessibility to both Dardanelles
and Bosporus and her policy from 1841onwards was bent on need to violet the Straits
convention as the cause in 1853 when she occupied Wallachia and Moldavia. This increased
her determination to destroy the Turkish Empire eventually leading to military confrontation
with other powers between 1854 and 1856.
14. It checked Mehmet Ali’s imperial ambition in the Balkans. This is because he was forced
out of the Ottoman Empire by combined force of Great powers such as Britain, Russia and
Austria in 1840 when he was defeated and accepted to return Syria, Crete, Morea and Palestine
to Turkey.
15. It exposed the weakness of Metternich who failed to maintain peace and even
diplomacy shifted from Austria to Britain. The failure of conservative Metternich system
was manifested when Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, entered into London
convection/Conference so as to settle the Syrian question. However, when Mehmet Ali refused
to agree upon the terms of the London convention, a combined force of Britain, Russia and
Austria invaded him out of Syria and Create and diplomacy was shifted from Vienna to London
during the signing of the Strait convention of 1841in London..
16. It shifted the European supremely of Europe. This was because the Centre of European
diplomacy and peace during the period of Metternich and Congress system was changed from
Vienna in Austria to London in Britain. This began in 1827 with London treaty which granted the
Greece self-governance was not recorganised by the Sultan of Turkey, followed by 1830,
London Conference was summoned upon which the Greeks were granted total independence
as the boundaries of Greece were drawn from Turkey, the1840, Austria, Britain, Russia,
Prussia, entered into London convection/Conference so as to settle the Syrian question and
finally the 1841 the Great powers with France inclusive signed the straits convention.

THE STRAITS CONVENTION OF 1841

The Straits Convention of 1841 was an agreement signed by major European powers Britain,
Austria, Russia, Prussia and France on the Sea outlets of Bosporus and Dardanelles during
the 1841 London Conference summoned by Palmerstone the British foreign secretary. The
convention was basically meant to revise the terms of treaty of Ukiarskelessi by closing the
two straits Bosporus and Dardanelles which gave Russia accessibility of the Dardanelles and
Bosporus at the expense of other European powers had ultimately threatened the British
economic and naval interest in the Balkan region. The Treaty of Ukiarskelessi of April 1833had
a Straits clause that “Turkey would close the straits of Dardanelles and Bosporus to
Warships of all nations in times of war apart from Russia” that means whenever a war
would occur in the Balkans. It was signed between Palmerstone of Britain and the sultan of

22
 turkey. Turkey had been supported by Parlmastone, who by calling the London Conference had
helped the sultan to regain his lost territory from Mehmet Ali.

THECAUSES OF STRAITS CONVENTION OF 1841

1. It signed as the last solution to the Syrian question .When Mehmet Ali’s threats had
been checked through combined force of Great powers in 1840, there was need to end the
whole question by reducing Russia’s military influence in the Balkan region.
2. The desire to resolve conflicts between Britain and Turkey in the Eastern question.
Britain had supported Turkey in her policy to remain intact especially at a time when Russia’s
ambition into the Balkans threatened the integrity of the Turkish Empire as well as Britain
interest in the Mediterranean Sea. The streets convention of 1841 was Therefore, an attempt at
solving the differences that existed between Britain and Russia and turkey over the Eastern
question.
3. The need to resolve the issue of Russian control over the straits Bosporus and
Dardanelles connecting the Mediterranean and the black seas which Russia had secured
according to the terms of the treaty Ukiarskelessi of 1833. In this case, palmastone of Britain
who was disappointed by the terms of the treaty of Ukiarskelessi wanted to revise it. This made
him concluded the convention of 1841 with sultan of Turkey.
4. There was need to check military strength of Russia by other European powers led
to the signing of the Straits Convention of 1841. Russia’s accessibility to the Straits of
Dardanelles and Bosporus had given her opportunity to create a strong navy that would
challenge the navy superiority of all European powers .this could however not be accepted by
other European powers which unanimously signed the straits Convention of 1841.
5. The British desire to safeguard her economic interests in the Balkan region. Britain
was also nursing her own economy naval if not commercial interest and wanted to gain full
control the straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles connecting the Mediterranean and black seas
for purely her own commercial gains. Whereas this was Britain’s desire. Russia then in the
treaty of Ukiarskelessi of 1833 was first to frustrate these Britain designs. This forced
Palmerstone to forestall Russia by the signing of the strait convention of 1831.
6. Britain also desired to preserve the integrity of the Turkish Empire. When the issue of
the eastern question arose, the entire British stance was for the preserve the Ottoman Empire
from disintegrating. This party explains why he had assisted the sultan of turkey to regain the
lost territory from all of Egypt through the various London Conferences. It was because of such
assistance from the sultan that felt obliged to conclude with Palmerstone of Britain the straits
convention as a taken of appreciation.
7. The British desire to check the Russian advance/ imperialism in the Balkans. Russian
had since that time of the Greek war of independence held ambitions of expanding into the
Balkans. She wanted to pose as a protector of the Greek Orthodox Christians who was Slavic in
race and whom she claimed were being mistreated by the Turkish Muslims. She also wanted to
secure permanent guardianship of the holy shrines of Bethlehem. Such ambition was opposed
by Britain which again concluded with a sultan, straits convention of 1841 as a mean of halting
the spread of Russia imperialism in the Balkan.
8. The British to check the imperial ambitions of Mehmet Ali who had over the control
of Syria. This followed the false promise made to him by the sultan after the Greek war of the
independence. Ali seized Syria through his son Ibrahim Pasha who even threatened to overrun
Constantinople. However through the second London convention, Egypt was forced to give up
both Syria and Crete. Although the had been headed by Mehmet Ali, the delighted sultan
opted to please the Britain by signing with them the straits convention of 1841.
9. The desire to maintain the balance of power in Europe by Prime Minister
Palmerstone which was being destabilized by Russia intervening to help the Greeks
in the Balkans territory to rebel and break away from the Ottoman Empire, she wanted to
tilt the balance of power bin Europe in her own favor. This was seriously opposed by turkey
which then sought for British supported by signing the streets combination of 1841 through

23
 which he hoped to maintain the European balance of power as established by the Vienna
settlement of 1815.
10. The personal skill of Palmerstone of Britain. He was a British Foreign secretary whose skill
had made him call for various London Conference like that of 1827, 1832 and 1840. His double
task was to forestall intervention by Russia and prevented there policy to support Ali who was
becoming a menace to Britain’s naval and trading power in the eastern Mediterranean.
Palmerstone personal skills then made him assist the sultan to regain his lost territory to Ali
and after which he succeeded in ending the treaty of Ukiarskelessi by securing agreement
known as the straits convention of 1841.

THE EFFECTS OF STRAITS CONVENTION OF 1841

1. The Straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles on the Black sea were closed to all warships
of all nations including those of Russia in times of peace. This made it difficult for Russia
to send her warships into the Mediterranean Sea when she pleased instead Britain triumphed
over both Russia and Turkey since she was to gain control of the Straits.
2. Syria, Crete, Morea and Palestine which had been seized by Mehmet Ali of Egypt
following the Greece war of independence was restored to Turkey by the Straits
Convention of 1841 through the efforts of the Great powers during the London Conference.
3. The ambitious nature of Mehmet Ali was checked by the Straits convention. this was
because Mehmet Ali’s aim of breaKing the Ottoman Empire by declaring the independence of
Egypt and then proceeding to overrun the other territories of Syria, Morea, Crete and
Constantinople were eventually challenged and repulsed by joint action of Britain, Russia and
Turkey forcing him to give up control of Crete and Syria which he did and thus frustrating the
ambitions of breaKing up the ottoman Empire.
4. The British gained all their political and economic interests through Palmerstone. He
defeated Mehmet Ali of Egypt and regained British influence with the Sultan as against Russia
and had resisted the policy of Thiers. Therefore, any rate of British foreign policy in relation to
the Eastern question was successful.
5. It increased Anglo-Russian conflicts over Turkey which later were to culminate into
the outbreak of Crimean war 1854-1856.Russia was determined to expand her influence
into the Straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles as per the treaty of Ukiarskelessi yet Britain was
also determined to frustrate such Russian designs as per the Straits Convention of 1841.Such
competition and rivalry between Russia and Britain is what partly drove them to a war in
Crimea between 1854-1856.
6. It preserved the integrity of Turkey although she continued to decline politically,
economically, socially and militarily .This was as much as the Straits of Bosporus and
Dardanelles which were closed to war ships of all nations in times of peace. Besides Mehmet
Ali’s ambition of breaKing the Ottoman Empire were also defeated just as Russia’s influence
over the Sultan were reduced by Britain. This is in itself was in line with the mutual
preservation of the integrity of Turkish Empire which was at the verge of its collapse.
7. It ensured semi-autonomy of Egypt from Turkey No sooner had the Greek war of
independence been successfully concluded than the Great powers were faced with a
problem arising from the claims and pretensions of the rule of the Egypt Mehmet Ali having
lost Morea and he now demanded Syria which he actually seized. He was later defeated but
was confirmed as a hereditary ruler of Egypt by the second London convention .thus making
Egypt semiautonomous from Turkey.
8. Russia continued to nurse her ambitions in the Balkans region leading to further
conflicts in July 1853.Russian troops occupied the provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia
which later led to the outbreak of the Crimean war between 1854-1856 and later the Balkan
crisis of 1875,1912,and1913Balkan wars, the climax of which was the occurrence of World War
1914.
9. It strengthened the Anglo-Turkish relations after signing of the Straits Convention of
1841.prior the relations between Turkey and Russia had been strong following the signing of
the Ukiarskelessi treaty of 1833.By the terms of the Straits convention of 1841, the terms of
Ukiarskelessi treaty were nullified hence rejuvenating British-Turkish ties against Russia.

24
10. The French ambitions in the Eastern question were checked. By France helping Egypt in
the Eastern question, theirs was hoping to extend trade to the middle East and also gain part of
Syria in return for French assistance. However, by the Strait convention of 1841, the policy of
Thiers was defeated by Britain. This partly contributed to the unpopularity and downfall of
Orleans Monarchy Louis Philiphe in France.
11. It improved on the relationship between Russia and Britain. In 1844, Tsar Nicholas I
made unexpected visit to Britain through which he discussed the solutions for the Sick man of
Europe.
12. It ushered in a period of peace and stability in Europe for a period of13 years. This
was through cooperation among the European powers to preserve the territorial integrity of
Turkey until the outbreak of the Crimean war of 1854-1856.
13. Britain became a new protector of Turkey from all challenges as was the case in
1844 when she rejected Russia’s suggestion of sick man -Turkey and in 1854 when she
defended turkey through Russia’s aggressive ness of capturing Wallachia and Moldavia which
led to the Crimean war of 1854-1856.

THE CRIMEAN WAR 1854-1856.

The Crimean War was a war that broke out on the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea
fought between Russia on one side against Turkey, Britain and France and later on
joined by Piedmont (Italy). It was by far the most acute phase of the Eastern question
following the Russian occupation of the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia in July and
destruction of Turkish fleet at Sinope, November 1853, France and Britain declared war on
Russia. It was Therefore, a European war that broke to spell peace that had been ushered in by
the Vienna settlement in Europe. It was one of the most useless and wasteful war ever fought
on the European continent .It broke out in 1854and lasted up 1865 between Russia on
one hand and Britain, France, Austria, Turkey and later piedmont (Italy) on the other
hand. Therefore, the Third and major episode of the Eastern question. This allied powers
emerged victorious in this war Russia accepted defeat by conceding the terms of the treaty of
Paris of 1856.

THE CAUSES OF THE CRIMEAN WAR.

1. The general distrust of Russian’s attitude towards Turkey by other European

powers. Most scholars of European history attributed to the cause of the Crimean war to the
selfish desires of Prussia on the Turkish Empire. Britain and France favored the Russians
interference in the region would make her the most influential powers. In the Balkans they
feared that with the control of Constantinople she would be able to dominate the entrance to
the Black sea and the Aegean sea, in 1833, Tsar Nicholas1 when meeting Prince Metternich
described Turkey as the” sick man of Europe” later in 1844 he made personal visit to Britain
and he said; “Turkey is sick that she couldn’t be diagnosed by a single quality of
drags” and 1853 Tsar Nicholas suggested threat between Russia and Patron Turkey that
Russia should occupy Constantinople while Britain compensated him the Egypt and Crete, such
schemes created suspicion in between who became determined to maintain the integrity of the
Turkish Empire.
2. The strife control over the holy places in Palestine between France and Russia
resulted into Franco-Russian conflict. The immediate cause of the war was dispute
between France and Russia over the control of the holy places in Palestine which include the
Church in Bethlehem and the secret Mayor. These were connected to the life of Jesus Christ
and were traditional centers of Pilgrimage for Christians. In the 16 th century France had been
granted guardianship of the holy places through the treaty of Arnold. However she neglected
her responsibilities and consequently Russia nearer neighbour took up the responsibility during
the Reign of Napoleon111 France reviled the old French Claims of control. Napoleon111 who
wanted to please the Catholics at home put pressure on the Sultan to recognize French claims.

25
 This was wasteful reason for the war since France had neglected to play the role of
guardianship since 1774.
3. Russia claims to protect all Christians in the Turkish Empire. Prince Menshikoff was
too aggressive and undiplomatic. He claimed that Russia should exercise general right of
protection of orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. In addition also desired to protect the
slave raids against Turkish imperialism such move was disastrous to the interests of the
interests of other powers especially British because it would allow Russia to intervene in the
affairs of Turkey wherever she felt. This was genuine cause for the war since Russia had a
burning desire to protect the orthodox Christians from persecution.
4. Russian expansionist policy. Russia’s traditional ambitions were to break up the Turkish
Empire and inherit her remains. She wanted to gain control of the Black sea for commercial and
strategic reasons. She always wanted to cover up her selfish motives which humanitarians
claims Britain and France were determined to frustrate these Motives. This increased conflicts
leading to war.
5. Russia’s need to protect the Slavs Nationalism of the Balkan caused the Crimean
war of 1854-1856.Russia exploited the opportunity of having most of her Nationals belonging
to the Slavs race to claim protectionism over the Slavs people of the Balkans as a way of
extending her hidden imperialism in the area. This was part of the claims which the Sultan of
Turkey rejected in 1853.As a result Russia occupied Wallachia and Moldavia which attracted
the attention of France and Britain to rescue Turkey’s integrity and its was upon their
intervention that led to the outbreak of Crimean war.
6. The exaggeration made by men on spot such as Prince Menshikoff and Stratford De-
Redcliff .The role of British ambassadors in Constantinople lord Stratford cliff was determined
to frustrate the desire of Russia at all cost. He had full support of the British government under
lord Aberdeen. It was because of this encouragement that the Sultan became more arrogant
towards Russia, this sparked off the Crimean war.
7. The Anglo –French alliance against Russia in 1853 caused the Crimean war.
Following the Russia’s occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia, France and Britain
created a military alliance upon which they were to assist Turkey against Russia’s aggressive
policies. It was this dual alliance of Britain and France that encouraged them to wage war
against Russia with confidence of success hence the Crimean war.
8. Napoleon111 ambitions and desire for glory. He wanted to please the Catholics at
home and achieves glory. His view was that if he succeeded in regaining control of the Holy
places he would certainly win massive support at home. Napoleon111 also wanted to revenge
on Russia for the humiliating Moscow campaign of 1812 since 42years past when France was
defeated. Napoleon III also wanted to revenge Russia’s role in the Vienna settlement of 1815
through which unfavourable terms were imposed against France like suffering an army of
occupation and paying a war indemnity. This made France involved in the Crimean war when
Russia occupied Walachia and Moldavia and destroyed the Turkish fleet which sparked off the
war.
9. The personal enmity between Emperor Napoleon III and Tsar Nicholas I. Tsar
Nicholas1’s refusing to recognize Napoleon III as a legitimate ruler of France caused
the Crimean war. The desire of Napoleon III to fight against Tsar Nicholas I of Russia for just a
tittle was trivial. He used to address Napoleon as “My friend (Mon ami) instead of my
clear brothers (Mon Frere)”. He thus wanted to use this opportunity to humiliate Nicholas so
as to reassert his credibility and legitimacy among leaders of Europe. To fight the Tsar of
Russia in order to teach him a lesson. This was insignificant cause of the Crimean war
10. The growing sickness of the Turkish Empire during the19th century.This was in
terms of military, economy, size and administration of the sultan of Turkey was partly
to blame for the Crisis that led to the war. He was not consistence with rightful protection of
the holy places. Turkey favoured the British and French position in regard to the holy places
and this offended Russia, her military weakness made her vulnerable for foreign intervention.
The Empire was increasingly getting weaker politically and military. The leaders were corrupt
and in efficient and even persecuted the Christians. The weakness attracted the attention of
the Great powers.
11. Britain’s rigid policy to protect her economic policy in the Mediterranean Sea and
Black Sea prompted the war because mostly hated the Russian aggressive plans to
26
 the Balkans especially Nicholas I’s proposal of dismantling Turkey by dividing it in 1840. This
became a fear to Britain that it gives a sure hand on the move to the Black sea and
Mediterranean and challenged Britain’s economic interests hence Russia equally persisted and
struggled to break the Balkan which made the Crimean war inevitable in 1854 among Great
powers.
12. The military importance of black sea created fear, tension, suspicion and mistrust
among Major European powers causing Crimean war of 1854-1856. It should be noted
that the black sea was militarily strategic because of the two Straits of Dardanelles and
Bosporus over which any European power that could control them could not be challenged by
another power in Europe. It was on this account that Britain and France formed a military
alliance and fought against Russia in need to chase her out of the Black Sea so that she could
not again control over strategic military places hence this dragged them into the 1854-1856
Crimean war
13. The resentment of against Britain and France aiming at fighting Russia’s
dictatorship and despotism. For a long period of time Russia set her base in the Balkan and
this was strongly resented by Britain and France. It should be recalled that Russia policy began
the times of Empress Catherine but became Greater in the 19 th century For example, she over
involved herself in many secret treaties with the Turkish Sultan .Hence Tsar Nicholas I tried to
exaggerate conditions of Turkish as “Stickman” of Europe in 1826. He suggested to Britain
that they should dismember Turkey for the sake of preserving continental Europe so that takes
Egypt, Russia takes Constantinople. It was such imperial Russian plans that worried Britain’s
economic interests in the Black sea, Mediterranean Sea and far East whereas France
considered it as a threat to the Balance of power in Europe and the Crimean war became
inevitable in 1854.
14. The violation of Straits convention of 1841 by Russia created conflicts between
Russia and Britain. This was diplomatic victory for Britain but a humiliation to Russia. It
reversed the gains she had made from the treaty of Unkiarskelessi of 1833. She Therefore,
looked for an opportunity to reverse the effect of the Syrian question and the Straits
convention. France had also suffered humiliations because she had not been able to promote
her influence. This was a trivial to Russia’s false confidence to win any war claiming that that
she had not experienced any revolt which drifted powers into the Crimean war.
15. Russian occupation of Moldavia and Walachia, in July 1853. Tsar Nicholas 1 occupied
Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Walachia. He had to force the Sultan to accept Russian
demands. Turkey assumed the British and French support ordered Russia to evaluate the two
provinces and when she refused Turkey declared war. This was a useless cause of the war for
shifting the war from Wallachia and Moldavia to Crimean islands in 1854.
16. Russian military action of sinKing at Snope in November 1853. Russia sunk a small
Turkish fleet at snope in the Black sea became the immediate cause of the Crimean war. To
Britain and frame this was seen as unjustifiable massacre and open provocation for war.
Consequences the allied powers sent their warships to the black sea and demanded that Russia
evaluates Moldavia and Walachia. When she refused they declared war on her.
17. Collapse of the Congress system and interNational diplomacy. By 1830 there was no
Mechanism to solve the problems peacefully since European powers were divided,
controversial issues did not be solved easily. This was worsened by the presence of
ambitious and aggressive leaders like Nicholas Palestine Napoleon.
18. The 1848 Revolutions in Europe created event that caused the Crimean War. The
downfall of Prince Metternich through the 1848 Revolutions created a diplomatic gap so
that by 1853 there was no strong states man of Metternich type to reconcile France, Britain,
and Turkey together with Russia as a way of averting the Crimean war. Therefore, such
conditions created by the 1848 Revolutions in Austria and Europe in general created a war
hysteria which broke out in Crimea peninsular which sparked off in 1854.
19. Lack of capable leading States men to control situations for peaceby1853
Statesmen like Metternich who controlled the temporal-European peace had left political
screen of Europe. Instead the situation got endangered by men on spot like Lord Stratford De-
Radcliff who was a British ambassador and anti-Russian policy by exaggerating Russian policy
in Britain. And the Russian representative in Turkey Prince Menshikoff who argued the Russian

