Algorithms To Live By by Tom

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 Algorithms To Live By by Tom
Griffiths
Unlocking Human Decisions Through the Wisdom of
Algorithms
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Tom Griffiths
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À propos du livre
In "Algorithms to Live By," Brian Christian and Tom Griffiths
explore the intriguing intersection of computer science and
everyday human dilemmas. What should we prioritize in our
daily lives? How do we navigate the chaos of choices and
establish meaningful connections? Drawing from algorithms
that have been meticulously designed to handle limited
resources like time and space, the authors offer profound
insights that resonate with our daily struggles. This
interdisciplinary work reveals how the strategies derived from
computer science can enhance our decision-making process,
from selecting the right partner to managing our inboxes.
Ultimately, it transforms technical wisdom into practical tools
for a more fulfilling life.

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À propos de l'auteur
Brian Christian is an acclaimed author and speaker known for
his unique exploration of the intersections between computer
science, cognitive science, and philosophy. With a background
in both computer science and poetry, he brings a distinctive
voice to the realm of non-fiction, skillfully weaving complex
ideas into accessible narratives. His works, including
"Algorithms to Live By," delve into the practical applications
of algorithms in everyday decision-making, offering insights
into how mathematical principles can illuminate human
behavior and optimize our lives. Christian's interdisciplinary
approach fosters a deeper understanding of both technology
and the human condition, making him a prominent figure in
contemporary discussions regarding the impact of algorithms
on society.

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Liste du contenu du résumé
Chapitre 1 : Optimal Stopping: When to Stop Looking

Chapitre 2 : Explore/Exploit: The Latest vs. the Greatest

Chapitre 3 : Sorting: Making Order

Chapitre 4 : Caching: Forget About It

Chapitre 5 : Scheduling: First Things First

Chapitre 6 : Bayes’s Rule: Predicting the Future

Chapitre 7 : Overfitting: When to Think Less

Chapitre 8 : Relaxation: Let It Slide

Chapitre 9 : Randomness: When to Leave It to Chance

Chapitre 10 : Networking: How We Connect

Chapitre 11 : Game Theory: The Minds of Others

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Chapitre 1 : Optimal Stopping: When to
Stop Looking
1 Optimal Stopping

When to Stop Looking

The dilemma of determining when to stop seeking a partner

or opportunity is commonly referred to as the "optimal
stopping" problem. This concept can be elucidated through
the "secretary problem," where the goal is to maximize the
chance of selecting the best candidate from a pool. The
central challenge lies in knowing how many candidates to
consider before making a decision—a situation encapsulated
in the "37% Rule." This rule suggests that one should
evaluate the first 37% of candidates without making any
selections and then choose any subsequent candidate who
exceeds the best encountered thus far.

The Secretary Problem

The secretary problem presents a scenario where applicants

are assessed in a random order, and once an applicant is

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dismissed, they cannot be reconsidered. The origins of this
mathematical puzzle can be traced back to the mid-20th
century and continues to captivate mathematicians due to its
simplicity and profound implications across various fields.

Whence 37%?

The 37% Rule strikes a balance between stopping too early

(and missing out on the best candidate) or too late (settling
for less). The rule is derived from assessing probabilities as
more candidates are reviewed; as the applicant pool expands,
the probability of finding the best candidate stabilizes at
approximately 37%, regardless of pool size.

Lover’s Leap

Exemplifying the application of the 37% Rule in romantic

pursuits, the journey of Michael Trick illustrates how the
algorithm informed his decision-making during his search for
love. However, the secretary problem simplifies the
complexities of real-life relationships, where rejection and
personal preferences add layers to the decision-making
process.

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Knowing a Good Thing When You See It: Full Information

When applicants have defined scores or rankings—denoted

as "full information"—the decision-making shift towards the
"Threshold Rule." This approach emphasizes setting a
pre-determined standard that can be used to accept higher
quality candidates immediately without extensive initial
searching. The optimal strategy here improves the chance of
selecting the best candidate to 58%, a notable improvement
from the no-information scenario.

When to Sell

Transitioning from dating to real estate, the principles of

optimal stopping can also apply when selling a house. Sellers
face a myriad of offers with varying conditions and must
weigh the costs of waiting against the benefits of accepting
current offers. A strategic approach should factor in known
price ranges and the cost of waiting, leading to a calculated
decision-making process.

