buildings

Review
Increasing Solar Reflectivity of Building Envelope Materials to
Mitigate Urban Heat Islands: State-of-the-Art Review
Bahador Ziaeemehr 1 , Zahra Jandaghian 2, *, Hua Ge 1 , Michael Lacasse 2 and Travis Moore 2

1 Department of Building, Civil & Environmental Engineering, Concordia University,

Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada; bahador.ziaeemehr@concordia.ca (B.Z.)
2 Construction Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
* Correspondence: zahra.jandaghian@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca

Abstract: The Urban Heat Island (UHI), a consequence of urban development, leads to elevated
temperatures within cities compared to their rural counterparts. This phenomenon results from
factors such as urban designs, anthropogenic heat emissions, and materials that absorb and retain
solar radiation in the built environment. Materials commonly used in cities, like concrete, asphalt,
and stone, capture solar energy and subsequently emit it as heat into the surroundings. Consequently,
this phenomenon amplifies summertime cooling energy demands in buildings. To mitigate the UHI
impacts, various mitigation strategies have emerged that include but are not limited to using higher
solar reflectivity materials, known as “cool materials”, and increasing vegetation and greenery in
urban areas. Cool materials have high reflectivity and emissivity, effectively reflecting solar radiation
while emitting absorbed heat through radiative cooling. Increasing the solar reflectivity of building
envelope materials is a promising sustainable solution to lessen the UHI effects. This state-of-the-
art review summarizes the UHI causes and effects, states the mitigation strategies, describes the
cool building envelope materials, explains the solar reflectivity index measurements, indicates the
building and micro-climate simulations, highlights the performance evaluation of using cool building
envelope materials, points out the research gaps, and proposes future research opportunities.

Keywords: urban heat island (UHI); solar reflectivity index; solar emissivity; building envelope
Citation: Ziaeemehr, B.; Jandaghian, materials; cool materials
Z.; Ge, H.; Lacasse, M.; Moore, T.
Increasing Solar Reflectivity of
Building Envelope Materials to
Mitigate Urban Heat Islands: 1. Introduction
State-of-the-Art Review. Buildings
The Urban Heat Island (UHI) is characterized by localized surface and air temperature
2023, 13, 2868. https://doi.org/
elevations in dense urban areas, resulting from a complex interplay of changes in land
10.3390/buildings13112868
use/land cover, thermal characteristics of urban materials, and heat generated by human
Academic Editor: Geun Young Yun activities due to increased energy consumption. The UHI degrades the comfort and well-
being of urban inhabitants, increases energy demands, exacerbates air pollution, and
Received: 15 September 2023
Revised: 30 October 2023
augments greenhouse gas emissions.
Accepted: 12 November 2023
In response to this challenge, researchers have been seeking effective mitigation and
Published: 16 November 2023
adaptation strategies to counteract its adverse effects. The UHI mitigation techniques
include but are not limited to using materials with higher solar reflectivity and planting
more vegetation in urban communities. This paper provides a comprehensive literature
review on using materials with higher solar reflectivity and higher heat emissivity, known
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. as “cool materials”. Figure 1 presents the roadmap that this manuscript focuses on. These
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. so-called cool materials reflect solar radiation to the atmosphere and dissipate absorbed heat
This article is an open access article through the emission of thermal radiation, resulting in cooler surface and air temperatures.
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Buildings 2023, 13, 2868. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112868 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

 Urban infrastructure, solar radiation, absorptive building materials, and anthropo
genic heat emission, combined with reduced natural cooling processes, create a comple
and interconnected system of urban heat sources that lead to the UHI phenomenon. Un
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868
derstanding and managing these sources are crucial steps in developing effective
2 of 26
strate
gies to mitigate the adverse effects on human health, energy use, and urban climate.

Figure
Figure 1. Roadmappresenting
1. Roadmap presenting the
thefocus
focusof of
thisthis
manuscript.
manuscript.
Urban infrastructure, solar radiation, absorptive building materials, and anthro-
2. UHI Causes
pogenic and Effects
heat emission, combined with reduced natural cooling processes, create a complex
and interconnected
Introduced by system
Howard of urban heat[1],
in 1818 sources
the that
UHIlead to the
effect is UHI phenomenon.consequence
a well-known Under- o
standing and managing these sources are crucial steps in developing effective
urban development, resulting in elevated temperatures within urban areas when strategies to com
mitigate the adverse effects on human health, energy use, and urban climate.
pared to the adjacent rural regions (Figure 2). It is primarily caused by factors such a
building
2. UHI shapes,
Causes andstructures,
Effects and materials that capture and retain solar radiation durin
daylightIntroduced
hours. Atby night,
Howardurban areas[1],
in 1818 experience reduced
the UHI effect loss of radiation
is a well-known due toofnarrowe
consequence
street canyons
urban and limited
development, cooling
resulting potential
in elevated through
temperatures evaporation
within [2].
urban areas Thecompared
when UHI effect lead
to the adjacent rural regions (Figure 2). It is primarily caused by factors
to an increased demand for summertime cooling energy in buildings and, conversely, such as building
shapes, structures,
decreased demand for andheating
materialsenergy
that capture
during andthe
retain
coldsolar radiation
season during
[3]. The UHIdaylight
effect intensi
hours. At night, urban areas experience reduced loss of radiation due to narrower street
fies heat waves, hindering nighttime cooling in buildings and thereby affecting huma
canyons and limited cooling potential through evaporation [2]. The UHI effect leads to an
well-being. Effective
increased demand forstrategies
summertime to mitigate the UHI
cooling energy impacts
in buildings consider
and, theainteraction
conversely, decreased of var
iousdemand
microclimates and building types to comprehensively address the urban
for heating energy during the cold season [3]. The UHI effect intensifies heat waves, climate [4
Duehindering
to the rise in urban
nighttime temperatures
cooling in buildings andandthereby
the occurrence of extreme
affecting human heatEffective
well-being. waves, there i
strategies to mitigate the UHI impacts consider the interaction
a heightened probability of overheating events taking place in buildings. of various microclimates and
building types to comprehensively address the urban climate [4]. Due to the rise in urban
temperatures and the occurrence of extreme heat waves, there is a heightened probability
of overheating events taking place in buildings.
The first contributors to UHI are factors that control energy balance at the Earth’s
surface. These factors include incoming solar radiation, solar radiation absorbed and
reflected by the atmosphere, infrared radiation emitted by the Earth, and infrared radiation
absorbed and re-emitted by the atmosphere, primarily due to greenhouse gases. These
factors interact through complex physical processes and play a role in shaping the Earth’s
climate, including temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, humidity, and other variables.
Approximately 30% of the incoming shortwave radiation from the sun is reflected into
space, whereas the remaining portion is absorbed by the Earth’s system. The fraction of
solar radiation scattered back to the atmosphere depends on the reflectivity (albedo) of
 Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 3 of 26

various components such as clouds, land surfaces (including snow and ice), oceans,
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and
3 of 27
atmospheric particles (aerosols). Cloud, snow, and ice cover have a particularly strong
influence on the amount of solar radiation reflected due to their higher albedo compared to
land and oceans [5].

Urban
Figure2.2.Urban
Figure areas
areas experience
experience higher
higher surface
surface and
and airair temperatures
temperatures than
than their
their surrounding
surrounding rural
rural
areas due to changes in land use/land cover and human activities
areas due to changes in land use/land cover and human activities [5]. [5].

