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CIT237-PROGRAMMING And ALGORITHMS

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are languages through which we can instruct the computer to carry

out some processes or tasks.
Programming languages

Programming languages are languages through which we can the

computer to carry out some processes or tasks.
Instruct

Programming languages are languages through which we can instruct the

to carry out some processes or tasks.
Computer

languages are languages through which we can instruct the computer

to carry out some processes or tasks.
Programming

are designed to communicate ideas about algorithms between human

beings and computers.
Programming languages

can be used to execute a wide range of algorithms, that is, an

instruction could be executed through more than a procedure of execution.
Programming languages

Programming languages can be used to execute a wide range of , that is,

an instruction could be executed through more than a procedure of
execution.
Algorithms

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Programming languages can be used to execute a wide range of algorithms,

that is, an instruction could be executed through more than a procedure
of .
Execution

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Programming languages can be used to execute a wide range of algorithms,

that is, an could be executed through more than a procedure of
execution.
Instruction

A is a set of codes that instructs the computer to carry out some

processes.
Program

is the process of writing programs.

Programming

Programming is the process of writing .

Programs

Programs and programming languages have been in existence since the

invention of computers
True

There are levels of programming languages.

Three

is a set binary coded instruction, which consists of zeros (0) and ones
(1).
Machine language

language is a set binary coded instruction, which consists of zeros (0)

and ones (1).
Machine

Machine language is a set coded instruction, which consists of zeros

(0) and ones (1).
Binary

Machine language is a set binary coded instruction, which consists of

zeros (0) and ones (1)

language is peculiar to each type of computer.

Machine

Machine language is peculiar to each type of computer.

True

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Machine language is peculiar to each type of .

Computer

The first generation of computers was coded in machine language that was
specific to each model of computer

The generation of computers was coded in machine language that was

specific to each model of computer
First

The first generation of computers was _ in machine language that was

specific to each model of computer
Coded
The first generation of computers was coded in machine language that was
specific to each
of computer.
Model

Some of the shortcomings of the machine language were:

1. Coding in machine language was a very tedious and boring job
2. Machine language was not user-friendly. That is the user had to
remember a long list of codes, numbers or operation codes and know where
instructions were stored in computer memory.
3. Debugging any set of codes is a very difficult task since it requires going
through the program instruction from the beginning to the end.

The major advantage of machine language is that

It requires no translation since it is already in machine language and is
therefore faster to execute.

is a level of programming language which is different from the

machine language.
Low Level Language

consists of some symbolic codes, which are easier to remember than

machine codes.
Low Level Language

Low level programming language is also called

Assembly language

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Low level programming language is also called assembly language

because
It makes use of an assembler to translate codes into machine language.

An example of assembly language statement is: MOVE A1, A2 → Move the

contents of Register A2 to A1

The disadvantages of assembly language are that:

 It is specific to particular machines
 It requires a translator called an assembler.

The major advantage of the assembly language is that

Programs written in it are easier to read and more user friendly than
those written in machine language, especially when comments are
inserted in the codes

programming language consists of English-like codes.

High Level Language

language is independent of the computer because the programmer

only needs to pay attention to the steps or procedures involved in solving the
problem for which the program is to be used to execute the problem.
High-level

Some advantages of high-level language:

 It is more user friendly, that is, easy to learn and write
 It is very portable, that is, it can be used on almost any computer
 It saves much time and effort when used compared to any other
programming level language.
 Codes written in this language can easily be debugged.
 High-level language is usually broken into one or more states such as:
Main programs, sub-programs, classes, blocks, functions, procedures,
etc.

The following are the levels of programming languages

 Machine language
 Low Level language
 High Level language

There are some conventional features which a programming language must

possess, these features are:
 It must have syntactic rules for forming statements.

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 It must have a vocabulary that consists of letters of the alphabet.

 It must have a language structure, which consists of keywords,
expressions and statements.
 It may require a translator before it can be understood by a computer.
 Programming languages are written and processed by the computer
for the purpose of communicating data between the human being and
the computer.