When to Park

Searching for a parking space exemplifies the optimal

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stopping problem in urban environments. Effective strategies
can minimize time and frustration, promoting policy changes
that encourage better usage of space and reduce traffic
congestion. The occupancy rate of parking spaces can dictate
optimal stopping distances on the road, illustrating how
mathematical principles can alleviate real-world challenges.

When to Quit

The concept of "quitting while you're ahead" parallels the

burglar problem, wherein one must determine the optimal
number of successes before a potential loss occurs.
Understanding when to stop pursuing options that may lead
to diminishing returns is crucial.

Always Be Stopping

As fundamental human experiences, optimal stopping

challenges permeate various aspects of life, from career
choices to personal relationships. Despite mathematical
guidance, human decision-making can diverge from optimal
strategies due to impatience or time constraints. Ultimately,
the theory of optimal stopping encapsulates the essence of
decision-making, emphasizing the inherent nature of time
and the inevitability of choice in every moment.

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Chapitre 2 : Explore/Exploit: The Latest
vs. the Greatest
Explore/Exploit

The Latest vs. the Greatest

Everyday life is framed by the continuous struggle between
exploring new options and exploiting known favorites. This
chapter discusses the balance we seek between novelty and
tradition, and how this dilemma manifests in our daily
decisions, from choosing restaurants to navigating social
relationships. Computer scientists have labeled this conflict
the explore/exploit tradeoff.

Explore/Exploit Defined
In computer science, "exploration" refers to gathering
information, while "exploitation" means utilizing the
knowledge already acquired to achieve favorable outcomes.
Both approaches are essential, as exploration can lead to
rewarding discoveries, yet constant exploitation leads to life's
cherished moments. However, excessive exploration can be
burdensome.

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Multi-Armed Bandit Problem
The chapter elaborates on a mathematical conceptualization
known as the "multi-armed bandit problem," likening it to a
casino where each slot machine offers different payout odds.
Strategic decisions revolve around whether to explore new
options or exploit known rewards, illustrating the
complexities of predicting future payoffs.

Seize the Interval

The value of exploration is time-sensitive; it diminishes as
opportunities decrease. Conversely, the value of exploitation
increases over time. Data scientist Chris Stucchio's
experiences highlight how our decision-making shifts based
on anticipated timeframes, prioritizing known favorites when
time is short.

Win-Stay, Lose-Shift
One simple strategy for handling exploration and
exploitation is Herbert Robbins’ "Win-Stay, Lose-Shift."
This approach suggests sticking with winners or switching
after failures, a principle aligning with human
decision-making tendencies. However, it does not account
for the critical “interval” factor in our choices.

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The Gittins Index
John Gittins introduced a more complex solution to the
multi-armed bandit problem, accounting for future rewards
while discounting their value over time. His dynamic
allocation index quantifies each option’s potential and guides
decision-making to maximize long-term payoffs, proving
useful for scenarios such as drug trials.

Regret and Optimism

Regret occurs when choices lead to outcomes that could have
been better. Jeff Bezos’s "regret minimization framework"
emphasizes the importance of evaluating choices based on
long-term satisfaction. Thus, seeking to minimize regret
while embracing exploration enhances overall life quality.

Upper Confidence Bound Algorithms

These algorithms balance exploration and exploitation by
focusing on the highest potential outcomes based on current
knowledge. They advocate optimism in uncertain situations,
lending a theoretical foundation for trying new experiences
with the hope of positive discoveries.

Bandits Online
The digital landscape exemplifies the explore/exploit

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dynamic, particularly through A/B testing. eCommerce
giants like Google and Amazon optimize their platforms
based on user interactions, continuously exploring new
methods of engagement while exploiting successful
strategies.

Clinical Trials on Trial

Modern clinical trials can benefit from treating treatment
selection as a multi-armed bandit problem, where adaptive
strategies allow adjustments based on emerging information.
This approach could provide ethical and practical advantages
by offering superior treatment options to patients as trials
progress.

The Restless World

As humans age, our approach to the explore/exploit tradeoff
shifts. The elderly often prioritize deepening existing
relationships over seeking new ones, reflecting an adaptive
strategy to maximize emotional and social satisfaction. The
exploration phase of life gives way to a focus on meaningful
engagement.

Explore … And Exploit

Throughout life, striking the right balance between

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exploration and exploitation yields significant insights.
Children’s exploratory behaviors are essential for
development, while the elderly benefit from leveraging
established knowledge. This understanding allows
individuals to adapt their strategies as they navigate life’s
intervals, enhancing overall satisfaction and well-being.