Therefore, the solar radiation that is absorbed and retained by various surfaces in
The first contributors to UHI are factors that control energy balance at the Earth s
the urban landscape, such as buildings, roads, and pavements, plays a role in the UHI
surface. These factors include incoming solar radiation, solar radiation absorbed and re-
phenomenon [3]. The main source of thermal load at the building’s outer surface is
flected by the
incident atmosphere,
solar radiation. infrared
The amount radiation emitted by
of irradiation the Earth,
resulting fromand infrared
direct solarradiation
radiation
absorbed and re-emitted by the atmosphere, primarily due
is contingent on the angle between the sun and the exposed surface and on the to greenhouse gases. These fac-
surface’s
tors interact through
short-wave absorptivitycomplex physical
[5]. Hence, processes
estimating heatand play
gain a role
from solarinradiation
shaping on thea Earth s
building
climate, including temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, humidity,
envelope involves considering multiple factors, including solar radiation intensity, building and other varia-
bles. Approximately
orientation, window 30%areaof and
the incoming
orientation, shortwave
presenceradiation
of shading from the sun
devices, is reflected
solar heat gain
into space, whereas
coefficient, the remaining
and consideration portion is
of thermal absorbedofbymaterials
properties the Earth[5]. s system. The fraction
of solarThe secondscattered
radiation contributor back to to
UHItheisatmosphere
anthropogenic heat generated
depends by human(albedo)
on the reflectivity activitiesofin
cities. This includes heat emissions from buildings, industrial
various components such as clouds, land surfaces (including snow and ice), oceans, and processes, transportation,
and energy-conversion
atmospheric processes
particles (aerosols). [3]. Anthropogenic
Cloud, snow, and ice cover heat have
sources can triggerstrong
a particularly a feedback
in-
loop, elevating outdoor temperatures and increasing building
fluence on the amount of solar radiation reflected due to their higher albedo compared cooling demand to permit
to
maintaining
land and oceans [5]. indoor comfort [6], which in return results in increased anthropogenic heat
generation. Furthermore, industrial processes, power plants, and other energy generation
Therefore, the solar radiation that is absorbed and retained by various surfaces in the
sources emit waste heat, which is discharged into the urban surroundings. This surplus heat
urban landscape, such as buildings, roads, and pavements, plays a role in the UHI phe-
can substantially augment the overall thermal burden in urban areas [3]. It is imperative to
nomenon [3]. The main source of thermal load at the building s outer surface is incident
conduct further research encompassing different climatic conditions to fully evaluate the
solar
heatradiation.
emission The amount
sources of irradiation
and their effects onresulting
mitigation from direct solar radiation is contin-
strategies.
gent onIn the angle between
addition, the sun
materials usedand in the
urban exposed surface and
infrastructure, suchon the surface s short-wave
as concrete, asphalt, and
absorptivity [5]. Hence,
stone, can absorb estimating
and retain heat, heat
therebygaincontributing
from solar radiation
to UHI effects.on a building envelope
These surfaces have
involves considering multiple factors, including solar radiation
a low albedo (reflectivity), which means they absorb more solar radiation converted into intensity, building orien-
tation, window
heat [3]. area and
The urban form, orientation,
defined bypresence
building of shading devices,
characteristics solar heat gain
and infrastructure, coeffi-
influences
complex
cient, interactions within
and consideration of thermalcities.properties
Impactingoffactors materialsare [5].
heat storage, wind patterns, and
precipitation
The second [6]. Materials to
contributor commonly used in urbanheat
UHI is anthropogenic areas, such as by
generated concrete
human and asphalt,
activities
exhibit lower reflectivity (albedo), leading to reduced reflection
in cities. This includes heat emissions from buildings, industrial processes, transportation, of radiation. Moreover,
andthese materials possess
energy-conversion higher heat
processes [3]. capacity,
Anthropogenic enabling them
heat to retain
sources can more
trigger absorbed
a feedback solar
energy [7,8]. Also, lowering vegetation causes a reduction
loop, elevating outdoor temperatures and increasing building cooling demand to permit in the cooling effect achieved
through evapotranspiration [9,10].
maintaining indoor comfort [6], which in return results in increased anthropogenic heat
These factors combined result in a significant absorption and retention of heat within
generation. Furthermore, industrial processes, power plants, and other energy generation
the urban environment. As a result, temperatures rise at a much faster rate compared to
sources emit waste heat, which is discharged into the urban surroundings. This surplus
more natural areas [11]. The function, form, practical purposes, and contribution to the
heat can substantially
visual aspects of urban augment
materialsthe overall thermal
collectively burdenUHI
influence in urban areas
effects, [3].the
while It isusage
impera- and
tive to conduct further research encompassing different climatic
structure of urban spaces affect the energy budget and the timing of the UHI phenomenon. conditions to fully evalu-
ateDiverse
the heaturban
emission sources
settings andand their effects
canopies lead to onvarying
mitigation strategies.
occupancy and energy use, with
In addition, materials used in urban infrastructure, such
industrial and air conditioning heat emissions directly affecting the urban environment’s as concrete, asphalt, and
stone,
energycanbalance
absorb and retain
leading heat, thereby
to higher contributing
surface and ambientto UHI effects. These
temperatures surfaces have
[12,13].
a low albedo (reflectivity), which means they absorb more solar radiation converted into
heat [3]. The urban form, defined by building characteristics and infrastructure, influences
complex interactions within cities. Impacting factors are heat storage, wind patterns, and
precipitation [6]. Materials commonly used in urban areas, such as concrete and asphalt,
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 4 of 26

Consequently, the number of heat-related mortalities are magnified in urban re-

gions [14]. Vulnerable populations to heat stress encompass older individuals (aged 65+),
children (under 15), those with pre-existing health conditions or medications affecting
thermoregulation, individuals of low socioeconomic status, and physically active individu-
als engaged in outdoor activities [15]. Urban heat waves pose a major risk to the general
public’s health and welfare. Many of the heat-related morbidity and mortality cases are
caused by excessive indoor heating in long-term care home facilities, social housing, and
buildings with elderly people inhabitants [16].
Considering most people spend the majority of time indoors necessitates accurate cal-
culation and assurance of thermal comfort. Throughout history, the assessment of thermal
comfort has posed challenges, with studies highlighting a disparity between perceived
comfort and actual sensation. Recent research has focused primarily on the physiological
responses to psychological disturbances, neglecting the critical factor of people’s emotional
states. In this context, the impact of occupants’ mood states on thermal sensation was
investigated by Turhan et al., and a novel element, the “Mood State Correction Factor”, is
introduced. This factor is intended to address the influence of occupants’ moods on their
perceived thermal comfort, ultimately aiming to provide a comprehensive and accurate
assessment [17].

3. UHI Mitigation Strategies

Numerous approaches have been suggested to mitigate the adverse impacts of climate
change and the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects on buildings, inhabitants, pedestrian
comfort, and the urban climate. [18]. However, achieving an optimal mitigation effect is
challenging due to the intricate interactions among multiple elements, including weather
patterns, urban texture (land use, building density, scale of building, street pattern, etc.),
natural landscapes, ventilation, building energy consumption, and other elements. Conse-
quently, the effectiveness of mitigation efforts should not be confined to singular aspects;
rather, a more coherent and integrated approach is imperative to devise comprehensive heat
mitigation solutions. Therefore, a thorough examination of each facet becomes essential to
establishing well-rounded and effective heat mitigation measures [18].
In mitigation strategies, changes made to conditions directly affecting a building or
person, like heat transfer and radiation, are called “direct effects”. On the other hand,
actions that adjust the conditions around a building or person are termed “indirect ef-
fects” [19]. Increasing solar reflectivity on roofing materials is one method that contributes
to lowering the UHI effects [20]. However, studies show that the use of high-albedo roofs
might result in a winter heating penalty due to reduced absorbed radiation, but this impact
is minimal and depends on various factors and requires further investigation for different
climatic zones [18,21,22]. During winter, roofs can be naturally covered by snow. Snow has
a high albedo, meaning it reflects sunlight effectively. Consequently, any heating penalties
experienced are not directly attributable to the cool roof itself but rather to the presence of
snow, which contributes significantly to the solar reflection process [23].
In this paper, the focus is on increasing the surface solar reflectivity of buildings to
directly and indirectly mitigate the UHI impacts. Enhancing surface reflectivity, as shown
in Figure 3, can lower ambient temperatures, leading to decreased rates of photochemical
reactions, reduced cooling energy requirements, and, consequently, enhanced air quality
and human health [24]. High-albedo materials, reflecting solar radiation, can effectively
reduce surface and air temperatures [25]. Table 1 shows the effects of increasing surface
solar reflectivity on reducing surface and ambient temperatures in various climatic zones.
8 ISR on urban surfaces from 0.3 to 0.55 2 °C [32]
area, Italy
9 Melbourne, Australia ISR on roofs from 0.50 to 0.85 2.2–5.2 °C [33]
10 Midland, UK ISR on roofs from 20% to 70% 0.3 °C [34]
11 Jerusalem, Israel ISR from 0.2 to 0.8 0.4 °C [35]
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868
12 Melbourne, Australia ISR on urban surfaces to 0.27 0.9–1.6 °C [36] 5 of 26

Figure 3. Increasing surface reflectivity in urban areas has the effect of reducing ambient temperatures.
Absorbed energy refers to the quantity of solar radiation that is converted into heat and retained by
the roof
Figure materials, whereas
3. Increasing solar reflection
surface reflectivity pertains
in urban areastohas
thethe
radiation
effect ofthat is reflected
reducing in thetempera-
ambient sky [5].
tures. Absorbed energy refers to the quantity of solar radiation that is converted into heat and
Table 1. Relationship between increased reflectivity and temperature reduction.

Temperature
City Increasing Solar Reflectivity (ISR) Reference
Reduction
ISR on roofs, walls, and ground to 0.65,
1 Toronto, Canada 2 ◦C [24]
0.60, and 0.45, respectively, from 0.2.
2 Guangzhou, China Cool coating, from 0.16–0.19 to 0.26–0.34 1–2.1 ◦ C [26]
22% decrease in surface
3 United Arab Emirates 50% increase in surface reflectivity [27]
temperature
4 Los Angeles, USA ISR on roof to 0.35 3 ◦C [28]
ISR values increased by 0.30 on
5 10 urbans, USA residential roofs and by 0.45 1–2 ◦ C [29]
on office roofs.
27 cities; Mediterranean, humid
6 continental, subtropical arid, and ISR on roofs by 0.65 1.2–3.78 ◦ C [30]
desert conditions
7 Worldwide simulation ISR on roofs to 0.9 0.3–0.6 ◦ C [31]
8 Mediterranean coastal area, Italy ISR on urban surfaces from 0.3 to 0.55 2 ◦C [32]
9 Melbourne, Australia ISR on roofs from 0.50 to 0.85 2.2–5.2 ◦C [33]
10 Midland, UK ISR on roofs from 20% to 70% 0.3 ◦ C [34]
11 Jerusalem, Israel ISR from 0.2 to 0.8 0.4 ◦ C [35]
12 Melbourne, Australia ISR on urban surfaces to 0.27 0.9–1.6 ◦ C [36]

Table 2 and Figure 4 show a relationship between the reflective properties of materials
and their influence on surface temperatures. Materials with higher solar reflectivity, such as
light-colored or reflective coatings, effectively bounce back a significant portion of incoming
solar radiation, reducing heat absorption and thus lowering surface temperatures. This
data underscores the pivotal role that solar reflectivity plays in mitigating the UHI effect
and advancing energy-efficient building design.
 the sky [5].