A is a series of steps, each of which performs a calculation, retrieves

input, or produces output.
Procedural program

A program is a series of steps, each of which performs a calculation,

retrieves input, or produces output.
Procedural

Major procedural programming languages are

COBOL, FORTRAN, C, AND C++

The program is a collection of objects that interact with each other by

passing messages that transform their state.
Object-Oriented (OO) Programming

The fundamental building blocks of programming are object modelling,

classification and inheritance.
Object-Oriented (OO) Programming

Major object-oriented languages are C++, Java etc.

A is a collection of mathematical functions, each with an input

(domain) and a result (range).
Functional program

Major functional programming languages are

Lisp, Scheme, Haskell, and ML

A programme is a collection of logical declarations about what

outcome a function should accomplish rather than how that outcome
should be accomplished.
Logic

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A is a collection of logical declarations about what outcome a function

should accomplish rather than how that outcome should be accomplished.
Logic programme

programming provides a natural vehicle for expressing non-

determinism, since the solutions to many problems are often not unique but
manifold.
Logic

provides a natural vehicle for expressing non-determinism, since the

solutions to many problems are often not unique but manifold.
Logic programming

The major logic programming language is .

Prolog

An is a continuous loop that responds to events that are generated in

an unpredictable order.
event driven program

Major event-driven programming languages include .

Visual basic and Java

A program is a collection of cooperating processes, sharing information

with each other from time to time but generally operating asynchronously.
Concurrent

A is a collection of cooperating processes, sharing information with

each other from time to time but generally operating asynchronously.
Concurrent program

Concurrent programming languages include

SR, Linda, and High performance FORTRAN

The programming communities that represent distinct application areas can

be grouped in the following way:
 Scientific Computing
 Management Information System (MIS)
 Artificial Intelligence
 Systems
 Web-centric

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is concerned with making complex calculations very fast and very

accurately.
Scientific Computing

Examples of scientific programming languages include

Fortran 90, C, and High Performance Fortran

MIS means
Management Information System

The programming community has been active since the early 1960s.
artificial intelligence

The artificial intelligence programming community has been active since the
early .
1960s

community is concerned about developing programs that model

human intelligent behaviour, logical deduction, and cognition.
Artificial Intelligence

Examples of AI programming languages are prominent functional and logic

programming languages like
Prolog, CLP, ML, Lisp, Scheme and Haskell

are those who design and maintain the basic software that runs
systems – operating system components, networks software, programming
language compilers and debuggers, virtual machines and interpreters, and
so on.
System programmers

The primary example of a system programming language is .

C

The most dynamic area of new programming community growth is the

World Wide Web

Programming languages that support Web-centric computing include

Perl, Tc1/Tk, Visual basic, and Java

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A is a program that translates another program written in any

programming language other than the machine language to an
understandable set of codes for the computer and in so doing produces a
program that may be executed on the computer.
Translator

Examples of a translator are and _

Assembler and Interpreters and Compilers

is a program that converts programs written in assembly or low-level

language to machine language.
Assembler

A program that converts programs written in assembly or low-level language

to machine language is called
Assembler

consist of programs that convert programs in high level programming

language into machine language.
Interpreters and Compilers

The major difference between interpreters and compilers is that

A compiler converts the entire source program into object code before
the entire program is executed while the interpreter translates the
source instructions line by line.

The following are the features of Translators

 They exist to make programs understandable by the computer
 There exist different translators for different levels and types of
programming languages
 Without them, the programs cannot be executed.

An allows a program to be retrieved from the disk and amended as

necessary.
Editor

An editor allows a program to be retrieved from the and amended as

necessary.
Disk

In order to type any program on the keyboard and save the program on a
disk, it will be necessary to run a program called an .

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Editor

translates a program written in high level language stored in a text

mode on a disk to the program stored in a machine-oriented language on a
disk.
Compiler

A picks up the machine-oriented program and combines it with any

necessary software (already in machine oriented form) to enable the program
to be run.
linker/loader

Before a compiled program can be run or executed by the computer it must

be
Converted into an executable form

are languages through which we can instruct the computer to carry

out processes and tasks.
Programming languages

A is a set of codes that instructs the computer to carry out some

processes while programming is the act of writing programs.
Programme

There are levels of the programming language

Four

There are four levels of the programming language

 machine language
 low level language
 assembly language
 high level language

There are basically types of translators

two

There are basically two types of translators: assembler and .

interpreters and compilers

There are basically two types of translators .

assembler and interpreters and compilers

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There are basically two types of translators: and interpreters and

compilers.
assembler

The major five stages involved in developing an efficient program are:

 Problem Analysis
 Design
 Coding
 Testing and Debugging
 Documentation

is where the clear statement of the problem is stated.