27
 government to use force as the only means to protect the holy places and Russian interests in
the Balkan. Such propaganda brought them into Crimean war of 1854-1856.
20. Russian’s false confidence. She believed that Turkey was too weak to oppose
Russian imperialism. She also did not expect other cities to get deeply involved in the
conflict. Russian miscalculated thinKing that the peaceful government of Britain under Lord
Aberdeen would not go to war. This made her more reckless towards Turkey which brought the
conflicting powers in the Balkan to the Crimean War between 1854-1856.
21. The exaggeration made by men on spot such as Prince Menshikoff and Stratford De-
Redcliff. It should be recalled that Lord Stratford De-Radcliff who was a British ambassador
and anti-Russian policy by exaggerating Russian policy in Britain. And the Russian
representative in Turkey Prince Menshikoff who argued the Russian government to use force as
the only sure means to protect the holy places and Russian interests in the Balkan. Such
propaganda dragged Britain and Russia together wither European powers into Crimean war of
1854-1856.
22. The rise of emergence of aggressive and ambitious men like Tsar Nicholas I, Redcliff
and Napoleon III contributed to the outbreak of the Crimean war. As case of reference
was Tsar Nicholas l when suggested threat between Russia and Patron Turkey that Russia
should occupy Constantinople while Britain compensated him the Egypt and Crete, such
schemes created suspicion in between who became determined to maintain the integrity of the
Turkish Empire and Napoleon III had a hidden motive of winning Catholic support at home to
his power by possessing protection of holy Catholic shrines in JerUnited States Americalem by
stopping Russia’s claims by war. Such propaganda, aggressive and ambitious brought them
into Crimean war of 1854-1856.
23. The destruction of Turkish fleet at Snope by Russian Nay in November1853 caused
the Crimean War. This was as a result of Russia’s refUnited States Americal to comply with
Turkey‘s ultimatum and Turkey’s declaration of war against Russia. The Russia’s policy towards
Turkey was described as a hostile action which made the public both in France and Britain
encourage their respective governments to intervene by destroying Russian navy bases at
Sebastopol in the black sea in the Crimean peninsula an indication that the war had begun by
1854.

APPORTION OF THE BLAME AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE OUT BREAK OF THE
CREAMEAN WAR 1854-1856

Crimean war has been referred to as the Third and major episode of the Eastern question and
one of the most useless and wasteful war ever fought on the European continent .It broke out
in 1854and lasted up 1856 between Russia on one hand and Britain, France, Austria, Turkey
and later piedmont (Italy) on the other hand. The pressure later conditioned entry of piedmont
(Italy).Therefore, the war which started as an affair of few European powers several European
powers. The Crimean war was a European war that broke to spell peace that had been ushered
in by the Vienna settlement in Europe. Though the Crimean war broke out as a result of
several factors but responsibilities among the key players can be distributed /blamed/
apportioned among them though many powers were involved but they can be pinpointed as
most or least responsible among which were Turkey, Britain, France and Russia as stipulated in
the following analysis.

a. RUSSIA (TSAR NICHOLAS 1)

1. Russian imperialism in the Balkan region. She hoped to disintegrate Turkish Empire.
She kept on describing Turkey as a sick man of Europe something that left other
European powers very suspicious.
2. Russia pursued economic interest in the region which threatened the interests of
other counties.
3. Russia pursed economic interests in the region the threatened the interests of other
states.
28
4. Russian’s demanded to protect the holy places by Prince Menshikoff who was
Russia’s representative in Turkey led to conflicts between Russia and other
European powers. Historically was the responsibility of France since 16 th century
hence this led to conflict which France in 1853.
5. Prince Menshikoff of Russia fuelled the conflicts between Russia and other European
powers by encouraging Russia to attack Turkish fleet at Sinope.
6. Russia’s claims to control all the Christians in the Turkish Empire created a lot of
suspicion. She sent her representatives prince Minstrel off to demand for Russian
right of control of the Christians from the Sultan of Turkey.
7. Russia occupied Moldavia and Walachia in July 1853. This caused a lot of
discontented from Britain, France, even after an ultimatum had been issued for her
to withdraw from the area she refused.
8. Russia’s destruction of the Turkish fleck at Snope November 1853. This caused a lot
of condemnation from Britain and France.
9. The Tsar of Russia refused to recognize and address Napoleon111 in manner
acceptable to European leaders. This caused conflicts with France.
10. Russia miscalculated after the snipe massacre she thought that peaceful
government of Britain under Lord Aberdeen wouldn’t go to war.

b. BRITAIN(REDCLIFF)
1. Britain had economic interests in the Balkans. She wanted to maintain the status
quo of the Ottoman Empire and keep Russia away from the Balkans. Such a move
would the Strategic area from Russian control.
2. Britain held negative attitude towards Russia for her despotism.
3. The British ambassador Red cliff undiplomatically fuelled the conflicts between
Russia and other European powers
4. Britain’s ambassador exaggerated the events in the Balkans which paved way for
the occurrence of the war.
5. Britain championed anti-Russia’s propaganda she includes other powers For
example, France and Turkey to get involved in the war.
6. Britain increased the conflict between France and Russia over the Holy places. She
came forward and openly supported France.
7. Britain encouraged the Sultan of Turkey to issue an ultimatum against Russia that is
the acts of the British ambassador to Turkey had state ford de red cliff incite the
conflict.
8. Britain violated the straits conversion of 1841 by sending her forces across the
Dardanelles in September 1853. This made the war inevitable.
9. Britain is blamed for having decided to follow Russia up to Sebastopol even after
she had withdrawn from Moldavia and Walachia.

c. FRANCE(LOUIS NAPOLEON 111)

1. Napoleon111 of France wanted to gain popularity and Therefore, consolidated his
position at home. Successful war against Russia would make him popular among the
Catholics at home.
2. France wanted to humiliate Nicholas 1 of Russia who had refused to address.
Napoleon111 in a manner acceptable to European leaders.
3. France wanted to revenge for the disastrous Moscow campaign of 1812.
4. France is blamed for reviving her claims her to control the holy places after a long
period of time.
5. France also violated the straits convention of 1841 by sending her troops across the
peer Danielle in September 1853.
6. France instigated anti-Russia attitude among the public and this created desire for
war.

TURKEY(SULTAN MUHAMMAD HAMID 11)

29
1. Her weakness made her vulnerable to foreign intervention. The Empire was
weakening politically and military. Consequently Russia diarized Turkey as the
integrity Russia.
2. Turkey was inconsistent over right full protection of the holy places. She seemed to
recognize both the French and Russian claims and this promoted conflicts among
powers.
3. Turkey mistreated the minority Christians in the Empire. This attracted the attention
of the Great powers especially Russia.
4. Turkey had earlier agreed to Russian demands that is to say the treaty of
Unkiarskelessi which annoyed other European powers.
In analysis, very few powers among responsible holders actually wanted war and
the attempts to apportion the blame among concerned power is a complex task
among historians of modern times though some argue that Russia alone was entirely
responsible for sacrificing continental peace but the reality of the fact was that any
power which was involved in the Crimean war prepared a fertile ground by creating
fear, tension, mistrust and suspicion for the event by 1854and the difference was
variation in degree of magnitude as some powers were more responsible than
others due to the long-term and immediate cause of the war in the Balkan.

THE COURSE OF THE CRIMEAN WAR

1. Crimean war has been described as the tragic comedy a useless war on ground-scale
as there was considerable “tourist traffic”, out of Crimea which served no purpose
and was full of military mistakes in military history. The objective of the war not worthy
wasting the life of a single man according to one French General who said that; “It was a
magnificent but not a war”. This was because the engagements did not produce any fruitful
results and the Allied had to settle down to winter in the Crimea.
2. It was an adventurous war because wives of officers who went with their husbands
to the very scene of the battle or gave hampers of provisions for troops. When Russia
occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, Britain and France demanded Russia should with draw her
troops from the area
3. The Crimean war was due to Russia’s claims and demand effect that Russia should
exercise a general right of protection overall the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman
Empire at the Hoy places around Jerusalem and Bethlehem connected with life of Christ which
were traditional centres of pilgrimage for Christians. The danger for this demand was that
Russia would use such a privilege to interfere in every part of the Ottoman Empire purely for
her own benefits which would affect other European powers .Thus the French traditional guard
ship of the Holy places and British economic interests in the Balkan.
4. Russia’s demands were resented by Sultan of Turkey who was encouraged by British
ambassador Lord Stratford Radcliffe at Constantinople whose actions were upheld by
British parliament and France much took the same line and Britain.
5. Tsar Nicholas l took a move for the Russian troops to occupy the two semi-
independent principalities of Moldavia and Walachia were under Turkish suzerainty
though had no Turkish garrison. Moldavia and Walachia was also asked to with draw her
Warships from the Black sea to their base in Sebastopol. The Tsar announced that Russia would
hold these territories until the Turks met Russian clams.
6. Turkey gave an ultimatum to Russia to evacuate the two principalities but Russia
refused to withdraw the troops from Wallachia and Moldavia after diplomatic
negotiations with Turkey, This led Turkish armies March north and later in October 1853 a state
of war hysteria was set between Russians and Tusks. This was because Turkey had support of
the allied powers Britain and France
7. The war remained tentative and these as diplomatic efforts to arrange the disputes
were still being persuaded but France under their ruler Napoleon III had personal
conflicts with Tsar Nicholas I of Russia having addressed Napoleon as “My friend (Mon ami)
instead of my clear brothers (Mon Frere)”. Therefore, wanted to use this opportunity to
30
 humiliate Nicholas so as to reassert his credibility and legitimacy among leaders of Europe.
Consequently upon this the French warships were ordered up to the Dardanelles during
September 1853which broke the 1841 Straits convention.
8. By the Mid of November 1853, the war still remained tentative though Britain and
France had deployed their warships at Constantinople with aim of forcing Russia out of
Wallachia and Moldavia. This led Russia to act quickly by their fleet attacKing a light Turkish
squadron on the Black Sea at Sinope where the new Russian shell-guns rapidly set the Turkish
vessels ablaze
9. It was after the Sinope destruction by Russia in November 1853 that Britain and
France interpreted this as unjust able massacre and eventually declared war against
Russia in March 1854 whose major objective was to capture and dismantle Sebastopol which
was the Great Russian Naval base on the Black Sea. Prussia and Austria advised Russia to
withdraw the troops from Wallachia and Moldavia which she did in January 1854.
10. The allied powers Britain and France did not withdraw their forces from Wallachia
and Moldavia instead continued to pass more troops in the Crimean peninsula in September
1854 as they were developing new plan of destroying the Russian navy base in the Black Sea in
Crimean Peninsula.
11. The Allied powers landed at Eupataria in the Crimea and by September 1854 the
allied powers decisively had defeated the Russians in the battle of Alma though a
disagreement between British and French commanders the opportunity of attacKing the
Russian strong hold of Sebastopol.
12. The severe winter and cold weather characterised the battle front and this hindered
the military plan of the Allied powers to bombarding Sebastopol. This was common
during the month of January-April. The Allied had to settle down to winter in the Crimea.
Because men had no cold –weather equipment, snow blocked the roads and made it impossible
to bring ammunitions, food, or forage. Horses dies of starvation making the problem still worse.
13. The prevailing weather led Tsar Nicholas I brag that, “ If the Allied powers had
defeated his human Generals, they would not escape two more Generals .i.e.
General January-February.” Indeed most of the forces of Allied powers died because of
starvation, transport became worse, and several soldiers died because of cold conditions,
others became very weak while others suffered from cholera.
14. The causalities of the war were shipped to the across Black Sea nearest big hospital
at Scutari, a journey which in war condition took three weeks. However, at the hospital
conditions were shocKing as most elementary necessities were lacKing. For instance, there no
enough bedsteads, the sheets were of canvas, and so coarse that wounded men recoiled from
them, begging to be left in their blankets; there was no bedroom furniture of any kind, and
empty beer bottles were used as candle sticks. There were no basins, no towels, no soap, no
brooms, no mops, no trays, no plates, no knives, spoons, fuel, scissors, stramong othershers,
splints, bandages or drugs and other several necessary hospital equipment for use hence
several of the soldiers died from the hospital.
15. In 1855, the Allied reorganised themselves as a result of themselves because of the
above conditions and due to the report of an United Nations Organisationfficial
observer W.H.Russel, the correspondent of “The Times” gave the British public some
account of the ghastly mismanagement and an inquiry was started into the conduct of the
war.It was because of the severe suffering of soldiers that the people in Britain demonstrated
against Prime Minster Aberdeen’s government and he was forced to resign and succeeded by
Lord Palmerton who was a Foreign Secretary
16. In 1855, Lord Palmerton of Britain was promoted from the post of Foreign Secretary
to a prime minister and he worked hand in hand with British nurse Florence Nightingale and
her band of nurses broke through the stupidity and obstruction of the allied commanders and
thoroughly recorganised the medical services by supplying necessities to the hospital because
of severe suffering of caUnited States Americalities of the war which resulted into the death
rate of the wounded reducing from 40% - 2%in the hospital at Scutari hospital.
17. The war continued until the Russian fortress of Sebastopol was captured in
September 1853 because the disagreement between British and French commanders the
opportunity of attacKing the Russian strong hold of Sebastopol was lost and the Great Russian

31
 Engineer of Germany descent Toldeben had time to build up further fortifications around the
naval base.
18. Toldeben designed and constructed an elaborate series of earth work defences
around the town which linked together certain existing stone towers or redoubt, such as the
Malakoff and Redan and by the time the allied powers had finished their bombardment of
Sebastopol was stronger than when they first arrived outside it.
19. The Russians brought in further army of 100,000men,which gave them in all about
140,000 against 60,000 of the Allies, more disastrous military decisions than of Marshal St.
Arnold and Lord Raglan
20. The allied forces delayed to continue and invade Sebastopol this gave Russia
opportunity to make defensive wall around Sebastopol and then heavy fighting took
place between the allied powers and Russia in important battles of Inker man and Balaclava
and took allied powers almost a full year before bombarding Sebastopol
21. In April 1855, the war turned against Russia when Piedmont joined the enforcement
of allied side and by May the Russian forces had been weakened and the allied powers
bombarded Sebastopol
22. At last in September 1855, the French captured the principal Fort in front of
Sebastopol, the Malakoff, and this was followed by the surrender of Sebastopol itself. This was
accomplished with reinforcement from the piedmont that rimed the war in June 1855; the war
was brought to an end by the French suggestion to call for peace which was acceptable by
other powers.
23. Tsar Nicholas I had died in March 1855 and he was succeeded by his son Alexander II
who was anxious to bring about internal reforms in Russia so he was more liberal and
willing to end the war and after the falloff Sebastopol he was prepared to get accept what
terms he could get from the French and the British.
24. The peace treaty of Paris of 30th March 1856 was signed to conclude the war after
the negotiations between the allied powers and a Russia at a Conference presided over
by the Emperor Napoleon III.