Table 2 and Figure 4 show a relationship between the reflective properties of materi-
als and their influence on surface temperatures. Materials with higher solar reflectivity,
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 such as light-colored or reflective coatings, effectively bounce back a significant portion
6 ofof
26
incoming solar radiation, reducing heat absorption and thus lowering surface tempera-
tures. This data underscores the pivotal role that solar reflectivity plays in mitigating the
UHI effect and advancing energy-efficient building design.
Table 2. Solar reflectance, emittance, and surface temperature for different roofing materials [37].

Roofing Materials Table 2. SolarSolar

reflectance, emittance,
Reflectance % and surface temperature
Temperature (◦ C) for different roofingEmittance
Infrared materials %
[37].

Roofing Materials
Bitumen–smooth surface Solar
6 Reflectance % Temperature
46.1 (°C) Infrared 86
Emittance %
Bitumen–smooth
Asphalt surface
shingles—black granules 5 6 45.6 46.1 86
91
Asphalt
Built-upshingles—black
roof—dark gravelgranules 12 5 42.2 45.6 91
90
`Built-up roof—dark gravel 12 42.2 90
Asphalt shingles—white granules 25 35.6 91
Asphalt shingles—white granules 25 35.6 91
Bitumen–white granules 26 35 92
Bitumen–white granules 26 35 92
Built-up roof—light gravel 34 31.7 90
Built-up roof—light gravel 34 31.7 90
Shingles—white
Shingles—white elastomeric coating
elastomeric coating 71 71 12.2 12.2 91.2
91.2

80 50

45
70
40
SOLAR REFLECTANCE %

TEMPERATURE RISE (°C)

60
35
50
30

40 25

20
30
15
20
10
10
5

0 0

Solar reflectance Temperature rise (°C)

Figure 4. Correlation between roof temperature and solar reflectance in materials with the same
Figure 4. Correlation between roof temperature and solar reflectance in materials with the same
infrared emittance range [37].
infrared emittance range [37].
4. Surface Solar Reflectivity
4. Surface Solar
Surface Reflectivity
solar reflectivity is considered by radiative cooling and retro-reflectivity. Ra-
Surface
diative solar
cooling isreflectivity is considered
a passive technique thatby radiative
cools objectscooling and retro-reflectivity.
by emitting thermal energy Ra-
into
diative cooling
outer space, is a passive
taking advantagetechnique that of
of the effect cools objectsradiation,
night-sky by emitting thermal
a highly energymeans
common into
outer space,
of energy taking from
transfer advantage of the surface
the Earth’s effect of[38].
night-sky radiation,
The universe, a highly
having common means
a temperature close
of
toenergy transfer
absolute from
zero, acts asthe Earth s surface
an ultimate [38].
heat sink The
and universe, having
a substantial a temperature
renewable close
thermodynamic
resource.
to absolute As a result,
zero, radiative
acts as an ultimate cooling allows
heat sink and terrestrial objects
a substantial to discharge
renewable heat into
thermodynamic
outer space as electromagnetic waves, providing a passive cooling mechanism that does
not require additional energy input. With the growing risk of extreme heat waves due
to climate change, radiative cooling has the capability to disperse excessive heat away
from the Earth. [39]. However, atmospheric interference limits its efficiency, and it relies
on the infrared atmospheric window (wavelengths 8 to 14 µm) for cooling where the
Earth’s atmosphere allows thermal radiation to pass through relatively unimpeded [38].
Two approaches are used for nighttime radiative cooling: utilizing a black body radiator
and maximizing radiation within the atmospheric window. During the daytime, effective
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 7 of 26

radiative cooling requires preventing the absorption of solar radiation. Two methods are
used: (I) partially transparent shielding to block undesired spectra and (II) employing a
translucent material layer having a high radiation rate and high degree of solar reflectivity.
The latter approach has been successfully demonstrated to provide passive cooling, even in
direct sunlight [38]. Early research on radiative sky cooling primarily focused on nighttime
applications due to limited cooling capacity during the day because of solar absorption [40].
Progress in materials and equipment for nighttime cooling have shown efficiencies of up
to 10–15 ◦ C below ambient temperatures. However, the limited energy density of this
technology obstructs its widespread implementation, necessitating expansive surface areas
to achieve substantial cooling capabilities, leading to increased expenses associated with
this technology [38].
Radiative cooling resources in seven regions of China were evaluated using a radiative
cooling model alongside meteorological data for those respective areas. The maximum
annual cooling potential ranged from nearly 37 to 72 W/m2 . The seasonal distribution
of radiative cooling resources varied, with the lowest cooling potential over all seasons.
Additionally, it was shown that a practical radiative cooler with lower solar absorption
and non-blackbody thermal emittance led to an average reduction of 15% in the annual net
cooling power [41].
Recent advancements have made passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC), a tech-
nology designed to reduce the temperature of surfaces and the surrounding environment
during daylight hours without the need for electricity or active cooling systems, achievable
by reflecting solar radiation and increasing thermal mid-infrared emittance. To achieve
PDRC, a coating with high solar reflectance to the solar spectrum (0.3–2.5 µm) is necessary
to prevent solar heating. This means that even during the daytime, the heat loss to outer
space through the atmospheric window is significantly greater than heat gain from solar
radiation, enabling passive cooling without requiring electricity. However, it is crucial to
recognize that the applicability of these conditions can vary depending on different factors
such as geographical location, season, microclimate, building envelope characteristics, and
specific time of day [42].
The overall transmitter efficiency serves as a performance metric for broadband in-
frared transmitters operating at elevated temperatures. Conversely, at sub-ambient tem-
peratures, the ratio of the transmitter’s radiance efficiency in the atmospheric window to
its total radiation efficiency is employed as an indicator of its cooling efficiency. In the
context of building applications, the cooling performance of radiative cooling coatings
on roofs is often assessed using the solar reflectance index (SRI). SRI is determined by
considering solar reflectivity and the rate of infrared thermal emission, with higher SRI
values denoting more efficient radiative cooling [43]. Advancements in nano-patterning
techniques and designer materials are expected to provide a broader knowledge base
regarding the radiative properties of different materials [44]. To achieve an improved
approach for assessing and designing radiative cooling materials and devices, it is essential
to eliminate the interference caused by atmospheric radiation and solar energy [45].
In addition, retro-reflectivity (RR) is another way to cool a surface. The RR definition
explains how solar radiation reflects into the atmosphere without experiencing scattering.
Building envelope materials are capable to incorporate such capacity [46]. These specialized
materials are ingeniously designed to alter the path of incident light in a manner that
redirects it precisely back toward its source (Figure 5) rather than allowing it to scatter
or disperse in various directions. In essence, the term “retroreflecting” characterizes the
unique ability of a material or surface to bounce radiation back to its origin, regardless
of the angle at which the light strikes the surface [47]. However, the effectiveness of RR
materials is notably contingent on factors such as the angle of solar radiation and the urban
density [47].
 redirects it precisely back toward its source (Figure 5) rather than allowing it to scatter or
disperse in various directions. In essence, the term “retroreflecting” characterizes the
unique ability of a material or surface to bounce radiation back to its origin, regardless of
the angle at which the light strikes the surface [47]. However, the effectiveness of RR ma-
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 terials is notably contingent on factors such as the angle of solar radiation and the urban
8 of 26
density [47].