Problem analysis

The must be sure that he understands the problem and how to solve
it.
Programmer

The planning of the solution to the problem in the first stage takes place in
stage.
Design

The planning consists of the process of finding a logical sequence of precise

steps that solve the problem. Such a sequence of steps is called an .
Algorithm

The three popular methods used to develop the logic plan are:
 Flowcharts
 A pseudo code
 A top-down chart

The three popular methods used to develop the logic plan are:
Flowcharts, a pseudo code, and a top-down chart

Translation of the algorithm in stage two into a programming language takes

place here. The process for writing the program is called .
Coding

The uses the algorithm devised in the design stage along with the
choice of the programming language he got from stage three.
programmer

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The programmer uses the devised in the design stage along with the
choice of the programming language he got from stage three.
algorithm

The programmer uses the algorithm devised in the design stage along with
the choice of the programming language he got from stage .
three

process involves the location and removal of error in the program if

any.
Testing and Debugging

is the process of checking if the program is working as expected and

finding errors in the program, and debugging is the process of correcting
errors that are found
Testing

An error in a program is called a .

Bug

is the final stage of program development that consists of organising

all the material that describes the program.
Documentation

The of the program is intended to allow another person or the

programmer at a later date, to understand the program.
Documentation

remarks consist of statements in the program that are not executed,

but point out the purpose of various parts of the program.
Internal documentation

The normal program execution consists of stages

Four (4)

The program execution stages are explained below:

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is the coded instruction given to the computer in a particular

programming language in order to accomplish a given task.
The Program (Source Code)

The process of involves reading the source code, checking for errors in
the source code and converting it to an executable format (machine code) if
no error is detected, else the process of compilation is aborted and an error
is reported.
Compilation

The is the result of the compilation process

object code

The object code is also called the

target code

The object code is dependent on the programming language chosen.

True

The last stage is for the computer to give the .

Result

The following represent the major considerations in writing good programs

 Naming Conventions
 File Naming and Organisation
 Formatting and Indentation
 Comments and Documentation
 Classes

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 Functions
 Using STL
 Pointers and References
 Minimising Bugs by Testing

The name of a should communicate its purpose.

Class

The name of a class should communicate its .

Purpose

The name of a class should communicate its purpose.

True

STL means
Standard Template Library

is where the clear statement of the problem is stated.

Problem analysis

involve using representative data to test the logic of the algorithm by

hand to ensure that it is correct.
Planning

The process for writing the program is called .

Coding

process involves the location and removal of errors ( if any) in the

program .
Testing and debugging

is the final stage of program development; it consists of organising all

the material that describes the program.
Documentation

The normal program execution consists of stages.

four (4)

The is the result of the compilation process

Object code

A class name should start with an letter.

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Uppercase

An is a finite sequence of unambiguous instructions for solving a

problem, i.e., for obtaining a required output for any legitimate input in a
finite amount of time.
Algorithm

A is a specification of the desired input-output relationship.

computational problem

An of a problem is all the inputs needed to compute a solution to the

problem.
instance

An is a well defined computational procedure that transforms inputs

into outputs, achieving the desired input-output relationship.
algorithm

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A correct algorithm halts with the correct output for every input instance.
We can then simply say that an is a procedure for solving
computational problems
Algorithm

The following are the major considerations in the design of algorithms

 An algorithm must have a beginning and an end
 The non ambiguity requirement for each step of an algorithm cannot
be compromised.
 The range of inputs for which an algorithm works has to be specified
carefully
 The same algorithm can be represented in several different ways
 Several algorithms for solving the same problem may exist
 Algorithms for the same problem can be based on very different ideas
and can solve the problem with dramatically different speeds
 It must terminate at a reasonable period of time.