EFFECTS OF THE CRIMEAN WAR OF 1854-1856

1. Russia was defeated and humiliated as her naval base of Sebastopol was destroyed
by allies that included Britain, France, Turkey who later joined by Piedmont .She was
military forced out of Moldavia and Walachia. Her authority was weakened in Eastern
Europe .She lost territories as well as men in the conflict.
2. It led to decline in relations among the powers the war broke Anglo-French relations
because it increased the popularity of Napoleon the annoyed Britain. Austria was also unhappy
with the victor powers because of the favour they gave to Piedmont during the Paris peace
Conference. Russia wasn’t happy with the defeat that she suffered.
3. It increased prestige, fame and popularity of Napoleon111 at home. He was able to
gain glory and consolidate in power. France emerged victorious in this war against Russia a
nation as enemy. Even the treaty that ended the was signed to Paris and Napoleon111 won
support from the Catholics and glory seekers the Bonapartists at home.
4. It checked Russian military strength in the Balkan region. The fear of Russian expansion
was summoned through temporally she defeated and forced to accept the Black sea clause of
the treaty of Paris where the allied powers restricted Russia from establishing naval bases in
the Black sea. This check was however temporally since the Russia continued nursing her
ambitions of breaKing the Turkish Empire.
5. It checked Russian aggressive influence in the Balkan region. This was done by the
victor powers defeating Russia and granting of independence to Moldavia and Wallachia in the
Paris treaty and forced Russia to surrender her clams over the Orthodox Christians and Slav
people of the Balkans.
6. It led to creation of Rumania by one dedicated president who united the new
independent states Wallachia and Moldavia. This was according to the Paris treaty of
1856 which granted independence to the states after the Crimean war.

32
7. It facilitated the unification of Italy Cavour’s participation in his war earned the
Italians sympathy while Britain and France during the Paris Conference. The Italian
later benefited from military assistance from Napoleon in 1859. Who liberated Lombardy and
was rewarded Nice and Savoy.
8. It contained the sickness of Turkey Empire .This was because she did not collapse at
the hands of Russia since Russia was humiliated and defeated by allied powers. This
led Turkey’s integrity guaranteed during the signing of Paris treaty among all the Major
European powers.
9. It led to loss of lives and property beyond recognition hence it was forgone. The war
led to massive loss of lives all the Turks, Catholics and soldiers who participated in the war and
destruction of property. Russia lost 300,000 French nearly 100,000 during the war showed her
military futility and Britain 60,000 and huge financial damages. The Russian naval port of
Sebastopol was destroyed by the allied forces an indication that the war was useless and
wasteful.
10. It contributed to the unification of Germany. Bismarck was able to gain sympathy
and neutrally of Russia in Franco- Prussian war of 1870, by exploiting the disaster
factions off Russia with Black sea clause of the treaty of Paris of 1856. He promised the Tsar of
Russia to repatriate the Black sea clause. It remained neutral in the Impending war between
Russia and France.
11. It affected the relationship between Russia and Austria. Russia had been a close friend
of Austria as reflected in her assistance to Austria in the 1848 Revolutions .However, the fact
that Austria did not assist Russia in the Crimean wars instead fought on side of Britain, Turkey
and France. This annoyed Russia and Therefore, Russia also remained neutral in the Austro-
Prussian war through which Prussia defeated Austria within seven weeks and this facilitated the
unification of Germany.
12. It led European powers to carry out military reforms. It was due to military mistakes
exposed during the war that became clear that crimes had to be modernized in preparation for
war. European powers For instance, Britain and Russia under took this task reforms were
initiated in the Military department in the army. This followed the initiative of Florence
Nightingale who was her team of volunteer nurses treated wounded soldiers at the Military
hospital of Sultan.
13. Small states in the Turkish Empire gained independence. They benefited from the peace
treaty of Paris being declared independently For example, Moldavia Walachia and Serbia. The
states of Moldavia and Walachia prospected and became the Kingdom of Rumania. The
independence of these states seemed to weaken the powers of Sultan of Turkey.
14. It encouraged domestic reforms in Russia. The defeat of Russia exposed the Weakness of
Tsarist system. Tsar Nicholas I of Russia was forced to grant reforms For example, to resort to
reforms of agriculture and industry, decrease of the emancipation of serfs. The humiliation
faced by Russia had long term effect that led to later Revolutions.
15. Paris became a diplomacy centre of Europe. This was because the treaty which concluded
the Crimean in 1856 was signed in Paris the capital city of France. It should be recalled that
between 1815-1830, the Centre of European diplomacy and peace was Vienna in Austria but it
was changed to London in Britain between 1830-1841to London in Britain. But after lasting
peace in Europe for a period of 14yearsthe war broke out in Crimea among Great powers and it
was ceased by the signing of Paris treaty to restore peace and stability in Europe which was
successful up to 1878 before the calling of the Berlin Conference.
16. It led to changes in governments in some European states. When the allied forces
suffered from the severe conditions of the war, the public in England demonstrated against
Lord Arboden the prime Minister who was forced to resign and Lord palmer stone became the
new prime minister while Benjamin Disraeli as his foreign minister hence the rise of rise of new
Leading States men in Europe.
17. It led to fair treatment of Christian subject Nationalities of Balkans by the Sultan of
Turkey. The Sultan was forced by the Allied powers to promise fair treatment of the Orthodox
Christians in the Balkans during the signing of the Paris treaty of1856.
18. It led to free navigation of big waters like Black sea, Mediterranean Sea and River
Danube. The Black Sea which was another area of contest was neutralized and
interNationalized. This meant that all warships of all nations were allowed on neither the sea
33
 nor the Russian to build the any military fortifications. The Crimean war Therefore, remained a
wasteful contest since it blocked Russian imperial interests in the Balkan region.
19. The Orthodox Christians were indeed treated fairly until the rise of new sultan
Abdul Ham to power in 1875who launched fresh massacres against Christians of Bosnia-
Herzegovina and Bulgaria
20. It ended the lasting peace that had prevailed in Europe for 40 years.
21. It compelled Russia to violet the Black sea clause in 1870.It should be recalled that
during the Paris treaty the Black sea was neutralized that is to say Warships of any nation were
allowed on it. However, this was a blow to Russian Imperialism.
22. It laid a foundation for more sophiscated military hardware For example, during
World War I and II. This was due to the Paris treaty where The Russian were not
allowed to build any military Naval confiscation.
23. It revived interNational diplomacy in Europe as powers released the need to use
diplomatic approach to solve interNational conflicts. Increased upheavals in the
Turkish Empire.
24. There was serious crisis in the Balkans after 1870. The sultan refused to carry out
his administration and treat Christians fairly. This created rebellions for example.
the Belgium uprising of 1876.
25. I which attracted the intervention of Russia. The crisis culminated to the Berlin
Congress of 1878.
26. It led to economic decline of Russia.
27. It laid a foundation for the formation of Red Cross Society in 1856 by a British nurse
Nightingale at scutari.
28. It led to the revival of Russian imperialistic tendencies mainly in 1878 when she
created the Big Bulgaria.

THE PARIS TREATY OF 1856

The Paris Treaty of 1856 was a treaty signed by the victorious powers of Britain, France,
Piedmont and Turkey which Russia to end the Crimean war because all leaders were sigNorth
Atlantic Treaty Organisationries to this treaty. The treaty was not a success to any party
because it was short lived. The allies seemed victorious over Russia but only for a short time.
However, the treaty had the following out comes.

1. The Black sea was neutralized that is to say Warships of any nation were not allowed on it be it
Ruusia or Turkey. This was a blow to Russian Imperialism in the Balkan region.
2. Russia was stopped from establishing her Navy bases in the Black Sea anymore and not
allowed to build any military naval Fortification.
3. Russians had to abandon their claims to protect the orthodox Christians in the Turkish
Empire.Therefore, the treaty dismissed her clainm of protecting the Othordox Christians in
Moldavia and Wallachia.
4. Russia lost territory of Bessarabia as a punishment and it was added to the new independent
states of Moldavia and Wallachia.
5. The Danube Rivers were interNationalized ör navigated hence was set free to the Merchant
vessels of all Nations.
6. The sultan of Turkey was made to promise that he treats the non Moslems in his Empire fairly
on equality with his Muhammedans.
7. Moldavia and Walachia were given complete independent and they were enlarged which the
additional of southern Bessarabia that had been urged to acknowledge Turkish over lordship.
8. Serbia was given her independence; however none of the arrangements made by allies seemed
to be permanent. Prussia repudiated by the Black sea clauses while France was fighting with
Prussia in 1870. She was encouraged by Bismarck. The sultan of Turkey failed to live up to his
promise of fair treatment of the Christians.
9. A scret clause was included in treaty guaranteeing freedom to any one that had the
opportunity of destroying Austria’s power in Italy and Germany.

34
 THE IMPACT OF PARIS TREATY OF 1856 ON EUROPE

1. It assured integrity and independence of the Turkish Empire.

2. It admitted Turkey in the Concert of Europe.
3. It terminated the Straits Convention of 1841.
4. Moldavia and Walachia were given complete independent and they were enlarged which the
additional of southern Bessarabia that had been urged to acknowledge Turkish over lordship.
5. It led Russia to lose a territory of Bessarabia as a punishment and it was added to the new
independent states of Moldavia and Wallachia.
6. It checked temporarily the Russian an imperial ambitions in the Balkans. This was because
Russia was stopped from establishing her nay bases in the Black Sea anymore and not allowed
to build any military naval Fortification.
7. Russians had to abandon their claims to protect the orthodox Christians in the Turkish Empire.
8. Serbia was also given independence; however none of the arrangements made by allies
seemed to be permanent. Prussia repudiated by the Black sea clauses while France was
fighting with Prussia
9. It interNationalized Danube Rivers because it was set free to the Merchant vessels of all
Nations.
10. It forced the sultan of Turkey to treat the non Moslems in his Empire fairly.
11. It increased Napoleon III’s prestige and popularity in France and rest of Europe.
12. It supported the unification of Italy.
13. It led to the disintegration of Turkish Empire as the treaty granted semi –independence to the
two principalities Moldavia and Wallachia.
14. It worsened the relationship between Russia and other European powers. The Black sea was
neutralized that is to say Warships of any nation were allowed on it which was a blow to
Russian Imperialism.
15. It humiliated Russia as she lost the territory of Moldavia and Walachia including Bessarabia that
had been urged to acknowledge Turkish over lordship
NB. Although the Paris treaty of 1856 was signed, some of the provisions remained on paper. For
example, the Russian ambitions or interests in Ottoman Empire were not completely destroyed.
In 1875 Russia For example, tried to force Turkey to grant independence to the Slav states of
Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina who were on the Balkan Peninsula. Most of the benefits were
never permanent. Britain’s fears against Russian influence on the Black and Mediterranean
Seas were not eliminated. The Black Sea clause of the treaty was repudiated by Russia in 1870
when France was busy fighting Prussia. The Sultan continued to mistreat Christians contrary to
the treaty. The Turkish Empire was not saved from disintegration as Britain had wanted as seen
from the independence granted to some of its subjects. The only permanent benefits such as
Florence Nightingales’ reforms, independence to Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia were
incidental and circumstantial hence it was not for them that the Crimean war was fought and it
was fought at a heavy cost in lives and other resources over claims that were not truly justified.
Over half a million people perished coupled with enormous loss in property

THE EASTERN QUESTION AFTER 1870

1. The Eastern question after 1870 was determined by the Paris treaty of 1856. The
granting of independence of independence to Walachia, Moldavia, and the conquest creation of
the independent states of Rumania, in 1869 made independent states which had not yet
acquired independence developed the spirit of Nationalism which future in the Eastern
Question after 1870.
2. The death of Sultan Mahmoud II of Turkey who was replaced by Abdul Hamid II who
violated the good promises of conduct towards Christians subjects and Therefore,
launched oppression of the Christians revolt in the Balkans from 1870 against his new
policies on the orthodox Christians.
35
3. In 1875, the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted against the Sultan of Turkey
in need to acquire independence and due to over mistreatment of the Ottoman Empire.
4. In 1876, the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina were joined by the people of Bulgaria and
Montenegro and Abdul Hamid II reacted to the uprisings by launching severe massacre against
Christian in these areas. For example, in one village of Bulgaria all the people from the
youngest were massacred and this provided the intervention of Russia as the protectorate of
the Slavs race and orthodox Christians in the Balkans.
5. In 1878, Russia captured Constantinople and her intervention was supported by
Serbia but Britain and Austria alarmed for Russia’s advance while Turkey pressured Russia to
make peace with the Sultan. Russia accordingly forced the Sultan to sign a treaty of San
Stefano.
6. .The San Stefano treaty led Russia to gain a territory in the mouth of River Danube,
Bessarabia which had been taken away from Russia in the Paris treaty so it was
returned to Russia while Bosnia and Herzegovina become independent.
7. The San Stefano treaty, had a big Bulgaria clause which violated the relationship
between Russia and other European powers. According to the treaty clause, a new state
known as the Big Bulgaria was established starting from Aegean Sea up to the Black Sea and it
had with the Turkish Empire the two policies. This independent state was suspended to be
responsible to Russia and it had become the largest state in the Balkan.
8. Britain and Austria were alarmed by the creation of the “Big Bulgaria” if it was
under the protection of Russia because it meant increased Russian influence in the Balkan
which would bloc their political and economic interests. It was on this account that Britain and
Austria threatened to fight Russia unless she terminated the treaty of San Stefano.
It was upon these events in the Eastern question that led Otto Von Bismarck as a chancellor of
the new Germany Empire to call the Congress in Berlin to resolve such problems in the Balkans.

NB. The treaty of San Stefano March 1878 was signed between Turkey and Russia as the Turks
were hopelessly defeated in March 1878 and forced to sign the dictated by Russia. Hence
according to its terms a new state of Bulgaria was to be set up and it was to include a
population of the Greeks, Serbs and Bulgarians and this state was to be controlled by Russia,
Serbia and Montenegro were to be enlarged and to be independent of Turkey, Russia was to
regain her lost part of Bessarabia from Rumania and Rumania was to be compensated with a
barren strip of Turkish territory and Bosnia and Herzegovina were now to gain independence
(and not to be given to Austria as agreed earlier.

THE BERLIN CONGRESS OF 1878

The Berlin Congress was a Conference of European powers organised and chaired Bismarck in
Berlin from June-July 1878 to solve the problems and conflicts they had generated among the
European powers between 1870-1878. It was thus a diplomatic meeting whose attendance was
blocked by British foreign secretary Benjamin Disraeli, Austrian Prime Minister Andrassy,
Russia’s Prime Minister Gorhalou, Bismarck the Chancellor of New Germany Empire who called
him the host, and other powers included France, Turkey, and Italy. It followed the worsening
diplomatic relationship between European powers like Britain, Austria-Hungary against Russia’s
conquest and signing of the Sansteferino treaty of March 1878 between Russia and Turkey that
led to the creation of “Big Bulgaria” which was largely regarded as a puppet state of Russia.

REASONS FOR THE SUMMONING OF THE BERLIN CONGRESS OF 1878

1. The Bulgarian atrocities attracted interNational sympathy. There was need to institute
boundary and territorial reconstructing in Balkan region. This was centered on the existing
Conference conflicts and disputes among the respective powers involved in Balkan affairs.