Figure 5. Retro-reflective roof reflects solar radiation back into the atmosphere in the same direction
as the shortwave
Figure radiationroof
5. Retro-reflective received (left),
reflects solarvs. reflective
radiation roof
back that
into thescatters solar radiation
atmosphere in direction
in the same different
as the shortwave
directions radiation received (left), vs. reflective roof that scatters solar radiation in different
(right) [5].
directions (right) [5].
5. Cool Building Envelope Materials
5. Cool
TheBuilding
materialsEnvelope
that have Materials
high reflectivity and high emissivity are called cool mate-
rials. The
These materials can effectively reflect aand
materials that have high reflectivity fraction of the solar
high emissivity areradiation
called cool back to the
materials.
atmosphere
These while
materials emitting
can absorbed
effectively reflectheat throughoftheir
a fraction radiative
the solar cooling
radiation ability
back [48].atmos-
to the Cool
phere while emitting absorbed heat through their radiative cooling ability [48]. Coolheat
materials have three main characteristics: (I) minimal absorptivity to reduce solar ma-
gain; (II) radiative cooling ability by maximizing spectral emissivity to increase heat losses;
terials have three main characteristics: (I) minimal absorptivity to reduce solar heat gain;
and (III) high thermal capacitance and increased latent heat storage capacity to effectively
(II) radiative cooling ability by maximizing spectral emissivity to increase heat losses; and
regulate heat gains and lower surface temperatures. Various types of materials, such as
(III) high thermal
naturally capacitance
high reflective whiteand increased
coatings, phaselatent heatmaterials
change storage capacity
(PCMs),tothermochromic,
effectively reg-
ulate heat gains and lower surface temperatures. Various types of materials,
and fluorescent materials, offer different heat mitigation potentials and applications such as [49].
natu-
rally In
high
thereflective
1970s andwhite
1980s,coatings,
researchphase
mainly change materials
concentrated on (PCMs), thermochromic,
the application of substancesand
fluorescent materials, offer different heat mitigation potentials and
such as polyethylene, PVF, TiO2 paint, and other coatings on aluminum substrates to applications [49].
In the
generate 1970s and
selective 1980s, research
surfaces that might mainly concentrated
dissipate on the application
heat effectively and perhaps of substances
result in
such as polyethylene,
temperature decreases,PVF,
butTiO paint,challenge
the2 main and other wascoatings on aluminum
to achieve radiative substrates to gen-
cooling during
daytime.
erate Progress
selective wasthat
surfaces made
mightthrough theheat
dissipate utilization of silicon
effectively nitrideresult
and perhaps films,inselective
temper-
infrared
ature emissions
decreases, butfrom gases,challenge
the main reflectivewas
coatings, and doped
to achieve polymers.
radiative coolingThese
during techniques
daytime.
Progress was made through the utilization of silicon nitride films, selective infraredyears,
occasionally resulted in temperature drops relative to the surroundings. In recent emis-
research
sions hasgases,
from primarily focused
reflective on utilizing
coatings, recycled
and doped and natural-based
polymers. materials,occasionally
These techniques generating
power while
resulted reducing heat,
in temperature andrelative
drops assessing tothe
theimpact of varying
surroundings. Inclimates and microclimates
recent years, research has
on the suitability and durability of these materials. Appendix A presents a list of key
primarily focused on utilizing recycled and natural-based materials, generating power
findings from studies on the utilization of cool materials.
while reducing heat, and assessing the impact of varying climates and microclimates on
Various cool materials, such as polymer-based porous structures and randomly dis-
the suitability and durability of these materials. Appendix A presents a list of key findings
tributed particle structures without a reflective metal layer, show promise for diverse
from studiesapplications
commercial on the utilization
due tooftheir
cool impressive
materials. cooling abilities, cost-effectiveness, ease
Various cool materials,
of manufacturing, scalability,such
andas polymer-based
compatibility porous
[50]. structures
Additionally, and randomly
a surface dis-
with high-
tributed particle structures without a reflective metal layer, show promise
potential radiative cooling utilizing a bioinspired array of truncated SiO2 micro cones can for diverse
achieve both appealing visual characteristics and efficient cooling under direct sunlight
while maintaining functionality [51]. Another development involves a hierarchically struc-
tured polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) film with micropores and random nanopores that
provides highly efficient passive radiative cooling, with temperature reductions of up to
8.2 ◦ C at night and 6.0 ◦ C to 8.9 ◦ C during midday [52]. However, despite the growing
significance of the use of nanostructures in radiative cooling, their widespread application
is hindered by high fabrication costs [44].
Efficient sub-ambient daytime radiative cooling (DRC) was achieved using a naturally
derived cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) film. This film selectively reflects visible light while
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 9 of 26

maintaining low solar absorption and high mid-infrared emission, offering effective heat
loss. By combining the CNC film with a scattering ethyl cellulose (EC) base layer, broad-
spectrum solar reflection and vibrant structural color can be achieved simultaneously.
The scalable roll-to-roll manufacturing process makes this sustainable and cost-effective
approach commercially viable for large-scale production, presenting a potential solution
for sub-ambient radiative cooling with implications for addressing global warming and
promoting carbon neutrality [53].
A multilayered hydrophobic fabric composed of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), poly-
methyl methacrylate (PMMA), and cotton can achieve efficient passive daytime radiative
cooling (PDRC). The fabric exhibits high solar reflectivity (0.94) and suitable atmospheric
window emissivity (0.79), achieving temperature reductions of up to 7.8 ◦ C under direct
sunlight [54]. Magnesium-doped SiO2 coatings demonstrated high solar reflectance of up to
86% and superior radiative cooling properties compared to pure SiO2 coatings, achieving a
maximum temperature reduction of 17.8 ◦ C compared to empty space and 4.5 ◦ C compared
to commercial SiO2 coatings [55].
Cooling energy savings of up to 2.9 kW h/m2 per 0.1 increase in solar reflectance,
as well as average reductions of 1.1 ◦ C in indoor operative temperature and up to 7.5 ◦ C
on exterior surface temperatures, were calculated, highlighting cool facades as a viable
technology for improving energy efficiency and environmental quality in Mediterranean
dwellings [56]. The energy-saving potential of thermochromic materials in Mediterranean
residential buildings was also assessed through dynamic modeling, showing improved
yearly energy performance with absolute energy savings of up to 25 kWh/m2 and relative
savings of 4–19% [57]. Cool-colored materials for facades in new constructions and building
renovations were assessed, including the impact of solar reflectance on cool-colored paints.
Reflectance and thermal emissivity measurements were conducted for two categories of cool
colors, resulting in significant surface temperature reductions and a 10–20% improvement in
energy performance during the cooling season for residential buildings in different Italian
climates [58]. Nanocomposite-based cool coatings, specifically the NanoDPR coating,
exhibited enhanced durability and slower reduction in solar reflectance index compared
to reference coatings, leading to potential average annual energy savings of 5% and a
significant reduction in CO2 emissions in extreme climates such as that experienced in the
UAE [59].
Cool materials, specifically cool asphalt, can be used for pavement and roadways. It
was found that cool asphalt applications resulted in average temperature differences of
3 ◦ C to 5.5 ◦ C compared to conventional asphalt after measuring the optical and thermal
properties of asphalt samples [60]. This is because cool asphalt surfaces remain cooler
under solar radiation, leading to reduced heat transfer to the surrounding air, ultimately
resulting in lower temperatures [60]. Experiments were conducted on a coated pavement in
a hot desert environment, showing that increasing solar reflectivity led to reduced surface
temperatures, lower energy consumption, and decreased CO2 emissions. Applying highly
reflective white coatings offers multiple advantages, including mitigating the UHI effect
and extending materials sustainability and durability [27]. In-depth analyses, including
measurements and numerical evaluations, have yielded compelling results in favor of
employing cool building envelope materials to mitigate UHI effects.

6. Solar Reflectivity Measurements of Building Envelope Materials

Measuring solar reflectivity is essential when studying the effect of cool materials
because it provides crucial insights into the ability of materials to reflect solar radiation
and reduce heat absorption. By accurately measuring reflectivity, one can assess the
potential of cool materials in mitigating UHI effects and enhancing thermal comfort, thereby
contributing to more sustainable and energy-efficient urban designs. Figure 6 shows the
measuring procedure as used in cool material evaluation studies. Two parameters are
measured: surface solar reflectivity and surface heat emissivity. Specific instruments and
relevant standards need to be followed for measuring the reflectivity and emissivity of
 ward approach involving three components: a radiator, a receiver, and the sample. The
sample s role as either the radiator or absorber depends on the known radiative properties
of the other components. By measuring the heat transfer from the radiator to the absorber,
it is possible to calculate the radiative properties and the total hemispherical emissivity of
the sample [62]. Radiometric methods use radiometric instruments to directly measure the
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 10 of 26
radiative properties of a sample. One radiometric method is the measurement of spectral
emissivity. This method utilizes Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers to ana-
lyze the thermal radiation emitted by the sample across a range of wavelengths. By com-
building facade materials. A spectrophotometer or a reflectometer can be used to measure
paring the measured radiation with the known properties of a reference material, the emis-
the reflectivity (also known as the albedo) of building facade materials. These instruments
sivity can be calculated at different wavelengths and/or over a broad spectral range [63].
measure the amount of light reflected from a surface across different wavelengths [61].

Figure
Figure 6. 6. Experimental
Experimental procedure
procedure for
for cool
cool buildingenvelope
building envelopematerial
materialmeasurements
measurements[5].
[5].