The phase is the testing phase whereby the programmer confirms that
the algorithm yields the desired result for the right input that is in a
reasonable amount of time.
Algorithm evaluation

In phase, we check the efficiency of the algorithm in terms of time and

space which are termed as time efficiency and space efficiency respectively.
Algorithm analysis

Most algorithms finally transit into computer programs.

True

There are types of algorithm

Two

The two types of Algorithms are

non-recursive algorithms and recursive algorithms

are algorithms that do not recall back the same algorithm or function.
Non-recursive algorithms

are algorithms that have the same function calling themselves.

Recursive algorithms

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In this algorithm, we can see functions like F (I-1), F (I), F (I-2) calling /
referring to the same algorithm. This case is also referred to as a .
Recursion

A consists of special geometric symbols connected by arrows.

Flowchart

A flowchart consists of special symbols connected by arrows.

Geometric

A flowchart consists of special connected by arrows.

Geometric symbols

A flowchart consists of special geometric symbols connected by .

Arrows

The arrows connecting the symbols are called

flow lines

should “flow” from the top of the page to the bottom.

Flowcharts

Flowcharts should from the top of the page to the bottom.

Flow

Flowcharts should “flow” from the

Top of the page to the bottom

ANSI means
American National Standards Institute

The main advantage of using a flowchart to plan a task is that

It provides a pictorial representation of the task which makes the logic
easier to follow.

The major disadvantage with flowcharts is that

When a program is very large, the flowcharts may continue for many
pages, making them difficult to follow and modify.

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A is an abbreviated version of an actual computer code (hence, the

term pseudo code).
pseudo code

The geometric symbols used in flowcharts are replaced by statements

that outline the process.
English-like
The allows the programmer to focus on the steps required to solve a
problem rather than on how to use the computer language.
pseudo code

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is an integral component of software development and it is performed

to determine the existence, quality, or genuineness of the attributes of the
program of application.
Program testing

is done in a way that the program is run on some test cases and the
results of the program’s performance are examined to check whether the
program is working as expected.
Program testing

The testing process normally begins with selecting the

test factor(s)

The determine whether the program is working correctly and

efficiently.
test factors

is generally focused on two areas: internal efficiency and external

effectiveness.
Testing

Testing is generally focused on areas

Two

Testing is generally focused on two areas: and .

internal efficiency and external effectiveness

The goal of external effectiveness testing is

To verify that the software is functioning according to system design,
and that it is performing all the necessary functions or sub-functions.

The goal of internal testing is

To make sure that the computer code is efficient, standardised, and
well documented.

is designed to verify that the developed system and programs work

correctly.
Structural System Testing

The components of Structural System Testing include:

 Stress testing
 Recovery testing

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 Compliance testing
 Execution testing
 Operations testing
 Security testing

is designed to ensure that the system requirements and specifications

are achieved.
Functional System Testing

The components of Functional System Testing include:

 Requirement testing
 Error-handling testing
 Inter-systems testing
 Parallel testing
 Regressing testing
 Manual-support testing
 Control test

is the procedure of including illustrations or comments to explain

lines or segments within the program.
Program documentation

The two major reasons for documentation are: and

Clarity and extensibility

makes the program to be clear and understandable to the

programmers.
Clarity

The following are the reasons why program maintenance is necessary:

1. Changes in nature of business
2. Dynamics of operation
3. Changes in technology
4. Improving the size and efficiency of code – refactoring

Most programs are designed to manipulate data in order to get an .

Output

Major standard integer data types are:

• Bytes
• Shortint
• Integer

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• Word
• Long int

consist of positive and negative whole valves.

Integers

Examples, are 500, - 112, 77 etc.

consist of valves with fractional parts. Examples are 257.29, 20.10,

11.00, etc.
Real numbers
The standard real data types are:
• Real
• Single
• Double
• Extended

are valves that are not numbers in nature.

Non-Numeric Data Types

consists of representations of individual characters using the

American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
Character Data Type This

ASCII uses -bits to represent each character.

7

ASCII means
American Standard Code for Information Interchange

A consists of a sequence of characters enclosed in single or double

quotation marks depending on the programming language.
String

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Numeric data types are either integers or real numbers.