36
 Britain and Austria were against the Russian imperial policy what came to be known as the “Big
Bulgaria” which threatened their interests in the area.
2. The desire to terminate the treaty of San Stefano led to the calling of the Berlin
Conference of 1878.This was intended to minimize the Russian influence in the Balkan and
give permanent settlement to Big Bulgaria where Russian interests would not threaten those of
other European powers especially Britain and Austria.
3. The need to avoid occurrence of the war crisis which was likely to occur between
Britain and Austria against Austria. The Germany chancellor Bismarck knew that war was
likely to prevail between Russia and Britain on one hand and between Russia on the other hand
and it would destroy the DreisKaiserbund alliance initiated in 1872.this has been asserted that
Bismarck‘s intended objective was maintaining pace among European powers because the war
between Austria and Russia would give France an opportunity to ally with the two European
powers against Germany.
4. The need to check on over growing Russian imperialism, Britain and Austria wanted
to bloc Russia’s advancement in the Balkan which was a threat to their political and
economic interests. Russia nursed ambition of dismembering the Turkish Empire which
Britain strongly opposed because this would jeopardise the British economic policy in the
Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Austria also wanted to maintain her integrity on the Turkish
Empire and to maintain the Balance of power in Europe. Therefore, Austria and Britain
supported Bismarck and welcomed the idea of the Conference to resolve the Balkan affairs.
5. The need to give last answer or solution to the Eastern Question conflicts that had
accumulated between 18780-1878. The Crimean war failed to solve these problems as one
historian said, “Almost nothing the war solved because the effects were short lived
and problems remained in Turkish Empire.”
6. The need to respond to the growing Balkan Nationalism necessitated the calling of
Berlin Congress of 1878.Balkan Nationalism was reflected in the revolts of the people of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria and Montenegro between 1875-1875. This proved a threat to
the Turkish Empire and Great powers Austria and Britain because of interference in their
political and economic interests in the Balkans.
7. The Russo-Turkish war of 1877 led to the Berlin Congress of 1878. Russia attacked
Turkey for the mistreatment of the orthodox Christians. Such a war necessitated the Berlin
Congress to solve the conflicts at the hand. It was on this account that the Conference was
called by Bismarck in Berlin.
8. Bismarck wanted to use the Congress of European powers to isolate France from her
would be allies. This would scare France from waging a war of revenge against Germany due
to her loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany during the Franco Prussian war.
9. The desire of Bismarck to seek interNational recognition of newly created Germany
Empire .This would be done in Germany had held an important interNational meeting hence
the summoning o0f the Berlin Congress of 1878.
10. The desire of Bismarck to use the Congress to mediate conflicts between members
of alliance camps. For instance, Russia which had conflicted over treaty of San Stefano had
been members of DreisKaiserbund understanding that Bismarck formed in 1872.
11. The desire to save the Ottoman Empire from braKing led to the calling of the Berlin
Congress of 1878 in Germany. Russia’s imperialism was bent in destroying the Ottoman
Empire and taKing control of it . This is what Britain detested hence calling of the Berlin
Congress in 1878.
12. The need to create peace in the Balkan and European continent at large
necessitated Bismarck to call for the Berlin Congress of 1878. This was because the
political instabilities in the Balkan and Europe in general would have affected the newly created
Germany Empire that wanted to be stable for social economic development.
13. The need to force Sultan Abdul Hamid II of Turkey to respect the promises of good
respect conduct to the Christian subjects in his Empire. This was because his
predecessor had promised good treatment of Christians in the Ottoman Empire in the Paris
treaty of 1856.
14. Russia’s occupation of Adrianople in the Balkan in Jan 1878 led to the calling of the
Berlin Congress. This interfered Britain and France because Russia was threatening
independence of Constantinople and total independence of Ottoman Empire hence Britain
37
 strongly opposed because this would jeopardise the British economic policy in the
Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Austria also wanted to maintain her integrity on the Turkish
Empire and to maintain the Balance of power in Europe.
15. The collapse of Austrian hegemony as an Empire in Central Europe after the
unification of Italy and Germany in 1870 and 1871 respectively forced led to the
calling of the Berlin Congress of 1878. This was because Austria was forced to go to the
Balkan for new colonial possessions and that is why it needed Bosnia and Herzegovina and
crushed with Russia hence it became a source of political instability in Europe which led to the
summoning of the Berlin Congress of 1878.
16. The violation of the Straits convention of 1841and Paris treaty of 1856 by Russia
caused the calling of the Berlin Congress of 1878. In 1870, Russia moblised its battle
ships to the entrance of the black sea, Dardanelles and Bosporus. This could not be tolerated
by Britain because it threatened her commercial interests hence forcing Bismarck to summon
the Berlin Congress of 1878.
17. The declaration of Serbia’s independence influence Russia’s in the region.

TERMS OF THE BERLIN CONGRESS OF 1878

1. The treaty of San Stefano was terminated and Big Bulgaria was divided into 3 parts that
included southern, Central and northern part.
2. The Northern part named Bulgaria was given independence under the leadership of Bulgarian
prince.
3. The central part was named Eastern Rsmelia was given Christian government which was hover
still responsible to the sultan of Turkey.
4. The southern part was Macedonia which was given back to Turkey.
5. Serbia and Montenegro were granted full independence.
6. Bosnia and Herzegovina were put under Austrian control
7. Russia was given territories in the Balkans as consolation for termination of the treaty of San
Stefano i.e. Karl, Beitum, and adahan.
8. Britain was given control over the Mediterranean Sea island of Cyprus.
9. The Sultan of Turkey again promised to treat his Christian subjects fairly.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BERLIN CONGRESS OF 1878.

1. It elevated the position of Germany because Berlin became a centre of diplomacy in

Europe and city was elevated to a Centre of conflict resolution in the Continent.
Germany acquired interNational recognition when interNational Conference was held in Berlin.
This can be further evidenced by the Berlin Conference of 1884/85 which was also summoned
under Bismarck’s chairmanship to resolve the scramble and partition conflicts in Africa among
European powers such developments increased prestige of Bismarck and Germany as a whole.
2. Austria achieved her political aims from the Balkans. This was because Austria acquired
additional territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina who increased her influence in the Balkan thus
military growth of Austria.
3. Britain gained some territories in the Balkan. This was because Britain acquired
additional territories like Britain acquired Cyprus Island and this became the basis of
maintaining and promoting her economic interests. It also acted as a base for monitoring
Russia’s imperialism since Britain was to control the whole of the Mediterranean Sea as a
reward for her recognition. She was encouraged secretly by Bismarck to acquire Egypt which
she did in 1882. This promoted Britain’s political and economic interests in the Mediterranean
Sea.
4. France was isolated from the European affairs. Bismarck secretly argued France to
takeover Tunisia thought the annoyance of Italy. With the move to divert France’s attention to
European affairs, Bismarck’s calculations became true when France occupied Tunisia in 1881.
Italy was compelled to come out of Tunisia and form a dual alliance with Germany.
5. It addressed Balkan Nationalism which had caused instability between 1875-1878.
Indeed Bulgaria and Montenegro which had revolted were granted independence. However
38
 Nationalism of the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina was suffocated as they were put under
Austria and yet these states were about 3 million Slavs tied up in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This
gave Serbia opportunity to start uniting all the Slavs population into one central State. As a
result there was an Austro-Serbian Nationalism called Pan Slavism which prompted Serbia
student to murder arch Duke Franz Francis Ferdinand the Austrian prince on throne on
28th/June/ 1914 giving way to outbreak of World War I.
6. It accelerated the sickness of Turkey. This was because Turkey lost her territories
which were given to other powers. For example, Cyprus was given to Britain, Bosnia and
Herzegovina; Russia retained Bessarabia and territory of Kars, while some territories like
Bulgaria, Montenegro and Serbia were granted independence which led to future conflicts in
the Balkan.
7. It created a period of peace among the Great European powers for almost 36 years.
This was because there was no other war that involved European major powers until 1914
when World War I broke out. Therefore, the Berlin Congress promoted peace and stability in
Europe.
8. It led the Sultan of Turkey change his attitude towards the Christian subjects. In the
Congress, the Sultan promised to treat the Christian subjects fairly and he did for a period of
almost 14 years until 1896 when he resumed massacres against Christians of Armenia and this
lead to peace in the Ottoman Empire and it was after 1896 that Turkey again experienced
insecurity and instability.
9. Russia gained Bessarabia and Kara territory on River Danube. Besides, the Berlin
Congress guaranteed security and independence of Romagna, Greece and Austria. This was
achieved by dismantling Big Bulgaria which proved a threat to the Balkan regional
soveReignties.
10. Some states were granted independence such as Serbia, Romagna and Montenegro.
In this case it was hoped that the Sultan would be intimidated into treating Christian subjects
better in order not to given an excuse for Russia’ intervention in the Balkans on the pretext of
protecting the Orthodox Christians.
11. The territorial adjustments were made on political map of Europe where Russia was
told to drop Big Bulgaria. Big Bulgaria was dismantled there by checKing the Russian
imperialism in the area in the Balkan. This was done by revising the San Stefano treaty thus big
Bulgaria was divided into three parts thus Northern, Central and Central part which left the
people of Macedonia dissatisfied and was a Great setback to Russia .The destruction of big
Bulgaria and subsequent loss of Russia’s influence in the Bulgarian affairs implied defeat for
Russia’s prestige which annoyed Russia and withdrew from the Concert of Europe.
12. The war prevented war that was likely to occur between Britain and Austria on one
side against Russia if Russia had refused to revise the treaty of Sanstefano because of their
dissatisfaction with the San Stefano treaty. This war was prevented when the Berlin Congress
terminated the treaty of San Stefano which created peace and stability in Europe.
13. Turkey retained the southern part-Macedonia across the Aegean to Adriatic Sea.
Thus peace was maintained in the Balkans for a period of almost 30 years because all
territories were restructured without resorting to war. There was no danger of further
massacres because the Sultan had promised better treatment of Christian subjects and Britain
had acquired valuable Mediterranean out port without war thus the Berlin Conference was an
instrument of peace in Europe.
14. It accelerated colonial imperialism in Africa. This was because Bismarck secretly argued
France to takeover Tunisia thought the annoyance of Italy. With the move to divert France’s
attention to European affairs, Bismarck’s calculations became true when France occupied
Tunisia in 1881. Italy was compelled to come out of Tunisia and form a dual alliance with
Germany.
15. It cemented relationship between Turkey and Germany. This was because Bismarck
checked on the peace integration of the Ottoman Empire by restricting Russia’s imperialism. It
was on this account that Germany later sent a number of military advices to Turkey to assist
her reconstructs her Navy. It was because of this good relationship that made Turkey to fight
on the side of Germany during World War I of 1914.
16. It enabled Bismarck to elevate his own name as a man of peace . Bismarck the
chancellor of Germany won interNational respect as the honest broker and arbiter of European
39
 peace. This war was prevented when the Berlin Congress terminated the treaty of Sanstefano
which created peace and stability in Europe and can also be further evidenced by the Berlin
Conference of 1884/85 which was also summoned under Bismarck’s chairmanship to resolve
the scramble and partition conflicts in Africa among European powers.
17. It humiliated Italy by not giving her anything out of the Congress and yet her hopes
in Tunisia were frustrated by France which was encouraged by Bismarck to take over the
colony with a view of isolating France from European affairs. This forced Italy to join the Dual
alliance of Austria and Germany to constitute the Triple alliance powers in 1882.
18. It laid a foundation of Dual alliance. This was because Austria achieved her political
aims from the Balkans by acquiring additional territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina who
increased her influence in the Balkan thus military growth of Austria and joined Germany as an
ally which led to formation of Dual alliance
19. It led the Sultan of Turkey release the selfish of France and Britain that she had
always trusted in her affairs. This was because Britain acquired additional territories like
Britain acquired Cyprus Island and this became the basis of maintaining and promoting her
economic interests. It also acted as a base for monitoring Russia’s imperialism since Britain
was to control the whole of the Mediterranean Sea as a reward for her recognition.
20. It led to collapse of the DreisKaiserbund understanding of 1872 of the 3 Emperors
league of Germany, Austria and Russia. This is because Russia got annoyed when Bismarck
as the chairman of the Berlin Congress favoured interests of Austria and Britain against the
interests of Russia hence Russia pulled out of the DreisKaiserbund which was Emperors’
league.
21. It led to loss of territories in the Balkan states. For instance, Romania, lost t Bessarabia
to Russia. Serbia lost Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia lost on outlet to the Sea while
Bulgaria also Bulgaria lost territory when her size was reduced by the peace makers in the
Berlin Congress.
22. It sowed seed of World War I. This was because Bosnia and Herzegovina was suffocated as
they were put under Austria and yet these states were about 3 million Slavs tied up in Bosnia
and Herzegovina. This gave Serbia opportunity to start uniting all the Slavs population into one
central State. As a result there was an Austro-Serbian Nationalism called Pan Slavism which
prompted Serbia student to murder arch Duke Franz Francis Ferdinand the Austrian prince on
throne on 28th/June/ 1914 giving way to outbreak of World War I.
23. Russia’s imperialism was not completely destroyed by the Berlin Congress. This was
because Russia was unhappy with the settlement. This compelled Russia to join the Dual
Entente of France and Britain to constitute the Triple Entente, a factor which precipitated the
outbreak of World War later in 1914.

THE BA LKAN CRISIS 1908-1913

The Balkan crisis refers to the Wars that sprung in The Balkan Pennisular as or region as part of
the Ottoman Empire 1908-1913.There were two sharp conflicts that heralded the onset of
World War I for instance in the First Balkan War a loose alliance of Balkan States which
constituted Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro eliminated the Ottoman Empire from
most of Europe especially Macedonia. In the Second Balkan War, the allies in the Balkan Legue
fought among themselves for the Ottoman spoils to share Machedonia and the remains of the
Ottoman Empire. The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 initiated a period of conflict that ravaged
southeastern Europe until 1918 and endured there in one form or another into the 21st
century. These Balkan wars originated in the aspirations of the Nationalist states of
southeastern Europe; having previously achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire
during the 19th century.The Nationalist states who were members of the Balkan League wished
to incorporate members of their Nationalities remaining under Ottoman rule and thus achieve
their maximum Nationalist claims. In this way, the states of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and
Serbia sought to emulate the 19th century Nationalist successes of Germany and Italy.

40
 CAUSES OF THE BA LKAN CRISIS 1908-1913

1. The growth of Nationalism in the Balkan states was responsible for the occurrence
of the Balkan crisis of 1908-1913. These Balkan wars originated in the aspirations of the
Nationalist states of southeastern Europe; having previously achieved independence from the
Ottoman Empire during the 19th century, these states wished to incorporate members of their
Nationalities remaining under Ottoman rule and thus achieve their maximum Nationalist
claims. In this way, the states of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia sought to emulate
the 19th century Nationalist successes of Germany and Italy. Competing claims to Ottoman
held territories, especially Macedonia, prevented the Balkan states from cooperating against
the Ottomans. When the Young Turks threatened to reinvigorate the Ottoman Empire after
their 1908 coup, however, the leaders of the Balkan states sought ways to overcome their
rivalries

2. Russian increasing spirit of imperialism in the Balkans was responsible for the Balkan Crisis.
Russian in the disguise of protecting the Turkish Empire against the continuous state of
insecurity and instability by their European provinces diplomacy facilitated their efforts in the
region. The Russians wanted to compensate for their setback in the Bosnian Crisis of 1908-
1909 by establishing a pro-Russian Balkan alliance intended to impede any further Austro-
Hungarian advances in the region. In March 1912, the Bulgarians and Serbs concluded an
alliance under Russian aegis. This agreement contained a plan for the settlement of the
Macedonian problem, including a provision for Russian mediation. The Bulgarians and Serbs
then both made individual agreements with the Greeks and Montenegrins, who also reached
an agreement together. By September 1912 this loose confederation, the Balkan League, was
ready to achieve its goals.

3. The need for independence in Albania contributed to the Balkan crisis. This largely Albanian
inhabited town becomes a part of the new Albanian state. Under Austro Hungarian pressure,
Serbian forces aiding the Montenegrin siege withdrew. The Montenegrins persisted in the
siege, however, and succeeded in taKing the town on 22 April. A Great Power flotilla off the
Adriatic coast forced the Montenegrins to withdraw less than two weeks later, on 5 May. Mean
while in London, peace negotiations resulted in the preliminary Treaty of London, signed on
30May 1913 between the Balkan allies and the Ottoman Empire. By this treaty, the Ottomans
Empire in Europe consisted of only a narrow band of territory in eastern Thrace defined by a
straight line drawn from the Aegean port of Enos to the Black Sea port hence Serbian army
broke the western Ottoman army at Kumanovo on 23 October and proceeded against
diminishing resistance into Macedonia, Kosovo and on through Albania, reaching the Adriatic
coast in December. The Greek navy prevented the Ottomans from shipping reinforcements
from Anatolia to the Balkans, and occupied the Ottoman Aegean Islands. The Greek army
advanced in two directions, entering Salonika on 8 November, and further west, bringing the
town of Janina under siege. Montenegrin forces moved into the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and
besieged the northern Albanian town of Scutari.