Two methods are used to measure emissivity at various temperatures: calorimetric and
radiometric methods. The calorimetric method is a commonly used and straightforward
approach involving three components: a radiator, a receiver, and the sample. The sample’s
role as either the radiator or absorber depends on the known radiative properties of the
other components. By measuring the heat transfer from the radiator to the absorber, it is
possible to calculate the radiative properties and the total hemispherical emissivity of the
sample [62]. Radiometric methods use radiometric instruments to directly measure the
radiative properties of a sample. One radiometric method is the measurement of spectral
emissivity. This method utilizes Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers to analyze
the thermal radiation emitted by the sample across a range of wavelengths. By comparing
the measured radiation with the known properties of a reference material, the emissivity
can be calculated at different wavelengths and/or over a broad spectral range [63].
Another radiometric method is infrared (IR) thermography. In this method, an IR
camera is used to capture the thermal radiation emitted by the sample. The camera detects
temperature distribution on the surface of the sample and calculates emissivity based on
temperature measurements. This method is particularly useful for non-contact measure-
ments and large-area assessments of emissivity. Radiometric methods offer advantages
such as direct measurements, non-contact capabilities, and the ability to obtain emissivity
values across a wide range of temperatures and wavelengths. To obtain valuable results, it
is crucial to take into consideration elements such as surface roughness, the surrounding
environmental conditions, and the accuracy of calibration standards.
The use of radiometric techniques for temperature measurement poses two key chal-
lenges. The first challenge is the need to determine the object’s emissivity, which is essential
for accurately calculating its surface temperature. The second challenge involves the im-
pact of background radiation from nearby objects and interactions with the environment,
which can notably affect the radiation detected and, consequently, the temperature read-
ings [64]. To measure the emissivity of building facade materials, an infrared (IR) camera
with emissivity measurement capabilities can be utilized.
 impact of background radiation from nearby objects and interactions with the environ-
ment, which can notably affect the radiation detected and, consequently, the temperature
readings [64]. To measure the emissivity of building facade materials, an infrared (IR) cam-
era with emissivity measurement capabilities can be utilized.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 11 of 26

7. Numerical Simulation of Building Envelope Materials

Understanding the effects of using cool building envelope materials for mitigating
7. Numerical Simulation of Building Envelope Materials
UHI effects requires the integration of building energy modeling and urban/local cli-
Understanding the effects of using cool building envelope materials for mitigating
mate/environment assessment. In essence, the energy demand of a building depends on
UHI effects requires the integration of building energy modeling and urban/local cli-
multiple factors, encompassing the heat transfer characteristics of its envelope, ambient
mate/environment assessment. In essence, the energy demand of a building depends on
air and radiant temperatures, solar
multiple factors, heat gainsthe
encompassing from
heatboth vertical
transfer and horizontal
characteristics compo-ambient air
of its envelope,
nents, and the accumulation of heat within
and radiant temperatures, structural
solar heat gains materials.
from bothUnderstanding and ad-
vertical and horizontal components,
dressing these interrelated factors areofcritical
and the accumulation in achieving
heat within structuraleffective
materials.UHI mitigation and
Understanding andaddressing
optimizing building energy
these performance.
interrelated These
factors are interactions
critical between
in achieving indoor
effective UHI and outdoor
mitigation and optimiz-
raise the need foring building energy
microclimate performance.
modeling, which These interactions
can integrate between energy
a building indoor and outdoor raise
model
the need for microclimate modeling, which can integrate
(BEM) with an outdoor computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. As such, simulation a building energy model (BEM)
with an outdoor computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. As such, simulation studies
studies are categorized into two control volumes: building simulations and urban micro-
are categorized into two control volumes: building simulations and urban micro-climate
climate modeling. Figure 7 shows the general approach to evaluating cool materials, con-
modeling. Figure 7 shows the general approach to evaluating cool materials, consisting of
sisting of experimental measuring,
experimental numerical
measuring, modeling,
numerical modeling,and the
and theevaluation andforecasting
evaluation and forecast- for future
ing for future useuse
ofofthese materialsinin
these materials buildings
buildings and and built environments.
built environments. The experi-
The experimental measurements
mental measurements are explained in the previous
are explained in the previous section. section.

Experimental Measuring Numerical Modeling Evaluation and Forecasting

•Implement proposed materials •Coupled CFD and BEM model •Use validated model for
or assemblies. for numerical modeling. comparing other materials
•Measure the data with and •Use the measured data as an impact on outdoor temperature
without the implemented input. and building enegry
materials. •Testing the model's accuracy consumption.
•Use the measured Data as an by comparing it with •Performance evaluation using
input for Numerical model or experimental Data. standard indicators.
use the Data to validate the •Iteration and validation.
output from Model.

Figure 7. The general approach

Figure 7. The in evaluating
general cool
approach inmaterials
evaluatingperformance.
cool materials performance.

7.1. Building Simulations

The integration of CFD and BEM offers a powerful tool not only for estimating out-
door environmental conditions but also for designing new buildings. By simulating the
airflow patterns, heat transfer, and energy performance of buildings, the use of CFD-BEM
approaches enables architects and engineers to optimize the design of structures to enhance
thermal comfort and energy efficiency [65]. These approaches allow for the evaluation of
various design alternatives, such as building form, orientation, and fenestration, by assess-
ing their impact on indoor airflow, temperature distribution, and energy consumption.
The impact of cool roofs has been extensively studied, whereas research on their effects
on walls or comparisons between effects from walls and roofs is limited.
Li et al. developed a prediction model using nonlinear regression to calculate the heat
transfer coefficient of building walls, considering solar energy effects and wind influences
in winter. The model’s findings showed that the heat transfer coefficient of the walls was
notably affected by the heat accumulation coefficient and the heat transfer coefficient of the
south wall’s outer surface on sunny days. However, the study also revealed that radiation
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 12 of 26

intensity and outdoor air temperature had minimal influence on these factors. The higher
heat transfer values for walls signify better heat transfer efficiency through walls [66].
Yu et al. proposed a simulation-based method for comparing the cooling performance
of different daytime radiative cooling materials. The method utilizes basic radiation theory,
the standard solar spectrum, and six standard model atmospheres to evaluate and compare
materials under various environmental conditions. The MODTRAN code has been used for
the prediction and analysis of optical measurements through the atmosphere. By applying
this method, engineers can select the most suitable radiative cooling material for specific
environments. The most significant energy savings occurred in the U.S. standard atmo-
sphere (1976) scenario among the six different standard model atmospheres in MODTRAN,
which are Sub-arctic summer, Sub-arctic winter, Mid-latitude summer, Mid-latitude winter,
Tropical atmosphere, and U.S. standard atmosphere [67]. Within this study, a simulation
analysis was conducted to compare four materials, and it was found that one of these mate-
rials (porous poly vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoro propene) [68] exhibited the highest
cooling power [67].
As for numerical modeling, the results derived from CFD—BEM simulations provide
insights into the interaction between buildings and their surrounding microclimates, en-
abling the identification of strategies to mitigate the effects of other factors such as wind
patterns, solar radiation, and the UHI effect. By leveraging CFD—BEM approaches, de-
signers can make informed decisions to create buildings that not only respond to outdoor
thermal conditions but also contribute to occupant comfort and the overall sustainability of
the building operations.

7.2. Micro-Climate Simulations

The importance of considering building—microclimate interactions in urban planning
arises due to the UHI impacts, which affect building cooling loads and are influenced by
urban morphology, landscaping, and thermal properties. In a case study undertaken in La
Rochelle, France, EnviBatE and SOLENE-Microclimate simulation tools were used during
the design stage to compare two building densities, revealing significant reductions in
wind velocity and solar irradiation on existing nearby buildings in the densified district;
this permitted highlighting the ability of microclimate simulation tools [69].
Gros et al. developed the Envi-BatE model, which combines BEM with an urban
canopy concept on a district scale to analyze microclimatic effects on building energy
demand [70]. Cool paints, especially on vertical walls, significantly reduced cooling energy
demand and improved the local microclimate [71]. A new co-simulation model was devel-
oped by Miguel et al., which combined EnergyPlus and OpenFOAM. The model accurately
observes waste heat release from cooling systems and assesses direct and indirect effects
for countering UHI effects. The model was validated using field experiment measurements,
and it was found to approximate outdoor temperature and air motion adequately; how-
ever, improvements were needed to better estimate surface temperatures by considering
net-longwave radiation when undertaking EnergyPlus building energy simulations [72].
Scaled outdoor field measurements were performed by Wang et al. using the SO-
MUCH experimental platform to examine the daily features of the urban thermal environ-
ment and surface energy balance (SEB) within a 3D urban configuration. The study revealed
different surface and air temperatures, with direct solar radiation being the primary in-
fluencing factor. Wall temperatures were significantly affected by height and orientation
in high-rise compact urban structures. Hollow samples were used, and those samples
filled with water permitted the heat absorption capacity of water to be used as an indoor
“situation” indicator. The water model showed lower temperature variation and a smaller
diurnal temperature range compared to the hollow model, emphasizing the impact of
thermal storage capacity. The study also permitted the observation of how surface albedo is
affected by the solar altitude angle, sky conditions, and building aspect ratio. The findings
provided valuable insights for future urban climate studies and also permitted enhancing
numerical simulations of urban surface energy balance models [73].
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 13 of 26

Fallahpour et al. proposed a repeatable, step-by-step framework for outdoor ther-

mal comfort assessment (OTC) that combined dynamic building energy simulation (BES)
with CFD for external surface temperatures, microclimate CFD for wind velocity, and
Honeybee software 0.0.66 for solar radiation. Although the framework was location and
design-independent, it had limitations, such as considering a constant ground surface
temperature in simulations that would underestimate the microclimate impact due to the
low spatial resolution of building surface temperatures from the results of BES. Future
improvements should incorporate dynamic CFD-based meteorological parameters to allow
evaluation of the framework of larger-scale urban areas having diverse building materials
and geometries [74].
Lu et al. conducted scaled outdoor experiments within 3D high-rise building clusters
to explore how cool coatings affect the parameters of the urban thermal environment.
Results indicated that cool coatings on both roofs and walls can increase urban albedo and
reduce wall temperatures. However, cool coatings on lower-level walls were less effective in
this regard. The findings highlight the potential of cooling materials in mitigating the UHI
effect, suggesting their application on roofs and higher-level walls for better results [26].