True

There are basically types of data types

Two
is a means of organising related data items.
Data structure

There are basic types of data structures

Two

There are two basic types of data structures

Linear data structures and non-linear data structures

An can be defined as sequences of objects all of which are of the same

type that are collectively referred to by the same name.
Array

There are types of arrays

Two

There are two types of arrays

One dimensional array and multi dimensional arrays

A is a sequence of zero or more elements called nodes, each containing

two kinds of information
Linked list

A linked list is a sequence of zero or more elements called , each

containing two kinds of information
Nodes

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In every linked list, there is a special pointer which is called the which
is used to indicate the absences of a node successor.
Null

A is a data structure in which insertion and deletion can only be done

at one end (called the TOP).
Stack

A stack is a data structure in which insertion and deletion can only be done
at one end called the .
TOP

In a stack, there are two major processes called .

PUSH and POP

is the process of adding elements to the stack

PUSH

is the process of deleting elements from the stack.

POP

LIFO means
Last-In-First-Out

are used in implementing recursive algorithms.

Stacks

A operates a First-In-First-Out (FIFO) scheme.

Queue

Unlike the stack, a is a data structure with two ends, in which an

insertion is made at a end (REAR) and a deletion is done at the other end
(FRONT).
Queue

are used for several graph problems.

Queues

is a partially ordered data structure that is used in implementing

priority queues.
Heap

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A is a set of items with an orderable characteristic called an item's

priority.
priority queue

A priority queue is a set of items with an orderable characteristic called

an .
item's priority

A can also be defined as a binary tree with keys assigned to its nodes.
Heap

A graph consists of two things

A set V whose elements are called vertices, points or nodes and a set E
of unordered pairs of distinct vertices, called edges.

A graph can be pictorially (imaginarily) defined as a connection of points in a

plane called vertices or edges, some of which are connected line segments
called .
edges or arcs

A is a connected a cyclic graph.

Tree

is a means of organising related data items.

Data structure

A data structure could be either .

linear or non-linear

The basic linear data structures available are

 Array
 Linked list
 Stack
 Queue
 Heap

The basic non-linear data structures are and trees.

Graph

The basic non-linear data structures are graph and .

Trees

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The basic non-linear data structures are_ .

graph and trees

The are used to analyse the performance of algorithms.

efficiency attributes

There are types of algorithm efficiency attributes.

Two

indicates how fast an algorithm runs.

Time Efficiency

deals with the space required for an algorithm to run efficiently.

Space Efficiency

The third symbol of the language of asymptotic is the .

‘θ’

The efficiency of an algorithm is an input (or inputs) of size n for which

the algorithm runs the fastest among all possible inputs of that size.
best-case

The efficiency seeks to provide information on random input.

average-case

is calculated by dividing all instances of size n into several classes so

that for each instance of the class, the number of times the algorithm’s basic
operation is executed is the same.
Average-case

Problems that can be solved in polynomial time are called

Tractable

Problems that cannot be solved in polynomial time are called .

Intractable

classifies problems according to their inherent difficulty.

Computational complexity

Class P is a class of decision problems that can be solved in polynomial time

by (deterministic) algorithms. This class of problems is called .
Polynomial

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The problem of vertex colouring with m colours is called the

m-colouring problems

The answer to this question turns out to be no. In fact, some decision
problems cannot be solved at all by any algorithm. Such problems are
called .
Undecidable

Alan Turing gave a famous example in .

1936

The problem in question is called the : given a computer program and

an input to it, determine whether the program will halt on that input or
continue working indefinitely on it.
Halting problem

The classic monograph by contains a list of several hundred such

problems from different areas of computer science, mathematics, and
operations research.
M. Garey and D. Johnson (GJ79)

A takes both I and S as its input and outputs yes if S represents a

solution to instance I.
deterministic algorithm

A nondeterministic algorithm is said to be if the time efficiency of its

certification stage is polynomial.
nondeterministic polynomial

Class NP is the class of decision problems that can be solved by

nondeterministic polynomial algorithms. This class of problems is
called .
nondeterministic polynomial

A decision problem D is said to be NP-complete if

1. it belongs to class NP
2. every problem in NP is polynomially reducible to D.
The class of decision problem that can be solved in polynomial time by
(deterministic) algorithms are called
Polynomial problems