4. The annexation and Bulgarian declaration were viewed as a violation of the Treaty
of Berlin was responsible for the Balkan crisis of 1908. It ought to be recalled that
France, Britain, Russia and Italy Therefore, were in favor of a conference to consider the
matter. German opposition and complex diplomatic maneuvering as to the location, nature
and preconditions of the conference delayed and ultimately scuttled though Austria as a Great
European power was given a right to occupy not to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina while
Cyprus to Britain according to the terms of the Berlin Treaty of 1878 yet Serbia, Montenegro
and Romania were declared impendent. This never pleased Turkey because of inadequate
protection Bismarck the peace maker of Europe due to declaration of many of her dominions
41
 independent. However, in October 1908, Austria-Hungary violated the Berlin Treaty of 1878.
This led Serbia to bitterly oppose the annexation and seek for Russian assistance but Russia
failed to comply because of Russio-Japanese war of 1905 which had devastated her. Though
Germany threaded to support Austria during the war , Serbia renounced her opposition to the
annexation of Bosnia and Hergovonia which created tension, mistrust, and flair of militant
Nationalism in Bosnia that led to Sarajevo murder of 1914 which was immediate cause of
World War 1.
5. Competing claims to Ottoman held territories, especially over the Macedonian question
escalated throughout the spring of 1913. The hostilities among the allies of Balkan League
made of Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria over the Macedonian question escalated throughout the
spring of 1913 from exchanges of notes to actual shooting causing the Balkan crisis because it
prevented the Balkan states from cooperating against the Ottomans. When the Young Turks
threatened to reinvigorate the Ottoman Empire after their 1908 coup, however, the leaders of
the Balkan states sought ways to overcome their rivalries. This was during the First Balkan
War, while the Bulgarians contended with the major portion of the Ottoman army in Thrace,
the Serbs had occupied most of Macedonia. Austrian prohibitions prevented the Serbs from
gaining the Adriatic port in northern Albania that they desired as a result the Serbs then
sought to strengthen their hold on Macedonia as compensation for the loss of the Albanian
coast. The Greeks had never agreed to any settlement over Macedonia, and also indicated
that they would retain the Macedonian areas they had occupied while the Bulgarians remained
determined to obtain this area. Therefore, hostilities among the allies over the Macedonian
question escalated throughout the spring of 1913 from exchanges of notes to actual shooting.
It was against this background that these attacks became the signal for the outbreak of
general war. Greek and Serb counterattacks pushed the Bulgarians back to their pre-war
frontiers and when the Bulgarian army began to stabilize the situation, Romanian and
Ottoman units invaded Bulgaria as the Romanians sought to obtain southern Dobrudzha to
broaden their Black Sea coast and to balance Bulgarian gains elsewhere in the Balkans. The
Ottomans wished to regain Adrianople. The Bulgarian army, already heavily engaged against
the Greeks and Serbs, was unable to resist the Romanians and Ottomans which caused a
Balkan crisis.
6. Desire of Austria to maintenance of the status quo in the regions of the Balkans or
of the Ottoman coasts and islands in the Adriatic and in the Aegean Sea should
become impossible. This was if whether in consequence of the action of a Third Power or
otherwise, Austria-Hungary or Italy should find themselves under the necessity of modifying it
by a temporary or permanent occupation on their part, this occupation shall take place only
after a previous agreement between the two Powers, based upon the principle of a reciprocal
compensation for every advantage, territorial or other, which each of them might obtain
beyond the present status quo, and giving satisfaction to the interests and well founded
claims of the two Parties
7. Austrian prohibitions prevented the Serbs from gaining the Adriatic port in
northern Albania that they desired was responsible for Balkan crisis. During the First
Balkan War, while the Bulgarians contended with the major portion of the Ottoman army in
Thrace, the Serbs had occupied most of Macedonia. Austrian prohibitions prevented the Serbs
from gaining the Adriatic port in northern Albania that they desired. The Serbs then sought to
strengthen their hold on Macedonia as compensation for the loss of the Albanian coast. The
Greeks had never agreed to any settlement over Macedonia, and also indicated that they
would retain the Macedonian areas they had occupied. The Bulgarians remained determined
to obtain this area. Hostilities among the allies over the Macedonian question escalated
throughout the spring of 1913 from exchanges of notes to actual shooting. Russian attempts
at mediation between Bulgaria and Serbia were feeble and fruitless.
8. The creation of Balkan league of young Balkan states for deriving Turkey out of
European affairs caused the Balkan crisis. The Balkan League was made of Serbia,
Greece, Rumania, against Turkey caused by the pressure of Nationalism between the Balkan
states and support from the major powers. This was the first Balkan War 1912-13 of
aggression by the young nations of Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria which had
formed the Balkan League on one side and against the interNationally isolated Ottoman
Empire. This was a climax of the Balkan crisis or problems surrounding the existence/
42
 survival of the Turkish Empire in Europe which aimed at driving Turkey out of her dominions in
Europe. The Serb army first entered the ottoman territory inhabited by ethnic Albanians in
October 12 as part of campaign in the then going Balkan war which led the Serbian army to
capture Durres on November, 29th ,1912 without any resistance from Turkey. This signified
that was defeated which increased Serbia’s influence in the Balkans and her rivalry with
Austria-Hungary and Albania gained her independence as the Kingdom of Serbia established
the Country, appointed the governor of the Country, its district offices, Mayor of the city and
commander of the military garrison. Serbia later withdrew the army after signing of London
treaty of May 13th ,1913 allowing Albania State to exist peacefully. Therefore, the war
succeeded in driving out ottoman Empire from European provinces of Albania, Macedonia,
Sandak and Thrace which the Balkan states gained West of from the Enos-Midia line on the
Black sea coast to Enos on the Aegean Sea Coast.
9. Bulgaria’s dissatisfaction with its share of the remains of the first Balkan war of
1912 was responsible for the Balkan crisis of 1913.This was the second Balkan war
between Serbia, Greece, Romania and Montenegro against Bulgaria caused by pressure of
Nationalism between the Balkan states and support from major powers. The immediate cause
of the war due to Bulgaria’s dissatisfaction with its share of the remains of the first Balkan war
of 1912. It was against this background that Bulgaria attacked its former allies of young
nations of Serbia and on June, 16, 1913. The Greeks and Serbian armies repulsed the
Bulgarian offensive and counter attacked entering Bulgaria. This war also provoked Romanian
intervention against Bulgaria for Bulgaria having previously engaged in disputes with
Romania due to Bulgaria’s refusal to cede the fortress of Silistra to Romania
10. The creation of Balkan league of young Balkan states for deriving Turkey out of
European affairs caused the Balkan crisis. The Balkan League was made of Serbia,
Greece, Rumania, against Turkey caused by the pressure of Nationalism between the Balkan
states and support from the major powers. The Balkan wars consolidated the alliance networks
between Serbia and Russia on one hand and Bulgaria and Austria on the other. The wars
heightened Nationalism, intensified Austro – Russian and Austro – Serbian rivalries which
sparked off World War 1 in 1914. The Sarajevo Murder of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand that
sparked off the war was the climax of the Balkan crisis.
11. The conflicting interests of Russia and Austria in the Balkan region. Russian diplomacy
facilitated their efforts contributed to the Balkan crisis. The Russians wanted to compensate
for their setback in the Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 by establishing a pro-Russian-Balkan
alliance intended to impede any further Austro-Hungarian advances in the region. In
March1912, the Bulgarians and Serbs concluded an alliance under Russian aegis. This
agreement contained a plan for the settlement of the Macedonian problem, including a
provision for Russian mediation. The Bulgarians and Serbs then both made individual
agreements with the Greeks and Montenegrins, who also reached an agreement together. By
September 1912 this loose confederation, the Balkan League, was ready to achieve its goals.
Montenegro began the First Balkan War on 8 October 1912. Before the other allies could join
in, the Ottomans declared war on the Balkan League on 17 October.. The Serbs then
proceeded against diminishing resistance into Macedonia, Kosovo and on through Albania,
reaching the Adriatic coast in December.
12. Austrian prohibitions prevented the Serbs from gaining the Adriatic port in
northern Albania that they desired caused the Crimean war. It had no practical prospects
of governing. A boycott of Austro-Hungarian goods and shops did occur, inflicting commercial
losses of over 100,000,000 kronen on Austria-Hungary. On 26 February, Austria-Hungary
settled the matter in a treaty. Austria-Hungary agreed to pay the Ottomans 2.2 million
Ottoman lira for the public land in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Bulgarian independence could not
be reversed in the region.
13. The annexation and Bulgarian declaration were viewed as violations of the Treaty of
Berlin. France, Britain, Russia and Italy Therefore, were in favor of a conference to consider
the matter. German opposition and complex diplomatic maneuvering as to the location, nature
and preconditions of the conference delayed and ultimately scuttled it. Instead, the Powers
reached agreement on amendments to the Treaty through consultations between capitals The
Sanjak of Novi Pazar separated Montenegro from Serbia and prevented the geographic and
political union of these two states which were often closely aligned. The Austrian occupation of
43
 the Sanjak was also significant because it provided Austria-Hungary with a staging area for
possible future expansion towards the Aegean port of Salonika in Ottoman controlled
Macedonia. The Bosnian population was already religiously divided into Muslims, Catholics and
Orthodox Christians. Austria-Hungary exercised its rights, taKing firm control of Bosnia-
Herzegovina and jointly occupying the Sanjak of Novi Pazar together with the Ottoman Empire.
The Treaty of Berlin allowed for sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, but did not
specify a final disposition of the provinces. This omission was addressed in the Three
Emperors' League treaty of 1881, where both Germany and Russia endorsed Austria's right to
annex Bosnia-Herzegovina. However, by 1897, under the new Tsar, Nicholas II, the Russian
Imperial government had managed, again, to withdraw its support for Austrian annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Russian Foreign Minister, Count Michael Muraviev, stated that an
Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina would raise "an extensive question requiring
special scrutiny".
14. The return a Young Turk government to power in Constantinople through a coup on
23 January 1913. This government was determined to continue the war, mainly in order to
retain Adrianople. It denounced the armistice on 30 January. Hostilities recommenced, to the
detriment of the Ottomans. Janina fell to the Greeks on 6 March and Adrianople to the
Bulgarians on 26 March. The siege of Scutari, however, incurred interNational complications.
The Austrians demanded that this largely Albanian inhabited town become a part of the new
Albanian state. Under Austro-Hungarian pressure, Serbian forces aiding the Montenegrin siege
withdrew. The Montenegrins persisted in the siege, however, and succeeded in taKing the
town on 22 April. A Great Power flotilla off the Adriatic coast forced the Montenegrins to
withdraw less than two weeks later, on 5 May. Meanwhile in London, peace negotiations
resulted in the preliminary Treaty of London, signed on 30 May 1913 between the Balkan allies
and the Ottoman Empire. By this treaty, the Ottomans Empire in Europe consisted of only a
narrow band of territory in eastern Thrace defined by a straight line drawn from the Aegean
port of Enos to the Black Sea port of Midya.

THE EFFECTS OF THE 1908-1913 BALKAN CRISIS

1. The Turkish forces were driven out of Macedonia by the end of the First Balkan War
in 1913. The newly Slavic nations of Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece signed a peace
treaty with Turkey on May 30th, 1913 which concluded the first Balkan war and drove the
Turkish forces of Macedonia territory of the Ottoman Empire located in the tumultuous
Balkans region of Southern Europe
2. Balkan Wars were disastrous resulted in huge casualties. The Bulgarians lost around
65,000 men, the Greeks 9,500, the Montenegrins, 3,000, and the Serbs at least 36,000. The
Ottomans lost as many as 125,000 dead. In addition, tens of thousands of civilians died from
disease and other causes. Deliberate atrocities occurred throughout every theater of war.
3. The Balkan Wars was the alienation of Bulgaria from Russia. It was until 1913, Bulgaria
had been Russia’s most important client in the Balkan region. Bulgaria’s proximity to
Constantinople afforded Russia a valuable base from which to bring pressure upon this vital
area. The failure of Russian diplomacy to mediate the Bulgarian-Serbian dispute over the
disposition of Macedonia led to Bulgaria's catastrophic defeat in the Second Balkan War and
Bulgaria’s subsequent turn to the Triple Alliance for redress. This left Serbia as Russian’s only
ally in the Balkans. When Austro-Hungarian chastisement threatened Serbia in July 1914
because the Russians had to protect Serbia or else lose the Balkans completely.
4. The ambitions of the Montenegrins and Serbs in Albania Greatly increased Austro-
Hungarian antipathy towards these two south Slavic states. The Viennese government
became determined that Serbian power should not increase in the Balkans. On three separate
occasions, in December 1912, in April 1913 and again after the Balkan Wars in October 1913
the Austro-Hungarians came into conflict with the Serbs and Montenegrins over Albanian
issues. Even though war resulted in the summer of 1914 from an event in Bosnia, the conflicts

44
 over Albania informed the Austrians’ decision to fight the Serbs. The First World War was not
the Third Balkan War; rather the Balkan Wars were the beginning of the First World War.
Nationalist conflicts persisted in southeastern Europe from 1912 to 1918. Problems of
Nationalism endured there into the 21st century.
5. It led to outbreak of World War 1 which sparked off from Sarajevo the capital city of
Bosnia . It should be noted that the increasing ambitions of the Montenegrins and Serbs in
Albania Austro-Hungarian antipathy towards these two south Slavic states in the Balkan
region. The Viennese government became determined that Serbian power should not increase
in the Balkans. On three separate occasions, in December 1912, in April 1913 and again after
the Balkan Wars in October 1913 the Austro-Hungarians came into conflict with the Serbs and
Montenegrins over Albanian issues. Even though war resulted in the summer of 1914 from an
event in Bosnia, the conflicts over Albania informed the Austrians’ decision to fight the Serbs.
The First World War was not the Third Balkan War; rather the Balkan Wars were the beginning
of the First World War because Nationalist conflicts persisted in southeastern Europe from
1912 to 1918 because problems of Nationalism endured there into the 21st century.
6. Bulgaria gained her independence. The day after Bulgaria declared its independence
from the Ottoman Empire on 6 October. Emperor Franz Joseph announced to the people of this
Ottoman territory (that had been occupied by Austria for 30 years) his determination to
recognize and grant them an autonomous and Constitutional regime, under his authority as
their annexing soveReign. The following day, Austria-Hungary announced its withdrawal from
the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. Bulgarian independence and the Bosnian annexation were not
covered by the Treaty of Berlin and set off a flurry of diplomatic protests and discussions.
7. Albania gained her independence on The First Balkan War on 8 October 1912. Before the
other allies could join in, the Ottomans declared war on the Balkan League on 17 October.. The
Serbs then proceeded against diminishing resistance into Macedonia, Kosovo and on through
Albania, reaching the Adriatic coast in December. The Greek navy prevented the Ottomans
from shipping reinforcements from Anatolia to the Balkans, and occupied the Ottoman Aegean
Islands. The Greek army advanced in two directions, entering Salonika on 8 November, and
further west, bringing the town of Janina under siege. Montenegrin forces moved into the
Sanjak of Novi Pazarand besieged the northern Albanian town of Scutari/Shkoder. The
Ottomans signed an armistice with Bulgaria, Montenegro and Serbia on 3 December. Greek
military operations continued. By this time, Ottoman Europe was limited to the three besieged
towns of Adrianople, Janina, and Scutari, the Gallipoli peninsula and eastern Thrace behind the
Chataldzha lines. As a result of the Ottoman collapse, groups of Albanian notables, supported
by Austria and Italy, declared Albanian independence on 28 November 1912. While
delegations from the Balkan allies attempted to negotiate a final peace with the Ottomans in
London, a conference of Great Power ambassadors met in London to ensure that their
interests would prevail in any Balkan settlement.
8. It led to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire . The Ottomans signed an armistice with Bulgaria,
Montenegro and Serbia on 3 December 1912. Greek military operations continued. By this
time, Ottoman Europe was limited to the three besieged towns of Adrianople, Janina, and
Scutari, the Gallipoli peninsula and eastern Thrace behind the Chataldzha lines. As a result of
the Ottoman collapse, groups of Albanian notables, supported by Austria and Italy, declared
Albanian independence on 28 November 1912. While delegations from the Balkan allies
attempted to negotiate a final peace with the Ottomans in London, a conference of Great
Power ambassadors met in London to ensure that their interests would prevail in any Balkan
settlement It should be recalled that during the first Balkan war of 1912, a groups of Albanian
notables, supported by Austria and Italy, declared Albanian independence on 28 November
1912.
9. It led to Bulgaria lost most of Macedonia to Greece and Serbia, and southern Dobrudzha to
Romania. This was due to hostilities among the allies of Balkan League made of Serbia, Greece
and Bulgaria over the Macedonian question escalated throughout the spring of 1913 from
exchanges of notes to actual shooting causing the Balkan crisis. This was during the First
Balkan War, while the Bulgarians contended with the major portion of the Ottoman army in
45
 Thrace, the Serbs had occupied most of Macedonia. Austrian prohibitions prevented the Serbs
from gaining the Adriatic port in northern Albania that they desired as a result the Serbs then
sought to strengthen their hold on Macedonia as compensation for the loss of the Albanian
coast yet the Bulgarians remained determined to obtain these area. Therefore, circumstances,
led Bulgaria to sue for peace which resulted into the signing of Bucharest Treaty on 10
August1813. Bulgaria Therefore, lost most of Macedonia to Greece and Serbia, and southern
Dobrudzha to Romania whereas the Constantinople treaty signed on September, 30 1913,
ended Bulgaria's brief occupation of Adrianople.
10. It led to the collapse of the Triple alliance which was made of Germany, Italy and
Austria. It should be recalled that Italy’s expectation in Balkan compensations in the areas
of "Italia Irredenta" ruled by Austria-Hungary. This was in exchange for its recognition of the
annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, as was agreed upon in the Triple Alliance treaties with
Austria-Hungary. However this did not happen and this became one of the reasons for Italy to
break its alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1915The mutual compensation clause was article 7
of the 1909 and of 5 December 1912 versions of the same treaty.
11. It led to the assassination of the King of Turkey In 1903 .in a coup and the pro-Russian
Karađorđević dynasty came to the throne. Power shifted to elements widely interested in
expansion into Bosnia. These Serbs wanted to take over the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and Bosnia-
Herzegovina from the Austro-Hungarians. Relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary
gradually deteriorated. However, Russia's ability to support Serbia was Greatly reduced
following military humiliation in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War and the ensuing internal unrest
Hence by 1907, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois Aehrenthal began formulating a plan
to solidify Austria-Hungary's position towards Serbia through annexation of Bosnia-
Herzegovina. His opportunity came in the form of a letter from Russian Foreign Minister
Alexander Izvolsky and a subsequent meeting at Buchlau castle in Moravia, Austria-Hungary.
12. The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 initiated a period of conflict that ravaged
southeastern Europe until 1918 and endured there in one form or another into the
21st century. These Balkan wars originated in the aspirations of the Nationalist states of
southeastern Europe; having previously achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire
during the 19th century, these states wished to incorporate members of their Nationalities
remaining under Ottoman rule and thus achieve their maximum Nationalist claims. In this way,
the states of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia sought to emulate the 19th century
Nationalist successes of Germany and Italy.