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Chapitre 3 : Sorting: Making Order
3 Sorting

Making Order
Sorting is a fundamental task in computer science and
heavily influences how we interact with information. The
chapter discusses the evolution of sorting from historical
contexts, such as Herman Hollerith's invention for census
organization, to modern uses in technology like email sorting
and search engines.

The Ecstasy of Sorting

Sorting is essential for numerous informational tasks,
including searching, indexing, and presenting data. Everyday
technologies like email and search engines rely on sorting to
enhance usability and efficiency, forming a critical part of
digital interactions.

The Agony of Sorting

Despite the benefits, sorting can be inefficient and costly,
especially as the number and complexity of items grow—this
concept is encapsulated in the idea of "dis-economies of
scale." The chapter highlights how trying to sort large

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datasets can lead to increased difficulty and resource use.

Big-O: A Yardstick for the Worst Case

The chapter introduces Big-O notation, a mathematical way
to describe an algorithm's performance in terms of its
worst-case scenario. It categorizes sorting algorithms based
on their time complexity, such as constant (O(1)), linear
(O(n)), quadratic (O(n²)), and beyond.

The Squares: Bubble Sort and Insertion Sort

Bubble sort and insertion sort are described as intuitive but
inefficient algorithms, both landing in quadratic time
complexity. While easy to understand, they become unwieldy
with larger datasets, demonstrating the need for more
efficient sorting methods.

Breaking the Quadratic Barrier: Divide and Conquer

The chapter discusses Mergesort, a more efficient algorithm
that uses a divide-and-conquer strategy, achieving
linearithmic time complexity (O(n log n)). This is a
significant improvement over quadratic algorithms, making it
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Beyond Comparison: Outsmarting the Logarithm

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Chapitre 4 : Caching: Forget About It
4 Caching

Forget About It
The process of forgetting is essential to effective memory
management, paralleling the organization of physical spaces
like closets. When attempting to organize personal items, it
helps to ask questions regarding their utility and frequency of
use. Various organizing methods exist, illustrating a conflict
between simplicity and effectiveness in managing storage.

The Memory Hierarchy

Since 2008, consumers have faced choices between storage
size and speed for computers, especially amidst the transition
from hard disk drives to solid-state drives. The history of
computer memory reveals a designed hierarchy to balance
storage capacity and accessibility. Early findings suggested
efficient memory management can improve computer
performance significantly.

Eviction and Clairvoyance

When cache memory reaches capacity, algorithms dictate
which items to remove. Bélády's Algorithm represents an

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ideal caching method by removing items least likely to be
needed in the future. However, practical application often
requires approximations like Least Recently Used (LRU),
which reflects human behavior and efficiency in accessing
needed information based on past usage patterns.

Turning the Library Inside Out

Libraries exemplify memory hierarchy and require effective
caching strategies for book organization. Recent returns
should be placed prominently for easier access, similar to
how digital caches function. By reversing traditional
organization practices, libraries could promote utilization of
the most relevant resources.

The Cloud at the End of the Street

The Internet operates on principles of caching, with content
delivery networks positioning data closer to users for
efficiency. Companies like Akamai enhance web
performance through strategic geographic distribution of
data, paralleling principles found in digital and physical
organizational systems.

Caching on the Home Front

Applying caching strategies to personal environments can

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improve organization. Concepts like LRU and understanding
proximity can lead to better storage decisions. Innovative
approaches, such as dedicated spaces for frequently used
items, enhance accessibility.

Filing and Piling

Efficient organization methods often conflict with traditional
grouping techniques. The Noguchi Filing System suggests
that placing recently accessed items at the front creates an
efficient filing system, aligned with self-organizing
principles found in computer science.

The Forgetting Curve

Human memory operates under a model akin to caching
systems, suggesting that forgetfulness is partly about
organization rather than capacity. Cognitive decline may
reflect increased information management demands as
knowledge expands over time.

The Tyranny of Experience

Larger quantities of information can slow retrieval processes,
reflecting a natural complexity to memory as one ages.
Understanding this relationship can alleviate frustration
surrounding memory lapses, indicating that retrieval

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difficulties often stem from a growing archive of experiences
rather than declining cognitive ability.

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Chapitre 5 : Scheduling: First Things
First
5 Scheduling

First Things First

- Scheduling tasks in life can be complex due to
interdependencies, deadlines, and varying levels of urgency
and importance.
- While many systems exist for organizing tasks, they often
conflict, leading to confusion about the best approach.