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Decision problems that cannot be solved at all by any algorithm are called
problems.
Undecidable

Decision problems that cannot be solved at all by any algorithm are

called .
undecidable problems

Problems that can be solved in polynomial time are called

Tractable

Problems that which cannot be solved in polynomial time are

Intractable

The following are the significance of sorting

 For orderly analysis and presentation of items
 For locating an item or items within a set
 For finding duplicate values or nearest pair within a set
 For finding the intersection or union of two or more sets
 Sorting is also used as a part of many geometric algorithms (eg convex
hull, nearest pair of points in the plane).

is an example of an application that adopts the strategy of the divide-

and-conquer technique.
Merge sort

Merge sort adopts the strategy of .

divide-and- conquer

Merge sort algorithm is divided into:

The merge sort (for splitting and sorting halves ) and the merger( for
merging two halves together).

Merge sort algorithm is divided into

Two

divides the input elements according to their respective values.

Quick sort

The is a remarkably efficient algorithm for searching in a sorted

array.
binary search

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is an optimisation technique which belongs to the family of local

search.
Hill climbing

Hill climbing is an optimisation technique which belongs to the family

of .
local search

can be used to solve problems that have many solutions but where
some solutions are better than others.
Hill climbing

An example of a problem that can be solved with hill climbing is the .

Travelling salesman problem

Hill climbing is used widely in fields, for reaching a goal state from a
starting node.
artificial intelligence

A (or any other grid) is a sequence of moves by a knight chess piece

(which may only make moves which simultaneously shift one square along
one axis and two along the other) such that each square of the board is
visited exactly once.
knight's tour of a chessboard

proposed an algorithm that finds a path without any backtracking by

computing ratings for "successor" steps at each position.
Warnsdorff (1823)

discovered another linear time algorithm and proved that it solves the
Hamiltonian path problem for all n ≥ 5.
Conrad et al. (1994)

is a series of steps, each of which performs a calculation

procedural program

is the result of the compilation process

object code

is where the clear statement of the problem is stated

Problem Analysis

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There are levels of the programming language

Four

generation of computers was coded in machine language

first

allows a program to be retrieved from the disk

An editor

program is a continuous loop that responds to events that are

generated in an unpredictable order
Event driven

Some advantages of high-level language are as follows except

Used on few computer

is a program that converts programs written in assembly

Assembler

stages are involved in developing an efficient program.

Five

Partition-Exchange Sort is also known as

Quicksort

Which of the options divide its input's elements according to their position
in the array?
Mergesort

Which of the options divide its input's elements according to their value?
Quicksort

Which of the following algorithms works by recursively breaking down a

problem into two or more sub-problems of the same type?
divide and conquer

Which of the following sorting algorithms maintain the relative order of

records with equal keys?
Stable

is a finite sequence of unambiguous instructions

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an algorithm

allows a program to be retrieved from the disk

An editor

is a program that converts programs written in assembly

Assembler

The artificial intelligence programming community has been active since the
early
1960s

Programming are languages through which we can instruct the

computer to carry out some processes or tasks
Languages

A is a program that translates another program written in any

programming language other than the machine language
Translator

allows a program to be retrieved from the disk

An editor
program is a continuous loop that responds to events that are
generated in an unpredictable order
event driven

is a program that converts programs written in assembly

Assembler

system testing is designed to ensure that the system requirements

and specifications are achieved
Functional

COBOL, FORTRAN, C, C++ are examples of a (an)

Procedural Programming

Another name for assembly language is

Low-level language

The two efficiency attributes used to analyze the performance of an

algorithm are time and
Space

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The two efficiency attributes used to analyze the performance of an

algorithm are and space
Time

(1823) proposed an algorithm that finds a path without any

backtracking
Warnsdoff

The full meaning of the acronym ANSI is_

American National Standards Institute

attributes is used to analyse the performance of algorithm

Efficiency

Source code is the coded instruction given to the computer in a

language in order to accomplish a given task
Programming

is the fifth stage of algorithm design

Evaluation

Another name for nondeterministic stage is

Guessing

algorithms require dividing problems into subinstances

divide-andconquer

sort can compare adjacent elements of the list and exchange them if
they are out of order
Bubble

complexity classifies problems according to their inherent difficulty.