THE FACTORS FOR COLLAPSE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE BY THE SECOND HALF OF
THE 19TH CENTURY.

It was after a long decline since the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire came to an end in the
aftermath of its defeat in World War I when it was dismantled by the Allies after the War ended
in 1918 as stipulated under.

1. The growth of Nationalism with in the Empire contributed to the fall of the Turkish
Empire. The Empire became embroiled in struggles of Nationalism by the beginning of the
nineteenth century as many subordinate states demanded for independence which disorganised
the Empire. They were inspired by the ruthlessness of the Turkish rulers, declining military
power of the Sultan and encouragement from imperial powers especially Russia. For example,
the Serbs revolted in 1804 and 1815, the Egyptians under Mohammed Ali threatened to secede
by 1805, the Greeks revolted between 1821 and 1833 and Bulgaria from 1875 and 1885 among
others. All these revolts weakened the Empire and inspired the vassal states to break , Greece
in1833; Albania, Serbia, Wallachia, and Moldavia were almost independent by 1830.The result
was that the Empire was dragged into many fronts of conflict to suppress many rebellions,
attracting the attention of the Great powers leading to breakdown of the Ottoman Empire.
2. The increasing economic problems within the Empire were responsible for the
collapse of Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire was the laughing stock of Europe due to
its rotten economy by the end of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was riddled with
46
 financial crises caused by rampant corruption and the exploitation of her subjects especially in
taxation system. The administrators imposed heavy taxes on the subjects and the methods of
collection were very brutal yet the tax collectors took up most of the Revenue. The sultan lacked
an effective / efficient hand in taxation system and due to the economic difficulties that
characterized the Empire to the extent of negatively affecting the infrastructural and military
development of the Empire that attracted resistance against the administration that led to the
imperial decay of the Ottoman Empire thus being referred to as the “sick man of Europe” hence
collapse of the Empire.
3. The loss of trade monopoly led to the disintegration of Turkish Empire: From 1456
when the Empire was formed, Turkey was the Greatest commercial nation that dominated trade
across the Mediterranean and Black sea in the far and near east of the European continent.
However, in the nineteenth century, the Empire lost her monopoly in trade as her foreign trade
in the Far East and Mediterranean Sea steadily declined which deprived her of the needed
wealth to sustain the military and political organization capable of sustaining an extensive area.
This was worsened by the fact that European powers such as Britain, Russia, and France
became interested in the Balkan region and aggressively took over the trade rights, which
further worsened the economic difficulties and undermined the military strength of the Empire
leading to the decay of the Ottoman Empire hence being referred to as the “sick man of
Europe”.
4. The social and religious discriminations by the Moslem Turkish rulers who persecuted
the Christian subjects was responsible for the collapse of Ottoman Empire. Socially,
the Ottoman Empire lived in religious divisions with the Orthodox Christians as subjects and the Muslim
Turks as rulers. However, it is sad to note in the nineteenth century that the Christians were
discriminated against in terms of participation in the general administration of the Empire, the
Orthodox Christians catered for their own education and other social services yet they paid very
high taxes that were harshly collected. This was worsened by the fact that the Muslim rulers
became hostile to the Christians, sparKing off revolts by the Christian subjects against the
Turkish rulers‟ For example, in Greece between 1821 and 1833. This gave an excuse for the
intervention of western European powers like Russia, France, and Britain in the Empire in guise
of being sympathetic to the Christian communities leading to breakdown of the Ottoman
Empire.
5. The emergence of the educated elites who did not agree with the conservative and
oppressive Turkish administration contributed to the fall of the Turkish Empire. They
demanded for social, political, and economic reforms and even prayed for Nationalistic
movements whose activities they were ready to finance. Notable among them were Alexander
Ypsilanti and Capodestrous. The educated elites offered the leadership and fueled criticisms
against the Turkish rule, which incited rebellions against the Empire in demand for
independence and western democracy. It is important to note that this had not been familiar in
the Empire before the nineteenth century and it is sad to note that the government of the sultan
refused to listen to the demands of the educated elites and fueled criticisms that increased
Nationalism within the Empire rendering it sick and bound to collapse.
6. The interference of Great European powers in the Turkish affairs increased hostility
between Britain and Russia led to the disintegration of Turkish Empire. This was a big
threat to European peace as diplomacy almost collapsed. The 1841 Straits Convention was
basically meant to reverse the terms of the Unkiar Skelessi Treaty of 1833 between Turkey and
Russia. This was a Great threat to Britain’s economic and navy interests. The Straits convention
was Therefore, signed to between Britain and Turkey containing the Article that turkey was to
close the Straits of Dardanelles and Bosporus to Warships o all nations in times of peace. The
convention Therefore, scared the triumph for Britain since the threats of Roman and Russia
expansion had been checked and Sultan’s powers as Turkey began to depend on Britain. The
two powers Britain and Russia remained suspicious of one another and later this culminated into
the Crimean War of 1854-1856 hence collapse of the Empire.
7. The weakness of the Congress system of 1818-1830 over the problems of Turkey was
responsible for the collapse of Ottoman Empire. since Alx-La-Chapelle 1818 proved a
failure in 1821.Actually the Greek War of independence became one of the issues difficult to
deal with at the Congress of Verona in 1822 leading to disagreements among Great powers
such as Britain, Russia and France who chose to support the Greeks while Austria and Prussia
47
 opposed the cause and desire to remain intact. As a result the Greeks received some sympathy
from the very major European powers like Britain, Russia and France that had voted to suppress
revolts. This eventually led to the Greek War of independence and spread of Nationalism and
liberalism in other Turkish vassal states and culminated into its collapse.
8. Embezzlement and corruption of the Turkish officials led to the disintegration of
Turkish Empire. This inspired the Greeks to revolt because they were required to pay
capitation for the sole reason of remaining alive in the Turkish Empire. They also paid land tax,
commerce tax and other general taxes .The Greeks hated these taxes because they never
benefited from them which inspired the Greeks to demand for independence hence the revolt of
1821which led to distergration of the Empire.
9. Decline in military strength of the Turkish Empire was responsible for the collapse of
Ottoman Empire. The loss of military strength: By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the
Turkey could no longer hold her grip on the Empire because of the increasing military weakness.
She failed to rival the ever-increasing military power of the other continental European powers
especially Russia and Austria and on many occasions, she failed to recapture her past glory. She
was forced due to military weakness to lose Hungary to Austria and Crimea to Russia. Most of
the provincial states like Egypt were creating more powerful armies than the Ottoman sultan
and were taKing advantage of the Empire’s weaknesses For example, Mohammed Ali of Egypt
forcefully occupied Syria in 1832. The military weakness of the Ottoman Empire was amplified
by the different Nationalities recruited whose interests did not rhyme those of the Empire. Such
military decay justified the description of Turkey or the Ottoman Empire as the “ sick man of
Europe” in the nineteenth century and was Therefore, bound to collapse.
10. Emergency of Revolutionary groups like the Middle class and intellectuals in Greece
and Serbia led to the disintegration of Turkish Empire. The growing prosperity of Greek
Middle class -merchants constituted of the elites and Merchants who monpolised trade and
commerce and became wealthy but such concessions did not alter the fact that they were
enslaved race; subjected to arbitrary of local governors. They played a Great role in unification
struggle. They spread a message of independence and created a sense of revolt among the
Greeks. They also moblised their resources and joined the Greek patriots of a secret society of
Friends known as “Hetairia Philike” under Hypsilanti who moblised ,organised and led the
Revolution to except the Turks from scared Greece soil hence collapse of the Empire.
11. Influence of 1789 French Revolution principles of liberty, equality and fraternity
contributed to the fall of the Turkish Empire. The French Revolution was one of the most
important events recorded in human history contributed to the growth of Nationalism in the
whole of Europe. The liberalities liberal ideas of the French Revolution thus liberty, equality and
fraternity as well as opposition to oppression were a source of inspiration. Napoleon the Great
continued to spread these ideas to the rest of European countries especially those under foreign
domination which later transformed Greek Nationalism which later spread to other vassal states
like Moldavia, Wallachia Montenegro Herzegovina, Bulgaria and broke away from the Ottoman
Empire hence its collapse..
12. Selfish interests among major European powers led to the disintegration of Turkish
Empire. The hidden interest of European powers in the Balkans, For example, Britain. Russian
claims to protect Orthodox Christian in the Turkish Empire were a cover up of her imperial and
economical ambitions. Although she was a sigNorth Atlantic Treaty Organisationry to the
Troppau protocol that spelt out the need to suppress Revolutions she openly came forWard to
support the Greek Revolution. On the other hand Britain wanted the Turkish Empire to survive
so as to protect her economic interest. This exposed double standards of Britain. Britain claimed
to protect the integrity of Turkey but she showed double standards of Britain when she
supported Greek to have independence. This was because Britain was bent on protection of her
economic interests by preventing a possible Russian advance on the Mediterranean schemes
leading to breakdown of the Ottoman Empire.
13. The Syrian question of 1840 was responsible for the collapse of the Ottoman Empire .
This was a struggle between the Egyptian leader Mehmet Ali and the sultan of Turkey to control
Syria. In order to suppress the Greeks the sultans of Turkey had hired Mehmet Ali but promised
him Syria as a reWard for his services. The sultans failed to fulfill his promise and consequently
Mehmet Ali invaded Syria in 1831. He sent his son Ibrahim Pasha with an Egyptian army to
invade Syria and Pasha even managed to move up to Constantinople within a year and the
48
 Sultan was then forced to abandon Syria, Damascus and Palestine to Ibrahim leading to
breakdown of the Ottoman Empire.
14. Corruption on the Turkish officials led to the disintegration of Turkish Empire. The
Christian states in the Balkans such as the serbs,Greeks, Bulgarians were inspired to revolt
because they were required to pay capitation for the sole reason of remaining alive in the
Turkish Empire. They also paid land tax, commerce tax and other general taxes which were
collected by the Turkish governors hrough brutality.They Therefore, hated these taxes because
they never benefited from them which inspired the Greeks to demand for independence hence
the revolts of 1804-1908.For instance the Serbs revolted in 1804 and 1815, the Egyptians under
Mohammed Ali threatened to secede by 1805, the Greeks revolted between 1821 and 1833 and
Bulgaria from 1875 and 1885 among others. All these revolts weakened the Empire and inspired
the vassal states to break, Greece in1833; Albania, Serbia, Wallachia, and Moldavia were almost
independent hence collapse of the Empire.
15. World War 1 was responsible for the collapse of Turkish Empire. World war 1 was the
climax of the Balkan crisis sparked off as a result of the Sarajevo double muder of Franz
Ferdinand and his Czech wife Sophie on the 28 June 1914 was the immediate spark that set
ablaze the peace of the World. This was as aresult of Serbia’s formation the Balkan League of
Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria with each state‘s motive of gaining part of the original area
controlled by the Ottoman Empire .This resulted into outbreak of a War in Turkey by the four
states which registered more territorial gains after defeating Turkey . The War led to loss of
Turkey’s territorial right in Sudan,Libyia, Syeria, Saudi –arabia, Palestine and Mesopotamia and
control over the straits from Black Sea to Mediterrean Sea, which were put in hands of
interNational commission an indication that Turkish Empire was no more as a trans-conental
Empire.

APPORTION OF THE BLAME ON RESPONSIBLE POWERS FOR VTHE COLLAPSE OF

OTTOMAN EMPIRE / TURKISH EMPIRE IN 1914
The Ottoman Empire was a multiNational, multilingual Empire controlling much of Southeast
Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa stretching from the
Persian Gulf in the East to Hungary in the northwest and from Egypt in the south to the
Caucasus in the North contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states by the between the
16th and 17th Centuries. Some were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were
granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries with Constantinople as its
capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the
center of interactions between the Eastern and Western Worlds for six centuries.However, in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries, Turkey’s political and military might in Europe was steadily
declining as the Christian people in the Balkans such the Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians
Montenegro’s were mistreated their colonial maters the Turkish Muslims .This attracted the
attention of powerful European states especially Russia whose Emperor, Tsar Nicholas 1
described Turkey as “Sick man of Europe”. Hence the conflicting interests of the Great
European powers in the Bulkan region they rivaled to dominate interests of the Turkish Empire
for different political, social,cultural and economic reasons. Its against this background that the
key players can be distributed /blamed/ apportioned among them though many countries were
involved but they can be pinpointed as most or least responsible among which were Russia,
Austria, Britain , France, and Turkey as stipulated in the following analysis:

HOW RUSSIA WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE TURKISHEMPIRE/

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

1. Russia pressed interests in Turkish Empire since the period of Tsar Peter the Great 1689-1725
having the desire to control the Black sea, Bosprous River, the Sea of Maramarsa and Dardanelles
which would give her outlet to the Mediterranean Sea.This would create for her abase to to
become a Great power in influencing trade and commerce,She would be the successor of the Holy
Roman Empire which she had once shared with Rome the rule of civilized World.She was the
49
Slavics in race as were most of the Turkish subjects. She was the patron of the Greek orthodox
Christians in which most Chiristian subjects of the Turkish Empire belonged hence was regarded
by the Balkan people as a big Slavand Christian brotherthat would help them in their trouble and
restore the glory of once mighty city Constantnople. She was on the fore front of the Bulkan crisis
seeKing to break up the Turkish Empire for foresaid reasonsbecause she tried to conceal her
inprialistic motives in what came to be known as Pan Slavism expression.Tsar Nichlas I who ruled
Russia from 1825-1855 regarded Turkey as the ‘‘ Sick man of Europe ’’ who might sooner or later
be driven back to Asia and her remains be shared among grea t powerswith Russia taKing ‘lion’s
share.’This attitude of Russia conflicted with interests of other Great powers espically Britain to
monopolise trade and commerce in the region. 3- Russia’s 1774 Treaty of Kujuk kainardji with
Turkey during the Reign of the Tsar Catherline II conflicted with France which resulted into the
Crimean War 1854-1856. It should be recalled that Russia the Treaty concluded the six years
Kujuk kainardji War in which Russia was offered a vargue right of uninterfered rights in the affairs
of the Turkish Empire but it was contested by othe European powers. The Treaty enabled Turkey
to gain a firm grip of the North shores of Black sea, control the mouth of the Don Rivers. She was
to have permanent diplomatic base in Constantnople and given responsibility of protecting the
Greek Christians in the Empire and also to interfere in the internal affairs of the provinces of
Moldavia and Wallachiaso as to secure some freedom for the Greeks Orthodox Christians.This
was because the two cwo rovinces were strategically located on the mouth f River Danube and
Black Sea an indication that the Kujuk kainardji Treaty gave Russia favourable opportunity for
expansion in the Balkans which attracted attention of other powers especially Britain and France.
4- Austria was the host of the Congres system the internal peace body in the Continent of Europe
but failed to intervene in the the problems facing the Turkish Empire. The Congress system
successfully suppressed the revolutions in Italy,Germany and Poland but was unable to suppress
the revolutions such as Greece War of independence of 1821 in Turishish Empire. This was
because leading statesmen Russia, Austria and Britain had divergent opnions for example
Austria and Britaian wasnted to preserve the powers of Sultan whereas Russia wanted to
promote her hidden imperialistic motives. Hence by 1830, the Congress was no more because of
declining spirit of togetherness which worsened the crisises in the Balkans leading to collapse of
the Empire. Russia were long term rivary during the Holy alliance of September26 th
1815.The Holy Alliance was initiated by Tsar Alexandra I of Russia for establishing permanent
peace in Europe shortly after the battle of Waterloo because was not satisfied with the Congress
of Vienna and that he was partly inspired by strong religious emotions and he was going through
a phrase of liberalism. He had already made promises of freedom to the Poles under Russians
and now argued upon his fellow Monarchs the need to accept fully the principles of Christianity in
their dealings with others and with their subjects.Tsar Alexander I had developed unstable mind
and loss of sense of direction partly because lavish phrases based owned on him as the “White
Angle” who had defeated the “Black Angel” Napoleon Bonaparte I.The lingeringering rivalry
between thehree countries Britain and France and Russia led to Crimean War of 1854-1856 and
later World War1 which sealed the Turkish Empire. It should be noted that the States signed, none
of them considered this Christian principles seriously because Lord Castlereagh regarded it as; “ A
piece of sublime mysticism and nonsensse”,Bishop Talleyrand of France termed it as a “
ridiculous” while the Sultan of Turkey refused to sign because he was not a Christian. Tsar’s plan
of Holy alliance did not succeed because the rulers failed to reform the contemporary social
circumstances. The continuous interests and intervention of the Great western European
powers into the affairs of the Ottoman Empire led to the disintegration in the
nineteenth century. Imperial Russia stood to benefit more than any other power from the
decaying Empire facilitated by the traditional and natural ties she had with the Empire. Russian
intervention in the events of the Eastern question was unstoppable for three main reasons; The
first one was that many of the Balkan people belonged to the Slavonic race as did the Russians
themselves and they looked to Russia as a big Slav brother to help them in their troubles. This
prompted Russian intervention. Secondly, most of the Balkan Christians belonged to the Greek
Orthodox Church of which Russia was the Great champion and protector. More important than all
these however was that Russia had for long cast jealous eyes on Constantinople for possession of
that city, and control of the Bosphorus River, the sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles would give
her a secure outlet to the Mediterranean from the Black Sea. She would then become a Great
power in the region and would influence trade and commerce.
50
2. Russia’s economic interest in the region which threatened the interests of other
counties.
3. Russian’s demanded to protect the holy places by Prince Menshikoff who was Russia’s
representative in Turkey led to conflicts between Russia and other European powers.
4. Prince Menshikoff of Russia fuelled the conflicts between Russia and other European
powers by encouraging Russia to attack Turkish fleet at Sinope.
5. Russia’s claims to control all the Christians in the Turkish Empire created a lot of
suspicion. She sent her representatives prince Minstrel off to demand for Russian right of control
of the Christians from the Sultan of Turkey.
6. Russia occupied Moldavia and Walachia in July 1853. This caused a lot of discontented from
Britain, France, even after an ultimatum had been issued for her to withdraw from the area she
refused.
7. Russia’s destruction of the Turkish fleet at Snope November 1853. This caused a lot of
condemnation from Britain and France.
8. Tsar Alexander 1’s of Russia refused to recognize and address Napoleon111 in manner
acceptable to European leaders.