7.3. Mesoscale Modeling

In mesoscale meteorological modeling, physical models, including those for radia-
tion, the planetary boundary layer, microphysics, cumulus convection, and land surface
processes, are utilized to calculate various terms of the governing equations. The weather
research and forecasting (WRF) model is a numerical weather prediction system used for
simulating and forecasting weather and atmospheric conditions.
To understand the impact of elevated reflectivity on urban meteorological processes
and local climate and to validate simulation results with empirical measurements, it is
imperative to encompass all influential factors within an integrating model framework.
This entails a thorough consideration of urban canopy characteristics, including building
materials, heights, and spatial layout, which exert significant influence on the local micro-
climate. Increasing surface reflectivity can profoundly affect the balance of solar radiation
absorption and reflection, consequently shaping temperature patterns and the energy equi-
librium. Furthermore, factors such as wind flow dynamics, meteorological parameters, and
existing local climate conditions must be seamlessly integrated into the model to holistically
assess the complex interactions occurring within the urban environment, necessitating
the synergy of mesoscale and microscale models [75]. The effects of increasing urban
surface albedo on the urban microclimate and building energy demand are investigated by
coupling the numerical WRF model with a building effect parameterization (BEP) and BEM.
The WRF model is utilized for numerical weather prediction based on real data, while the
BEP predicts heat and moisture fluxes from urban canopies to the atmosphere, and the
BEM simulates anthropogenic heat emissions. As a result, a comprehensive assessment is
conducted, considering the various factors influencing the urban microclimate and their in-
teractions. Microclimate outcomes, such as air temperature and wind speed, are compared
with measurements taken in Toronto during the 2018 heatwave period to validate the WRF
model. To evaluate potential strategies for mitigating urban heat islands, the albedos of
roofs, walls, and ground surfaces are incrementally increased by 0.45, 0.4, and 0.25 from
the initial 0.2, respectively, revealing a maximum air temperature reduction of nearly 2 ◦ C
at noon, along with a slight increase in wind speed [76,77]. Using the coupled WRF and
UCM model, the temporal and spatial distribution of pollutants over North America was
simulated during the 2011 heatwave period. The albedo of roofs, walls, and roads increased
by 45%, 40%, and 25%, respectively, from their initial value of 0.2. It was observed in
the simulations that in urban areas, there was a decrease of 0.7 ◦ C in the average daily
maximum air temperature [78].
Jandaghian et al. investigated the impact of urban parameterization modeling us-
ing the advanced WRF model. The WRF is integrated independently with three urban
canopy models (UCMs) to predict heat and moisture exchanges between urban surfaces
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 14 of 26

and the atmosphere. Urban canopy models can be employed to simulate the dispersion
of temperature, wind speed, and pollutants within a confined two-dimensional street
environment [79,80]. These UCMs include a slab model (SB), a single-layer model (SL),
and a multi-layer model (ML) that respectively treat buildings as roughness elements,
use a simplified two-dimensional representation, and incorporate a comprehensive three-
dimensional approach accounting for vertical exchange of heat, moisture, and momentum.
The WRF-UCM simulations are focused on a specific heatwave period and validated by
comparing the model results for air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, and dew
point temperature with observations from various weather stations [81–83]. The UCM-WRF
model can be coupled with BEM to estimate the effects of increasing reflectivity on building
energy consumption. Enhancing the albedo of roofs, walls, and roads to values of 0.65,
0.60, and 0.45, respectively, resulted in a 3–5% reduction in HVAC energy consumption in
Toronto during the 2018 heat wave period [84].
The sensitivity of near-surface air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, and
precipitation to various physical models within the WRF model is evaluated for urban
climate simulations and UHI mitigation in Montreal, Canada. A multi-layer urban canopy
model is employed to account for turbulence between buildings in urban areas. The
ensemble of models with the least error is recommended as a suitable platform for urban
climate simulations aimed at investigating UHI mitigation strategies. Surface reflectivity is
increased to mitigate the UHI effect across the region, with albedo values raised for roofs,
walls, and roads. The results of surface modifications reveal a 0.2 ◦ C decrease in averaged
2 m air temperature, a slight increase in 10 m wind speed, a 2.8% reduction in relative
humidity, and an average precipitation decrease of 0.2 mm. The increased albedo results
in a net reduction in radiative flux into the ground, subsequently leading to decreased
convective cloud formation and precipitation [85].
WRF with a multi-layer urban canopy model (ML-UCM) can be coupled with the
heat-related mortality (HRM) model. Jandaghian et al. investigated the effect of increasing
the albedo of urban surfaces. Using data from the Canadian Environmental Health Atlas
(CEHA), which reports an average of 120 heat-induced deaths in Toronto and Montreal, the
research assesses the impact of increased surface albedo (ISA) on HRM. The results indicate
that ISA results in a reduction in air temperature, a decrease in dew point temperature, and
a slight increase in near-surface wind speed. This albedo increases shifts in the number
of days with milder conditions by around 60%, leading to a 3–7% reduction in HRM,
potentially saving seven to eighteen lives [86].
These models play a pivotal role in assessing the impact of urban development and
climate change on cities, assisting in designing energy-efficient and resilient urban environ-
ments and supporting environmental policy evaluation. They provide insights into factors
such as temperature variations, wind patterns, and humidity levels within urban areas,
aiding in the development of strategies for mitigating UHIs, improving air quality, and
enhancing the well-being of urban residents.

8. Concluding Remarks; Research Gap and Future Research Opportunities

Urban infrastructure materials, such as stone, asphalt, and concrete, substantially
contribute to heat absorption and retention, exacerbating the UHI effect. In response to
the negative implications of climate change and the UHI effects on buildings, occupants,
and pedestrian thermal comfort, increasing solar radiation of building envelope materials
is proposed. These materials, renowned for their dual attributes of high reflectivity and
high emissivity, have the potential to mitigate the effects of the UHI phenomenon. Per this
review, research gaps have been identified as follows:
• In comparison to studies focused only on roofs, there is still a need for more research
that considers various factors such as building orientation, energy modeling for verti-
cal surfaces, and envelope modeling, which limits understanding of their contribution
to their overall potential for mitigating UHI effects. This gap necessitates more experi-
mental and modeling studies that encompass the full range of surfaces that may be
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 15 of 26

found within urban environments. An examination of the market scenario uncovers

a noticeable scarcity of information regarding the application of cool materials for
external walls in North America [87]. Cool materials predominantly find use on the
rooftops of non-residential structures, with a lack of available market data. Looking at
the corporate landscape, a thorough investigation has identified twenty companies
located in Canada, the majority of which are small and medium enterprises (SMEs) spe-
cializing in manufacturing roofing products [87]. Reflective materials, phase-change
materials, and coatings are prominently featured as the most frequently discussed
options in North America;
• As temperature dynamics influence wind patterns, future investigations must account
for these complicated relationships to provide a more accurate picture of the potential
outcomes of cool material implementation. The complex interactions between chang-
ing temperatures and wind speed, potentially leading to reduced breezes, underscore
the need for comprehensive assessments that consider multiple factors;
• The absence of extensive measured data from large-scale experimental sites and
long-term weather records poses a challenge in fully recognizing the implications
of cool material use. Obtaining such data is essential to comprehensively evaluate
their efficacy and to inform practical applications. The need for large-scale testing
poses a challenge in evaluating the practical applicability of cool materials. Rigorous
real-world experiments are necessary to validate the potential of these materials on
a broader scale and to ensure their reliability as passive UHI mitigation strategies.
Finally, the interaction between humidity and the effects of cool materials remains an
area of limited understanding. Incorporating humidity-related considerations into
future studies will enhance the accuracy of predictions and the overall effectiveness of
cool material strategies;
• Existing cool roof measurement and rating standards, like CRRC-1 [88], only address a
3-year aging process when assessing the impact on the reflective properties of materials.
Further research is needed to examine the durability of these materials under natural
exposure to real field tests more comprehensively, as durability plays a vital role in the
material selection process for construction purposes.
The following are the proposed research opportunities and specific steps to move forward:
• Create a comprehensive guideline that outlines the minimum prescriptive require-
ments for material solar reflectance index (SRI) based on the desired location. These
standards can serve as a foundation for developing future building codes, making it
easier to promote the widespread adoption of reflective materials and ensuring their
consistent and effective use in various urban environments;
• Expand the focus beyond roofs to encompass vertical surfaces; this will promote a
more complete understanding of the potential effects arising from the use of cool
materials to reduce UHI effects;
• Develop a unified performance metric that allows for a direct comparison between
different cool materials; the current set of performance indicators includes the Solar
Reflectance Index, surface temperature, outdoor temperature, energy consumption,
and glare from surfaces, whereas these performance indicators offer valuable insights,
a comprehensive unit performance indicator would enable researchers, practitioners,
and policymakers to effectively evaluate and rate various materials based on their
overall effectiveness in mitigating the UHI effect;
• Modify existing indicators through the development of comprehensive evaluation
criteria, such as surface and air temperature metrics; this would ensure a thorough
understanding of how cool materials influence the urban environment; accurate and
standardized measurements of these indicators would provide a clearer picture of the
extent to which cool materials contribute to, and the efficacy of materials in, reducing
the UHI effect and cooling the urban environment;
• Research into cool materials derived from natural sources is an ongoing endeavor
within the field of material science. Future steps might involve utilizing different
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 16 of 26