Computational

The allows a program to be retrieved from the disk and amended as

necessary.
Editor

sort divide its elements according to their values

Quick

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Among all elementary sorting methods, sorting is an inferior choice

Bubble

The more frequently used natural measures of size for a situation where the
choice of a parameter indicating an input size is not really a factor is called
order n.
Matrix

The -case efficiency seeks to provide information on random input

Keywords

A loader or ensures the running of a machine-oriented program by

combining it with any necessary software also in machine-oriented form
Linker

is the process of adding elements to the stack

PUSH

A procedure for solving computational problems is called an

Algorithm

Decision problems that cannot be solved at all by any algorithm are

called problems
Intractable

The function is used in most programming languages to get a

remainder when a number is divided by another number
MOB

Algorithms that do not recall back the same algorithm or function are
referred to as being
Non-recursive

Real numbers consist of values with parts

Fractional

analysis is the first stage involved in developing an efficient program

Problem

The major standard integer data-types are real, single, double and
Extended

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sort scan the entire given list to find its smallest element
Selection

The object code is the result of the compilation process and it is also
referred to as the code
Target

The search that is based on both a recursive and nonrecursive algorithms is

called search
Binary

Class NP is the class of decision problem that can be solved by

polynomial algorithms
Nondeterministic

A is a partially ordered data structure that is used in implementing

priority queues
Heap

A Tree is a connected graph.

Acyclic

is a fast and easy way to transverse an array of a given set of

elements
Bubble sort

A graph with no cycle is called

Forest

A programming language must have rules for forming statements

Syntactic

Sorting is the arrangement of items in a order

Predetermined

The two major reasons for documentation are and extensibility

Clarity

The two major reasons for documentation are clarity and

extensibility

The two major reasons for documentation are

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clarity and extensibility

The fundamental building blocks of object-oriented programming are object

modelling, classification and
Inheritance

is a sequence of zero or more elements called nodes

Linked list

Low level programming is also called

Coding

efficiency seeks to provide information on random input

average-case

consist of positive and negative whole values

Integers

is a means of organising related data items

Data structure
There are levels of the programming language
Four

This is the final stage of program development

Documentation

is the result of the compilation process

Object code

The normal program execution consists of stages

Four

is a finite sequence of unambiguous instructions

an algorithm

is a data structure in which insertion and deletion can only be done

at one end
Stack

is an optimisation technique which belongs to the family of local

search
Hill climbing

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is designed to communicate signal between CPU and the monitor

Vitual Graphic Interface

VGA means
Vitual Graphic Interface

generation of computers was coded in machine language

Fourth

programming language is also called assembly language

low level

A graph can be pictorially defined as a connection of points in a plane called

or edges
vertices

A graph can be pictorially defined as a connection of points in a plane called

vertices or
Edges

Languages can be used to execute a wide range of

Algorithms

is a data structure in which insertion and deletion can only be done

at one end
Stack

this indicates how fast an algorithm runs

Time efficiency

programmers are those who design and maintain the basic software
that runs the system
System

The three popular methods used to develop a logic plan are

flowcharts, and a top-down chart
pseudo-code

is the path that starts and ends at the same vertex and passes
through all the other vertices exactly once
Hamiltonian circuit

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A data structure in which insertion and deletion can only be done at one
end is called a
Character

A finite sequence of unambiguous instructions for solving a problem is

called
Source Code

Java is an example of a (an)

Object Oriented Programming

The languages through which we can instruct the computer to carry out
some processes is called
Programming

A set of codes that instructs the computer to carry out some processes is
called
A program

Programming languages are languages through which we can instruct

the computer

is a program that converts programs written in assembly

Assembler

There are levels of programming languages

Three

is an optimisation technique which belongs to the family of local

search
Hill climbing

Low level programming is also called

Assembly language

efficiency seeks to provide information on random input

Average-case

is a sequence of zero or more elements called nodes

Linked list

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is a means of organising related data items

Data structure

is the process of writing programs

Programming

program is a collection of cooperating processes

Concurrent

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