HOW BRITAIN WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE TURKISHEMPIRE/

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Britain and Austria and Britain emerged from Napoleonic Wars with enhanced fear of Russia
who in 1815 stood as a real danger to the Balance of power in Europe,This had been expressed
by C.D M. ketlebly in his book of Hitory of modern times that , ‘‘ In fifteen years Europe will
either be a Cassack Russian or French republic ’’which was an indication of Russian
expansion for xtablishment of a hetrogenous Empire like Austria. Britain and Austria were
determined to deal with this threat by preserving the intergrity of Turkey and their undoubted
sympathies as Christian states for the oppressed Christians of the Empire were shamely hidden
from the public opnion by Russia.

Britain antagonized the the Russian imperialistic interests in the Turkish Emire due o the fear
that the collapse of the Turkish Empire would threaten British economic interests in the near East
India and to the Mediterrranean Sea because the British were more concerned with the
disadvantages of Russia as a Great military power controlling Constantnople which was one of the
sttrategially mportant cities in the World. 4- Austria was the host of the Congres system the
internal peace body in the Continent of Europe but failed to intervene in the the problems facing
the Turkish Empire. The Congress system successfully suppressed the revolutions in
Italy,Germany and Poland but was unable to suppress the revolutions such as Greece War of
independence of 1821 in Turishish Empire. This was because leading statesmen Russia, Austria
and Britain had divergent opnions for example Austria and Britaian wasnted to preserve the
powers of Sultan whereas Russia wanted to promote her hidden imperialistic motives. Hence by
1830, the Congress was no more because of declining spirit of togetherness which worsened the
crisises in the Balkans leading to collapse of the Empire.

1. Britian conflicted with Russia during the Holy alliance of September 26 th ,1815. The
Holy Alliance was initiated by Tsar Alexandra I of Russia for establishing permanent peace in
Europe shortly after the battle of Waterloo because was not satisfied with the Congress of Vienna
and that he was partly inspired by strong religious emotions and he was going through a phrase
of liberalism.He had already made promises of freedom to the Poles under Russians and now
argued upon his fellow Monarchs the need to accept fully the principles of Christianity in their
dealings with others and with their subjects.Tsar Alexander I had developed unstable mind and
loss of sense of direction partly because lavish phrases based owned on him as the “White
51
 Angle” who had defeated the “Black Angel” Napoleon Bonaparte I. Though the States signed,
none of them considered this Christian principles seriously because Lord Castlereagh regarded it
as; “ A piece of sublime mysticism and nonsense’’. Whereas the Sultan of Turkey refused to sign
because he was not a Christian.Holy alliance did not succeed because the rulers failed to reform
the contemporary social circumstances. For instance England as the most powerful Country at
the time was not prepared to accept any such plans of mutual co-operation instead supported
the policy of non-separation in the interNational affairs of other countries in Europe. The
lingeringering rivalry between the two countries Britain and Russia led to Crimean War of 1854-
1856 and later World War1 which sealed the Turkish Empire
2. Britain had economic interests in the Balkans. She wanted to maintain the status quo
of the Ottoman Empire and keep Russia away from the Balkans.
3. Britain increased the conflict between France and Russia over the Holy places. She
came forWard and openly supported France.
4. Britain encouraged the Sultan of Turkey to issue an ultimatum against Russia that is
the acts of the British ambassador to Turkey had state ford de red cliff incite the
conflict.
5. Britain violated the straits conversion of 1841 by sending her forces across the
Dardanelles in September 1853. This made the War inevitable.

HOW AUSTRIA WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE /
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Austria was a neighbour of the Turkish Empire with similar composition problems of Turkey as it
was a hetrogenious Empire for quite a long time in Europe and it was also known as the
Hapsburg after 1815, with Metternich‘s influence, it took over large parts of Central and Eastern
Europe including Hungary which included different Nationalities like the Croatia, Slavs, Czechs in
Bohemia and Moldavia, the Hungarians in Hungary, Italians in Lombardy and Venetia,
Transylvania and in the North East the land of Bohemia, Moravia and in the North East was the
region of Galicia, Italian territories of Lombardy and Venetia and lastly it also controlled the
Germany confederation. Austrian Empire since it was a heterogeneous Empire which had
different racial and language groups of people who were not of Austrian origin and if given
freedom they would break away and Austrian Empire would be no more in existence Since
liberalism to him signified democratic Constitutional reforms, parliament, people’s freedom and
powers to question the government which he considered liberalism as a danger to divine powers
since he was a born Aristocratic or noble origin.

1. Austria’s failure to suppress revolutions in Turkey was responsible for the outbreak of
the Turkish Empire. It ought to be recalled that Austria had a fear of breaKing of Turkish
Empire because it would inpire inspires resentment and Nationalism in the Austrian Empire.
Austrian authority was opposed to the weakening of the Turkish Empire when Tsar Nicholas I of
Russia addressed the Turkish question to Metternich of Austria by describing Turkey as a sick
man of Europe in which he lamented;“Prince Metternich what do you think of Turkey?-Is
he not a sick man of Europe”.Prince Metternich replied in a negative way, ‘‘Is it to the
doctor or or to the hier that your majesty address the question’’., Therefore, Austria’s
intervention in the Balkans delayed until 1870. Austria joined the Balkan politics after 1870 for
compensation of the lost Italian and German states following their unification in which she lost
her domination.
2. Austria rivaled Serbia and Russia to control the Balkans which rivalry severed the Balkan crisis
and sparked off Word War 1 which sealed the fate of the Turkish Empire in 1914.
3. Austria’s failure to restore peace in Turkish Empire Turkey was responsible for the
collapse of the Empire. Austria was the host of the Congres system the internal peace body in
the Continent of Europe but failed to intervene in the the problems facing the Turkish Empire.
The Congress system successfully suppressed the revolutions in Italy, Germany and Poland but
was unable to suppress the revolutions such as Greece War of independence of 1821 in Turikish
Empire. This was because leading statesmen Russia, Austria and Britain had divergent opnions
for example Austria and Britaian wasnted to preserve the powers of Sultan whereas Russia
wanted to promote her hidden imperialistic motives. Hence by 1830, the Congress was no more

52
 because of declining spirit of togetherness which worsened the crisises in the Balkans leading to
collapse of the Empire.
4. Austria conflicted with Russia during the Holy alliance of September 26 th, 1815
contributed to the collapse of Turkish Empire. The Holy Alliance was initiated by Tsar
Alexandra I of Russia for establishing permanent peace in Europe shortly after the battle of
Waterloo because was not satisfied with the Congress of Vienna and that he was partly inspired
by strong religious emotions and he was going through a phrase of liberalism.He had already
made promises of freedom to the Poles under Russians and now argued upon his fellow
Monarchs the need to accept fully the principles of Christianity in their dealings with others and
with their subjects.Tsar Alexander I had developed unstable mind and loss of sense of direction
partly because lavish phrases based owned on him as the “White Angle” who had defeated the
“Black Angel” Napoleon Bonaparte I. Metternich described the whole ideas, “ Loud sounding
nothing”, hence he dismissed it whereas the Sultan of Turkey refused to sign because he was not
a Christian. Tsar’s plan of Holy alliance did not succeed because the rulers failed to reform the
contemporary social circumstances. Holy alliance was Therefore, a failure due to lack of unity of
objectives among its members. This was because Prince Metternich of Austria confessed that
Austria and Prussia joined it mainly to please the Tsar.The lingeringering rivalry between the two
countries Austria and Russia led to Crimean War of 1854-1856 and later World War1 which
sealed the Turkish Empire.
5. Austria’s annexation of Bosinia led to the 1908 Balkan crisis which contributed to the
collapse of Turkish Empire. Austria as a Great European power was given a right to occupy
not to annex Bosina and Herzogovania while Cyprus to Britain according to the terms of the
Berlin Treaty of 1878 yet Serbia,Montenegro and Romania were declared inpendent. This never
pleased Turkey because of inadequate protection Bismarck the peace maker of Europe due to
declaration of many of her dominions independent. However, in October 1908, Austria-Hungary
violated the Berlin Treaty of 1878. This led Serbia to bitterly oppose theannexation and seek for
Russian assistance but Russia failed to comply because of Russio-Japanese war of 1905 which
had divastated her. Though Germany threaned to support Austria during the war , Serbia
renounced her opposition to the annexation of Bosinia and Hergovonia which created tension,
mistrust,and flair of militant Nationalism in Bosinia that led to Sarajevo murder of 1914 which
was immediate cause of World War 1 which sealed existence of Turkish Empire.

HOW FRANCE WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE TURKISHEMPIRE/

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

1. The influence of the French revolution of 1789 and Napoleonic Wars introduced and
transformed the new ideas of liberty, equality and flaternity which inspired people in
the Turkish Empire to revolt leadin to collapse of Turkish Empire. For example the
revolutionary ideas entered the Turkish Empire through Egypt during NapoleonBonaprte 1’s
Egyptian compaign of 1798. This created a fertile ground for demand f freedom and justice within
the Turkish Empire and that why Egyptians under Mohammed Ali threatened to secede,in 1805,
the Serbians 1804, Greeks 1821, Bulgarians 1875. The government of Louis Philipphe 1830-
1848 wanted to strengthen the French economic and political position with the Empire
and to enrich Balkan politics and clashed with other powers . and Louis Napoleon 111
conflicted with Russia over the1774 Kujuk kainardji Treaty which guanteed Russia chance to
protect the Greek orthodox Christians in Moldavia and Wallachia. It ought to be recalled that the
1740 Arnold Treaty France had guaranteed the privilege of trade in the Turkish Empire and the
French Christians had been given a right to visit Holy places and fellow Roman Catholic Christians
in the Empire.This resulted into conflict between France and Russia over the guardianship of the
Holy places which culminated into Crimean War of 1854-1856 France used Turkish Empire as a
battle ground to fight against her traditional rival Russia in revenging the 1812 Moscow
compaign . It should be recalled that the Moscow Campaign was Was a turning point for his
career in which he moblised big army of 610,000 men but it was worst military disaster for
Napoleon registered army massive loss of over 580000 troops and this forced him to resort to
compulsory military recruitment and the new-solders were mostly young whereas Russia’s victory
increased its prestige and ambition in Europe and even signed the kalisch /calash Treaty with
53
 Germany promising to help her against Napoleon Bonaparte 1.This led his nephew Louis
Napoleon III to attack Russia as a trational enermy in the Crimean War of 1854-1856 which was
an opportunity for Euopean powers to strike one another.4- Austria was the host of the Congres
system the internal peace body in the Continent of Europe but failed to intervene in the the
problems facing the Turkish Empire. The Congress system successfully suppressed the
revolutions in Italy, Germany and Poland but was unable to suppress the revolutions such as
Greece War of independence of 1821 in Turishish Empire. This was because leading statesmen
Russia, Austria and Britain had divergent opnions for example Austria and Britaian wasnted to
preserve the powers of Sultan whereas Russia wanted to promote her hidden imperialistic
motives. Hence by 1830, the Congress was no more because of declining spirit of togetherness
which worsened the crisises in the Balkans leading to collapse of the Empire.
2. France under Louis Napoleon111 wanted to gain popularity and Therefore,
consolidated his position at home. Napoleon III believed thatSuccessful War against
Russia would make him popular among the Catholics at home.
3. France wanted to humiliate Nicholas 1 of Russia who had refused to address.
Napoleon111 in a manner acceptable to European leaders.
4. France also violated the straits convention of 1841 by sending her troops across the
peer Danielle in September 1853.
5. France instigated anti-Russia attitude among the public and this created desire for
War.
6. The personal enmity between Emperor Napoleon III and Tsar Nicholas I. Tsar Nicholas1’s
refusing to recognize Napoleon III as a legitimate ruler of France caused the Crimean war. The
desire of Napoleon III to fight against Tsar Nicholas I of Russia for just a tittle was trivial. He used
to address Napoleon as “My friend (Mon ami) instead of my clear brothers (Mon Frere)”.
He thus wanted to use this opportunity to humiliate Nicholas so as to reassert his credibility and
legitimacy among leaders of Europe. To fight the Tsar of Russia in order to teach him a lesson.
This was insignificant cause of the Crimean war
7.