arrangements of these natural cool materials in the field of building engineering. Also,
studies could focus on comparing the longevity, cost-effectiveness, and impact of these
cool materials on building energy consumption and outdoor temperature.
In conclusion, undertaking this review permitted informing on the significant positive
outcomes that may ensue from using cool materials as a passive radiative strategy for
mitigating UHI effects. By addressing the research gaps, this paper contributes to the devel-
opment of sustainable and effective measures for urban heat mitigation, as well as fostering
a more climate-resilient and comfortable urban environment for future generations.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation, Z.J and B.Z.; review and editing, Z.J.;
B.Z., M.L., H.G. and T.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Infrastructure Canada through the Climate Resilient Built
Environment (CRBE) Initiative (National Research Council Canada Project Number: A1-020250).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Infrastructure Canada and Marianne Armstrong,
director of the Climate Resilient Built Environment (CRBE) Initiative, for their supports on this
R&D project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
The following table provides an inventory of various cool materials and presents the
research outcomes associated with them.

Table A1. Key findings from the utilization of cool materials for radiative cooling purposes.

No. Cool Material Year Key Findings Ref.

Surfaces with selective optical properties tailored to the
Polyethylene alcohol plastic film atmospheric window between 8–13 µm can be created
1 1974 [89]
+ evaporative Aluminum. by applying affordable plastic materials to a
metal surface.
Attainable temperatures and power levels can be
2 PVF + Al + Substrate. 1977 achieved by employing selective surfaces that align [90]
with the atmospheric window.
Oxides and carbonates of titanium, aluminum, calcium,
and zinc are promising options for creating the needed
3 TiO2 Paint + Al Plate. 1978 [91]
white-black selective surface because they exhibit high
reflectivity in the visible spectrum.
The potential to enhance radiative cooling through the
Poly Methylene film (340 mm)
4 1979 reversal of the greenhouse effect is explored, and [92]
coated on an Aluminum base.
certain experimental findings are presented.
can result in temperature variances of approximately
5 SiO + the Aluminum substrate. 1981 [93]
50 ◦ C, with a cooling capacity of around 100 W/m2
An alternative method for radiative cooling involves
Silicon nitride film applied to
6 1982 utilizing selective infrared emission from flowing C2 H+ [94]
aluminum substrates.
gas confined within an IR-transparent enclosure.
The protective cover is designed for refrigerating
Foil + reflective coatings and devices and has selective optical properties, making it
dyes from polyethylene or reflect sunlight diffusely on one side and absorb it on
7 1982 [95]
ethylene copolymers + a layer of the other side. The cover’s reflectance on the
absorbent pigments. sun-exposed side is high (above 0.6), and its
transmittance in the solar spectrum is low (around 0.1).
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 17 of 26

Table A1. Cont.

No. Cool Material Year Key Findings Ref.

Reflective aluminum plate, NH3, Radiative cooling can be harnessed to achieve lower
8 1984 [96]
C2 H4, C2 H4 O as gas plate. temperatures, even during daylight hours.
The combination can exhibit greater cooling capability
The SiON film + Gas +
9 1984 than either of the individual gases, a significant finding [97]
Aluminum substrate.
for real-world applications.
Magnesium oxide and lithium fluoride hold the
potential for making radiators. By using a 1.1 mm thick
layer of MgO ceramic, polished on one side and backed
with a metal foil, they achieved favorable infrared
10 MgO +LiF + Metal reflector. 1984 [98]
optical properties. In a passive cooling test, the MgO
radiator reached a temperature 22 ◦ C lower than the
surrounding air, making it 30 ◦ C colder than a highly
emissive nonselective radiator.
Performance evaluations were conducted using three
radiative cooling systems designed with surfaces made
of aluminum, white TiO2 paint, and black paint coated
11 TiO2 white and black paint. 1985 [99]
with polyethylene. Comparable measurements were
also taken with a fourth radiator featuring an
uncovered black paint surface.
Silicon dioxide and silicon nitride coatings were
The Aluminum plate covers generated through Radio Frequency sputtering of
12 1985 [100]
SiO2 + SiON silicon in the presence of either oxygen (O2 ) or nitrogen
(N2 ).
The foil would reduce the solar heating burden on the
The black radiation body is material beneath it to a maximum of 43 W/m2 when
13 covered with a ZnS polyethylene 1992 the sun is directly overhead, and cooling would be [101]
film. effective for three hours in both the morning and
evening.
The incorporation of a BaSO4 extender into the paint
14 White paint + Metal reflector. 1993 dispersion resulted in an improvement in the cooling [102]
performance of the paint radiators.
The temperature was slightly higher than the
surrounding environment at noon, with a heating
power of roughly 7.2 W/m2 . Nevertheless, this foil
Polyethylene foils containing
demonstrated that cooling of a dark surface could be
15 ZnS, ZnSe, TiO2 , ZrO2 , and ZnO 1995 [103]
achieved for over 19 h daily in a dry region near the
pigments.
equator. The most effective ZnS pigments, with volume
fractions reaching up to 0.15 at the surface of the black
body emitter, were identified as the optimal choice.
Silicon oxynitrides are particularly well suited for high
16 SiO2 + SiON + Al + Glass. 1995 [104]
emittance inside the atmospheric window.
The efficiency of silicon oxynitride material for
Aluminum substrate, nitrogen
17 1996 radiative cooling applications is improved using [105]
oxide, and silica.
multilayer structures.
The Spectral selective radiating material can attain a
Aluminum substrate, tantalum
18 1998 stable surface temperature determined by the [106]
dioxide, and tungsten.
transition temperature of the film.
The choice between overcoating and sandwiching the
19 SiO+VWO2 +Black Substrate. 1998 silver islands within a medium can have a significant [106]
effect on the system’s tunability.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 18 of 26

Table A1. Cont.

No. Cool Material Year Key Findings Ref.

The research focused on creating Si2 N2 O nanowires
through a Si nitridation process, with the addition of
Aluminum substrate and silicon carbon playing a crucial role. The resulting Si2 N2 O
20 2007 [107]
dioxide. nanowires exhibited a consistent and intense green
emission at 540 nm in their
photoluminescence spectrum.
Polyethylene foil + Aluminum Using a combination of SiC and SiO2 nanoparticles,
21 foil + silicon dioxide and silicon 2010 effective and cost-efficient cooling is achieved within a [108]
carbide. feasible cooling system setup.
The structure functions as a wide-spectrum mirror for
sunlight and emits significantly in the mid-infrared
22 TiO2 + MgF2 2013 range, falling within the atmospheric transparency [109]
window. This results in a net cooling power exceeding
100 W/m2 at room temperature.
It has been observed to be 11 degrees Celsius cooler
than a nearby commercial white cool roof. This effect is
achieved using carefully selected polymers and a thin
Polyethylene Terephthalate+
23 2015 silver film, resulting in exceptional values of around [110]
silver substrate.
100% for both reflecting solar radiation and emitting
thermal energy in the infrared spectrum, specifically
between 7.9 and 13 µm wavelengths.
An average cooling of 37 ◦ C compared to the
surrounding air temperature over a 24 h day/night
Silver substrate + amorphous cycle was attained, with the most substantial cooling,
24 2016 [111]
silicon and silicon nitride. reaching up to 42 ◦ C, occurring when the experimental
configuration containing the emitter is subjected to the
highest levels of solar radiation.
Over 90% of the incoming solar radiation can be
effectively reflected, and the typical emissivity within
the atmospheric transparency window exceeds 0.9 in
Metal-methyl cone
most directions. It is projected that a daytime net
25 nanostructure consisting of 2017 [112]
cooling power of over 100W/m2 will be achieved at
aluminum and palladium.
room temperature. This cooling capacity remains
effective even when accounting for substantial
conduction and convection heat transfer.
This approach employs common materials and
manufacturing methods, making it suitable for scalable
Phosphorus + silicon cubes + production and integration with silicon photonics. This
26 2017 [113]
Silver innovation holds promise for efficient, energy-saving
applications in passive cooling and
thermodynamic control.
The TiO2 +SiO2 coating exhibits a reflectivity of 90.7%
within the solar spectrum, and its emittance in the “sky
window” is 90.11%. In theory, this coating has the
27 Polyethylene + ZnO. 2017 potential to achieve a cooling effect of around 17 ◦ C [114]
below the surrounding temperature during nighttime
and approximately 5 ◦ C below the ambient
temperature when exposed to direct sunlight.
SiO2 + SiN + Al2 O3 + TiO2 + Applying this photonic cooler to a solar panel can
28 2017 [115]
HfO2 and SiO2 . lower the cell temperature by over 5.7 ◦ C.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 19 of 26

Table A1. Cont.