HOW TURKEY WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE TURKISHEMPIRE/

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

1. The large size of the Empire led the Turks unable to administer it effectively was
responsible for the collapse of Turkish Empire. Turkey was was a multiNational,
multilingual Empire controlling much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North
Africa, and the Horn of Africa. For example, it included Rumania, former Yugoslavia, Bosnia,
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Moldavia, and Albania, part of Hungary, Cyprus, the Crimean Coast and
Greece that were on the European continent. On the Asian continent, the Empire covered Saudi
Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Turkey and present day Iraq whereas on the African continent,
the Ottoman Empire covered Egypt, Algeria and Tunisia.
2. Weak Turkish rulers such as Mahmud II and Abdul Aziz failed to control the Empire
effectively which contributed for the collapse Ottoman Empire. The situation worsened
due to inefficiency in government charaterised by corruption among government officials. It was
against this background that lack of effectrol of the Empire encouraged distant provinces like
Egypt, Syria, Serbia, Greece, Moldavia, Wallachia, Montenegro and Bulgaria to break away by
achieving their independence. Strategic location of Turkey in the centre of three major
contients Europe, Africa ansd Asia was responsible for the collapse of Turkish
Empire.The Turkish Muslims that Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental
Empire which as was multi-racial in naturethat during the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height
of its power under the Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a
multiNational, multilingual Empire controlling much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the
Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. For example, it included Rumania, former
Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Moldavia, and Albania, part of Hungary, Cyprus, the
Crimean Coast and Greece that were on the European continent. On the Asian continent, the
Empire covered Saudi Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, Turkey and present day Iraq whereas on
the African continent, the Ottoman Empire covered Egypt, Algeria and Tunisia. Therefore, it was

54
 endowed with many water bodies such as the Blak Sea, major streams like Danube, Dardanelles
which made the region more attractive and prompted quik intervention whenever there was a
crisis especially from Russia. This led many Great powers like Russia, Austria, Britain and Austria
to scamble for the Balkans and this antigonised European peace..
3. Turkish Empire was used a a battle ground for the disrupted peace treates and
principles for the prolonged rival for European powers to strike one another which
contributed to the collapse of the Empire. For example the 1854-1856 Crimean War in
Bulkan Penninsular was fought between by France under Louis Napoleon III revenging agaist
Russia’s 1812 Moscow compaign . It should be recalled that the Moscow Campaign was Was a
turning point for his career in which he moblised big army of 610,000 men but it was worst
military disaster for Napoleon registered army massive loss of over 580000 troops and this
forced him to resort to compulsory military recruitment and the new-solders were mostly young
whereas Russia’s victory increased its prestige and ambition in Europe and even signed the
kalisch /calash Treaty with Germany promising to help her against Napoleon Bonaparte 1.This
led his nephew Louis Napoleon III to attack Russia as a trational enermy in the Crimean War of
1854-1856 which was an opportunity for European powers to strike one another.
4. The mal-administration of Turkey contributed to the fall of the Turkish Empire. The
Turkish administration was exploitative to the vassal states such as Greeks in Moldavia,
Wallachia,Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria because being muslims they denied they became a
serious threat to Christian those Christian States. The Turkish administrative structure was in
sheer need for reform as was characterised by corruption and cruelty, inefficiency, severe
repression of the minority among other. The governors in the provinces ruled at will, they were
given responsibility of collecting taxes from their subjects and forWarding them to the Sultan of
Turkey. The methods used tax collection by the subjects was very brutal. Besides they continued
to receive no substantial benefit from government in terms of justice and security as they
subjected to arbitrary arrest, imprisonment and often persecution for the Greek Christian
Orthodoxies. They Therefore, ruled theirsubjects with utmost despotism denying their subjects
human freedomsby the people of Western Europe.This was bad enough to provoke the subjects’
revolt for their independence hence demise of the Turkish Empire.
5. Embezzlement and corruption of the Turkish officials led to the disintegration of
Turkish Empire. This inspired the Greeks to revolt because they were required to pay capitation
for the sole reason of remaining alive in the Turkish Empire. They also paid land tax, commerce
tax and other general taxes .The Greeks hated these taxes because they never benefited from
them which inspired the Greeks to demand for independence hence the revolt of 1821which led
to distergration of the Empire.
6. Decline in military strength of the Turkish Empire was responsible for the collapse of
Ottoman Empire. The loss of military strength: By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the
Turkey could no longer hold her grip on the Empire because of the increasing military weakness.
She failed to rival the ever-increasing military power of the other continental European powers
especially Russia and Austria and on many occasions, she failed to recapture her past glory. She
was forced due to military weakness to lose Hungary to Austria and Crimea to Russia. Most of the
provincial states like Egypt were creating more powerful armies than the Ottoman sultan and
were taKing advantage of the Empire’s weaknesses For example, Mohammed Ali of Egypt
forcefully occupied Syria in 1832. The military weakness of the Ottoman Empire was amplified by
the different Nationalities recruited whose interests did not rhyme those of the Empire. Such
military decay justified the description of Turkey or the Ottoman Empire as the “ sick man of
Europe” in the nineteenth century and was Therefore, bound to collapse.
7. The Syrian question of 1840 was responsible for the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
This was a struggle between the Egyptian leader Mehmet Ali and the sultan of Turkey to control
Syria. In order to suppress the Greeks the sultans of Turkey had hired Mehmet Ali but promised
him Syria as a reWard for his services. The sultans failed to fulfill his promise and consequently
Mehmet Ali invaded Syria in 1831. He sent his son Ibrahim Pasha with an Egyptian army to
invade Syria and Pasha even managed to move up to Constantinople within a year and the
Sultan was then forced to abandon Syria, Damascus and Palestine to Ibrahim leading to
breakdown of the Ottoman Empire.
8. Corruption on the Turkish officials led to the disintegration of Turkish Empire. The
Greeks were inspired to revolt because they were required to pay capitation for the sole reason
55
 of remaining alive in the Turkish Empire. They also paid land tax, commerce tax and other
general taxes .The Greeks hated these taxes because they never benefited from them which
inspired the Greeks to demand for independence hence the revolt of 1821 hence collapse of the
Empire.
9. The loss of trade monopoly led to the disintegration of Turkish Empire: From 1456 when
the Empire was formed, Turkey was the Greatest commercial nation that dominated trade across
the Mediterranean and Black sea in the far and near east of the European continent. However, in
the nineteenth century, the Empire lost her monopoly in trade as her foreign trade in the Far
East and Mediterranean Sea steadily declined which deprived her of the needed wealth to
sustain the military and political organization capable of sustaining an extensive area. This was
worsened by the fact that European powers such as Britain, Russia, and France became
interested in the Balkan region and aggressively took over the trade rights, which further
worsened the economic difficulties and undermined the military strength of the Empire leading to
the decay of the Ottoman Empire hence being referred to as the “sick man of Europe”.
10. The increasing economic problems within the Empire were responsible for the
collapse of Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire was the laughing stock of Europe due to its
rotten economy by the end of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was riddled with
financial crises caused by rampant corruption and the exploitation of her subjects especially in
taxation system. The administrators imposed heavy taxes on the subjects and the methods of
collection were very brutal yet the tax collectors took up most of the Revenue. The sultan lacked
an effective / efficient hand in taxation system and due to the economic difficulties that
characterized the Empire to the extent of negatively affecting the infrastructural and military
development of the Empire that attracted resistance against the administration that led to the
imperial decay of the Ottoman Empire thus being referred to as the “sick man of Europe” hence
collapse of the Empire.
11. The loss of trade monopoly led to the disintegration of Turkish Empire: From 1456 when
the Empire was formed, Turkey was the Greatest commercial nation that dominated trade across
the Mediterranean and Black sea in the far and near east of the European continent. However, in
the nineteenth century, the Empire lost her monopoly in trade as her foreign trade in the Far
East and Mediterranean Sea steadily declined which deprived her of the needed wealth to
sustain the military and political organization capable of sustaining an extensive area. This was
worsened by the fact that European powers such as Britain, Russia, and France became
interested in the Balkan region and aggressively took over the trade rights, which further
worsened the economic difficulties and undermined the military strength of the Empire leading to
the decay of the Ottoman Empire hence being referred to as the “sick man of Europe”.
12. The social and religious discriminations by the Moslem Turkish rulers who persecuted
the Christian subjects was responsible for the collapse of Ottoman Empire. Socially, the
Ottoman Empire was comprised of religious divisions with the Orthodox Christians as subjects and the
Muslim Turks as rulers. However, it is of disgrace to note in the nineteenth century that the
Christians were discriminated against in terms of participation in the general administration of
the Empire, the Orthodox Christians catered for their own education and other social services yet
they paid very high taxes that were harshly collected. This was worsened by the fact that the
Muslim rulers became hostile to the Christians, sparKing off revolts by the Christian subjects
against the Turkish rulers‟ For example, in Greece between 1821 and 1833. This gave an excuse
for the intervention of western European powers like Russia, France, and Britain in the Empire in
guise of being sympathetic to the Christian communities leading to breakdown of the Ottoman
Empire.
13. Turkey,s weakness made her vulnerable to foreign intervention. The Empire was
weakening politically and military. Consequently Russia diarized Turkey as the
integrity Russia.
14. Turkey was inconsistent over right full protection of the holy places. She seemed to
recognize both the French and Russian claims and this promoted conflicts among
powers.
15. Turkey mistreated the minority Christians in the Empire. This attracted the attention
of the Great powers especially Russia.
16. Turkey had earlier agreed to Russian demands that is to say the Treaty of
Unkiarskelessi which annoyed other European powers.
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HOW SMALL POWERS WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE
TURKISHEMPIRE/ OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Small powers wresponsible for the collapse of the Turkish Empire were initially the provinces of
Turkey that later sprung up against the Turkish administration and seceded due to the growing
spirit of spirit of Nationalism.some of these small states in included Egypt,
Serbia,Greece,Moldavia and Wallachia,Bulgaria, Bosinia as ellabolated in the following analysis:

Egypt was responsible for the collapse of the Turkishe Empire. Egypt was a tributary
state of Turkish Empire under Mohammed Ali threatened to secede by 1805 because had
established himself as a powerful ruler and a man of modern ideas which enabled him to
organise Rgyptian army . In 1826, Sultan Mahmoud of Turkey was unable to quell the Greece
war of independence which compelled him to seek for military aid from Egypt to envade Syria
but promised him Syria as a reward for his services. The sultans failed to fulfill his promise and
consequently Mehmet Ali invaded Syria in 1831. He sent his son Ibrahim Pasha with an Egyptian
army to invade Syria and Pasha even managed to move up to Constantinople within a year and
the Sultan was then forced to abandon Syria, Damascus and Palestine.Mahameti Ali was
rewarded the Mediterrean Island of Crete instead of Syria which the Sultan failed to surrener to
Muhameti Ali.In 1832, Mahemeti ali realised that Syeria was small and militaty weakness of of
the Sultan, This forced him to send Egyptian army to to invade Syeria Mehameti Ali but later
sought of Russian assistance which resulted into the Cremean war of 1854-1856.This Greatly
Greatly contributd to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
Serbia was responsible for the collapse of the Turkishe Empire.The Serbian revolution
was led by Karadorde Petrovic in the first pharse between 1804 and 1833 during which Serbia
managed to emancipate herself from the Turkish Empire and existed as a SoveReign European
nation. Therefore, the revolution marked the foundation of modern Serbia. In the second phase
the Serbian revolution was between 1804-1813 led by Milos Obrenvoic who demanded for
National unity of the Sebian nation by calling upon provision f freedom of religion, Serbian
history, formal written rules of lawand Serbs to stop paying the jizya tax because they hadnot
been grantueed by the Turkish Empire government.Itwas upon this background that Serbia was
guaranteed partial parliament,established her own Constitution and officially recorganised as
independent State and given complete independence in 1856 Paris peace Treaty that concluded
the Crimean War hence contributed to the scrumbing and eventual collapse of the Ottoman
Empire.

Greece was responsible for the collapse of the Turkishe Empire.The Greeks were noble
race of people that enjoyed a rich history and Great past ever since the establishment of the
Turkish Empire.However, the Greeks had been made ubjects of the the Turkish Empire but with
some limited concessions like free from military service and monopoly of trade and
commerce.The Greks on the other hand were over exploited oppressed by bthe Turkish mal
administration forcing them to pay kharaj tax for sole reason of remaining alive in the
Empire,land, tax, commerce taxwhose collection was done with a lot of brutality by the Turkish
governors.This led the Greeks to rember the contributions of their Great ancestors through
literature of revolutionary ideas spread by philoshers like Socrates,Aristotle,Plato to the
development of European culture.This fermented hatred against foreign domination which made
them demand for independence after the formation of secret friendly society known as ‘‘Philike
Hetaire’’ spearheaded propaganda against Turkish oppression exploitation and autocratic
administration .The Greeks Therefore, rebelled against the Turkish in the Navarina battle in
which 50,000 Mohammedians were killed Morea hence they gained their independence in 1832
an indication that they were freed from the Turkish oppression and exploitation leading to
disintergration of Turkish Empire.

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Moldavia and Wallachia was responsible for the collapse of the Turkishe Empire. It
should be recalled that Russia signed a Treaty with Turkey in 1774 which concluded the six
years Kujuk kainardji War.This Treaty offered a vargue right of uninterfered rights in the affairs
of the Turkish Empire but it was contested by othe European powers Russia’s 1774 Treaty of
Kujuk kainardji with Turkey during the Reign of the Tsar Catherline II conflicted with France
which resulted into the Crimean War 1854-1856.The Treaty enabled Russia to have permanent
diplomatic base in Constantnople and given responsibility of protecting the Greek Christians in
the Empire and also to interfere in the internal affairs of the provinces of Moldavia and
Wallachia so as to secure some freedom for the Greeks Orthodox Christianswhich was Russia
favourable opportunity for expansion in the Balkans.This consequently attracted attention of
other powers especially Britain and France which led to the Crimean War which the Allied
powers Britain, France, Turkey seemed victorious over Russia.The War concluded in 1856 by
signing of the peace Paris Treaty in which the Sultan promised fair treatment of theBalkan
Christians on provision of equal treatment his Mohammedans and complete independence was
given to Moldavia and Wallachia though they were to accept Turkish overlordship hence
contributed to the scrumbing and eventual collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

Bulgaria was responsible for the collapse of the Turkishe Empire. The Turkish
oppressive and explotative system of their Christian subjects in ine Bulka Penninsular resulted in
the Bulgarian Nationalsm.The Turkish Sultan Muhammod had died and replaced by Sultan Abdul
Aziz who continued to mistreat to mistreat his subjects by denying them religious freedom,
forcing of oppressive feudal system, double taxation by Turkish officials and native land owners
tax with a lot of brutality. This attracted the attention of the rival European powers Austria and
Russia encouraged the states in Balkan peninsular-Bosina, Herzogovania, Macedonia and
Bulgaria as usual to revolt aganst the Turkish overlordship. In 1877 1876, the War had resulted
into murder of 12,000 Chritians and 30,000 others and creation of Big Bulgaria by Russia during
the Treaty of San Stefano, March 1878.The Big Bulgaria was was stretching from the Black Sea
to the mountains of Albania,to the West, and River Danube to the Aegean Sea.This was opposed
by Britain and Austria led the new European statesman Bismarck to call for Berlin Conference of
1878 in which Austria was given a ight to occupy Bosinia and Herzogovania while Britan Cyprus
as styled friends who had become robbers while Russia fortified Batum.This created further
crisises the Bulkan in 1885 as Bulgaria was now more willing to be independent under the
slogan , ‘‘Bulgaria for Bulgarians’’ than accepting Russian protectionismthan sustaining a
perennially decaying Turkish Empire. This eventually sparked off World War 1 where Russia was
joined Serbia, Britain and France and declared War on Austria, Germany, and Bulgaria and
Turkey in 1914.

Bosinia was responsible for the collapse of the Turkishe Empire. It ought to be recalled
that Austria as a Great European power was given a right to occupy not to annex Bosina and
Herzogovania while Cyprus to Britain according to the terms of the Berlin Treaty of 1878 yet
Serbia,Montenegro and Romania were declared inpendent. This never pleased Turkey because
of inadequate protection Bismarck the peace maker of Europe due to declaration of many of
her dominions independent. However, in October 1908, Austria-Hungary violated the Berlin
Treaty of 1878. This led Serbia to bitterly oppose theannexation and seek for Russian
assistance but Russia failed to comply because of Russio-Japanese war of 1905 which had
divastated her. Though Germany threaned to support Austria during the war , Serbia
renounced her opposition to the annexation of Bosinia and Hergovonia which created tension,
mistrust,and flair of militant Nationalism in Bosinia that led to Sarajevo murder of 1914 which
was immediate cause of World War 1 which sealed existence of Turkish Empire.

In analysis, very few powers among responsible holders actually contributed for the collapse
of the Turkish Empire and the attempts to apportion the blame among concerned power is a

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 complex task among historians of modern times though some argue that Russia alone was
entirely responsible for sacrificing continental peace which led to its collapse but the reality of
the fact was that any power which was involved in the conflicting interests in the Balkan region
to dominate the affairs of the Empire for political,social and economic reasons prepared a
fertile ground by creating fear, tension, mistrust and suspicion for the events like Serbian
revolution,Greek War of Independence, Syrian Question,Crimean War, Bulgarian Crisis,
Armenian Massacres,Bosinian Crisis Balkan Wars and Sarajevo murder 1914 which destroyed
the remains of crumbling Empire during World War 1. Hence the difference was variation in
degree of magnitude as some powers were more responsible than others due to the long-term
and immediate causes for the collapse of the Empire.

SAMPLE REVISION QUESTIONS ON THE EASTERN QUESTION 1815-1878

1. Why were the Greeks able to establish an independent state in 1832?

2. Was it justifiable to describe the Ottoman Empire as a sick man of Europe in the second half of
the 19th century?
3. To what extent was Russia’s policy toWards the Ottoman Empire responsible for the outbreak
of the 1854-1856 Crimean War.
4. To what extent was Napoleon III responsible for the outbreak of the Crimean War of 1854-
1856?
5. To what extent did the weakness of the Turkish Empire contribute to the outbreak of the 1854-
1856 Crimean War?
6. How did Russian policy toWards the Ottoman Empire affect interNational relations between
1830 and 1856?
7. How did Russia attempt to disintegrate the Ottoman Empire 1815-1878?
8. Examine the causes of the Greek War of independence between 1821 and 1833.
9. Examine the causes and effects of the Straits Convention of 1841.
10. Examine the causes and consequences of the Syrian Question of 1840.
11. Examine the causes and consequences of the Crimean War of 1854-1856.
12. Discuss the events that led to the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
13. Discuss the causes and effects of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913in the history of Europe.
14. Assess the impact of the Berlin Congress of 1878.
15. Assess the impact of the 1821-1832 Greek War of independence on Europe up to 1878.
16. Assess the impact of the 1821 Greek War of independence on Europe up to 1878.
17. Assess the achievements of the Berlin Congress of 1878.
18. Account for the success of the Greek War of independence by 1832.
19. Account for the outbreak of the Revolution in Greece in 1822.
20. Account for the outbreak of the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913.
21. Account for the armed conflicts in the Balkan between 1820-1856.
22. Account for inherit weakness of the Ottoman Empire toWards the end of the 18 th century.
23. “The policy of Tsar Nicholas I toWards Turkey was primarily responsible for outbreak of
Crimean War. “Discuss.
24. “The Crimean War was the most useless and wasteful War ever fought.” Discuss.
25. “The Crimean War was fought without a clear principle. “Discuss.
26. .”Russia was primarily responsible for outbreak of Crimean War.” Discuss.

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