No. Cool Material Year Key Findings Ref.

By incorporating nanoparticles, the coating achieves
TiO2 + Carbon particles +
29 2017 favorable radiative properties, offering spectral [112]
Substrate.
selectivity for effective daytime cooling.
It provides an average radiative cooling capacity
exceeding 110 W/m2 throughout a continuous 72 h
cycle of day and night measurements, with the peak
Silver + polyethylene layer
30 2017 cooling power around noon reaching 93 W/m2 under [116]
+SiO2
direct solar irradiance of over 900 W/m2 . Additionally,
there was a notable increase in nighttime radiative
cooling compared to daytime.
A polymer-coated fused silica mirror, which serves as a
near-perfect blackbody in the mid-infrared and an
excellent reflector in the solar spectrum, accomplishes
31 PDMS + Sio2 +Ag 2017 [117]
radiative cooling below the surrounding air
temperature both during direct sunlight (8.2 ◦ C) and at
nighttime (8.4 ◦ C).
The addition of an Al2 O3 film, which selectively
absorbs in the 8–13 µm range while being transparent
SiO2 + TiO2 + Alumina on a
32 2017 to visible and near-infrared light, can improve the [118]
silver substrate.
effectiveness of radiative cooling within standard
coating designs.
When exposed to a standard thermal source at 323.15 K
and a wind speed of 3 m·s−1 , it can produce a net
cooling power of 363.68 W/m2 , demonstrating an
33 SiO2 +TiO2 +Al + Ag + Substrate. 2017 [119]
18.26% increase compared to non-radiative heat
exchange (natural cooling) under identical
circumstances.
Utilizing available commercial polymers for selective
emitters offers the promise of reducing the expenses
associated with radiative cooling solutions. This
34 SiC doped PDMS + Al. 2017 [120]
configuration has the capability to deliver natural
cooling of as much as 12 ◦ C below the surrounding
temperature during nighttime conditions.
Effective radiative cooling results in a temperature
SiO2 + PMMA + SiO2 + Ag + drop of 3.0 ◦ C compared to the surrounding
35 2017 [121]
Glass. environment, which equates to a cooling of 6.6 ◦ C
below the temperature of the bare silver (Ag) mirror.
Exceptional absorption efficiency exceeding 99% across
36 SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Ag. 2018 the spectrum from 435 to 1520 nm while maintaining [122]
low emissivity below 20% in the mid-infrared range.
The meta-reflector design achieves an emittance
37 Meta surface + SiO2 + Al. 2018 tunability of 0.48, signifying a 30% enhancement when [123]
contrasted with the unstructured film.
Emitters successfully achieved sub-ambient daytime
38 White Glass + Ag. 2019 [124]
radiative cooling effects.
In the laboratory and an outdoor setting, temperature
decreases of 9.5 ◦ C and 11.0 ◦ C were observed,
39 PDMS + Al. 2019 respectively, using the thin film thermal emitter, which [125]
exhibited an average cooling power of approximately
120 W/m2 .
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 20 of 26

Table A1. Cont.

No. Cool Material Year Key Findings Ref.

Simple structure with dual layers of PVF and Ag
coating. Low-cost, scalable-manufactured, durable,
40 PVF + Ag. 2020 [126]
and anti-staining. Experimental performance of 2 ◦ C
lower than ambient under direct sunlight.
A module is integrated into an RC system, serving as a
thermoelectric refrigerator during the day and
functioning as a thermoelectric generator during the
41 LiF + Ag. 2020 [127]
night. The later system achieves a maximum power
density of 4.78 W/m2 , enabling both daytime building
cooling and nighttime power generation.
A temperature-regulated phase change structure
(TCPCS) enhances the performance of radiative cooling
systems by allowing them to adapt their cooling
capacity based on the surrounding temperature.
During outdoor testing, the TCPCS enables the cooler
to automatically deactivate at low temperatures and
SiO2 + PP + Ag + Cu + Silica
42 2020 activate at high temperatures. As a result, the coolers [128]
aerogel pad.
equipped with TCPCS and those without it exhibit
maximum temperature differences of 9.7 ◦ C and 19.6
◦ C, respectively, over the course of a full day.
Additionally, a V-shaped TCPCS has been designed to
serve the dual purposes of cooling during summer and
heating during winter simultaneously.
Al2 O3 and SiO2 microparticles were selected to be filter
materials for RC paint. RC paint exhibits extremely low
absorptivity (3.2%) and high emissivity (93.5%). RC
43 Al2 O3 +Sapphire substrate + Ag. 2020 [129]
paint had a temperature difference of 10 ◦ C with CW
paint in hot summer weather. RC paint was applied to
various measurement setups compared to CW paint.
The structure, featuring a 5 µm thin coating, can reduce
the temperature to 6.8 ◦ C lower than the surrounding
environment due to a cooling power of 93.7 W/m2 .
The evaluation of the Passive Daytime Radiative
44 SiCNO + Ag + Al. 2021 [130]
Cooling (PDRC) structure included assessments of its
optical properties and reliability through extended
outdoor performance tests and degradation tests
conducted in various environmental conditions.
Daytime radiative cooling material based on TiO2 and
SiO2 mixture coating in terms of cooling performances
Cellulose acetate-based films, was compared. Results have shown a drastic
45 which are recyclable, sustainable, 2022 sub-ambient cooling of more than 3 ◦ C and a great [131]
and bioclimatic. reduction in the indoor temperature of the building,
and a reduction in the total electricity consumption of
up to 60.38%.
A radiative cooling coating with high solar reflectivity
and thermal emissivity (β = 0.98, ε = 0.97) can result in
46 Roof + Wall + Window. 2023 [114]
electricity savings for cooling ranging from 8.2% to
29.7% across various climate regions.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 21 of 26

Table A1. Cont.

No. Cool Material Year Key Findings Ref.

RCG (Reflective Coated Glass) reduces indoor
temperatures by 26.43◦ C compared to regular glass. It
significantly improves the indoor thermal environment
for rooms facing different directions, with a decrease of
45.06◦ C in the east and west directions and 15.05◦ C in
47 Radiative cooling glass (RCG). 2023 the north and south directions compared to ordinary [132]
glass. The study also highlights a correlation between
indoor and outdoor temperatures, where indoor
temperatures rise with increasing outdoor
temperatures. However, RCG’s effectiveness is
reduced in areas with high relative humidity.
Different radiative cooling materials in diverse global
Photonic radiative cooler that climates under identical weather conditions were
emits highly in the atmospheric investigated. An active application of these materials
window, randomized glass on a highly conductive surface was simulated,
48 2023 [133]
polymer metamaterial, several calculating hourly heat gains or losses to evaluate their
low-cost radiative coolers based cooling capabilities. To implement the system
on Aluminum. practically, a threshold for the total heat needs to be
determined to assess its feasibility.
The dielectric properties of dielectric particles were
determined using the FPSQ model. The optical
characteristics of these particles were assessed using
FDTD simulation and Mie theory. The depth of
electromagnetic wave attenuation in the hybrid
material was calculated by considering the effective
Polar dielectric embedded
49 2023 complex refractive index. Experimental validation of [134]
polymer-based radiative cooling.
the proposed approach demonstrated a strong
agreement between calculated emissivity and
measured values. Among the various dielectric
particles tested (α-SiO2 , α-Al2 O3 , TiO2 , and SiC),
α-SiO2 was identified as the most suitable material for
radiative cooling.
Radiative Cooling Paint (RCP) is prepared by adding
Poly methyl pentene + acrylic TPX to acrylic resin mixed with SiO2 . RCP is optimized
50 resin mixed with SiO2 2023 based on Mie theory combined with Monte Carlo [135]
microparticles. simulation. Emissivity in 8–13 µm and reflectivity in
0.2–2.5 µm of RCP are 0.91 and 92%.
The combination of highly diffusely reflective
polystyrene foam particles and fiber-based printer
Recycled plastics as the paper results in a reflectivity of 96% in the solar
51 2023 [136]
foam-paper composite (FPC). spectrum, a sub-ambient cooling performance of
8.4 ◦ C, and a maximum radiative cooling power of
90 W/m2 during a 24 h cycle.
The SRCE (Solar Reflective Coating and Emissivity)
possesses a strong ability to reflect solar radiation (0.93)
and exceptional selective emission properties, with an
emissivity of 0.83 within the atmospheric window and
Super-hydrophobic radiative
0.49 outside it. Furthermore, the SRCE demonstrates
52 cooling emitter (SRCE) and 2023 [137]
outstanding super-hydrophobic characteristics (162.2◦
phase change material (PCM).
contact angle), along with robust mechanical properties
and resistance to UV radiation. Combining phase
change materials (PCM) with the SRCE shows great
potential for use in a wide range of climate conditions.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2868 22 of 26

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