Spending Time Becomes a Science

- The science of scheduling began during the Industrial
Revolution with Frederick Taylor's "Scientific Management,"
which aimed to optimize labor efficiency.
- Henry Gantt expanded on Taylor's ideas with Gantt charts,
which are still widely used in project management today.
- The first optimal scheduling algorithm was developed by
Selmer Johnson in 1954, which focused on optimizing tasks
based on their processing times.

Handling Deadlines

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- With single-machine scheduling, the order of tasks does not
affect the total completion time; instead, the goals must be
clearly defined.
- A variety of strategies exist, such as Earliest Due Date
(minimizing maximum lateness) and Moore's Algorithm
(minimizing the number of spoiled tasks).

Getting Things Done

- Efficiency comes from prioritizing tasks based on due dates
or completion times; Shortest Processing Time optimally
minimizes total task completion time.
- A weighted strategy prioritizes tasks based on their
importance, which can be adapted for financial tasks, such as
debt reduction.

Picking Our Problems

- Choosing the right metric for productivity is crucial;
overcoming procrastination often requires a re-evaluation of
what metric is being pursued.
- Context, such as task precedence and its effect on
scheduling, highlights the complexities involved, often
leading to procrastination indirectly through priority
inversions.

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Priority Inversion and Precedence Constraints
- The concept of precedence constraints illustrates the
dependency of some tasks on the completion of others,
complicating scheduling.
- Eugene Lawler highlighted that priority inversions can lead
systems to neglect high-priority tasks due to lower-priority
ones holding essential resources.

The Speed Bump

- Research indicates that many scheduling problems are
intractable, meaning there may be no efficient solution,
especially with added constraints or priorities.
- The boundaries of tractability in scheduling theory continue
to be explored, revealing that the vast majority of problems
lack simple solutions.

Drop Everything: Preemption and Uncertainty

- Allowing tasks to be preempted (paused) in favor of
higher-priority tasks can simplify scheduling problems that
would otherwise be complex or intractable.
- In uncertain scenarios, strategies like Earliest Due Date and
Shortest Processing Time yield good results with real-time
adaptation.

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Preemption Isn’t Free: The Context Switch
- Context switching introduces overhead in both computing
and personal productivity; managing context switches is
essential to maintaining efficiency.
- Humans, like computers, experience significant
productivity loss through frequent context switches,
necessitating effective management of tasks.

Thrashing
- Thrashing occurs when excessive context switching
prevents effective progress on tasks, leading to a state where
no real work gets done.
- Both humans and machines can experience thrashing,
highlighting the need for systems that effectively manage
tasks without overwhelming their capacity.

Interrupt Coalescing
- Scheduling requires balancing responsiveness to
interruptions while maximizing overall productivity; it may
be beneficial to slow down to improve throughput.
- Techniques such as timeboxing help structure time to
address tasks with minimal context switching, allowing for
increased focus and continued progress.

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Chapitre 6 : Bayes’s Rule: Predicting the
Future
6 Bayes’s Rule

Predicting the Future

Human knowledge is inherently uncertain and partial,
leading us to make predictions based on limited data.
Everyday decisions, like waiting for a bus or assessing the
duration of a relationship, often rely on small data
observations. The challenge lies in how we reason from
minimal information.

Reasoning Backward with the Reverend Bayes

Thomas Bayes, an 18th-century Presbyterian minister,
explored how to predict future outcomes based on previous
experiences. His insights emerged from situations like
raffles, where drawing a single winning ticket complicates
the estimation of overall winning probabilities. Bayes
introduced a framework for reasoning backward by
evaluating likelihoods via hypothetical scenarios.

Laplace’s Law

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Pierre-Simon Laplace expanded on Bayes's work, developing
a method to distill numerous hypotheses into a single
estimate. He introduced Laplace’s Law, suggesting that the
expected proportion of successful outcomes can be calculated
simply, offering practical applicability even with limited data
points.

Bayes’s Rule and Prior Beliefs

Bayes's Rule combines prior probabilities with current
evidence, allowing us to adjust estimates based on existing
beliefs. It emphasizes the importance of having prior
information to make reasonable predictions.

The Copernican Principle

J. Richard Gott used the Copernican Principle to predict the
future duration of historical events by assuming that any
observed moment is equally probable at any point in an
event's lifespan. This approach leads to predictions that align
with the experience of time.

Bayes Meets Copernicus

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Chapitre 7 : Overfitting: When to Think
Less
7 Overfitting

When to Think Less

Charles Darwin once created a pro-and-con list to decide
whether to marry his cousin Emma Wedgwood, highlighting
the complexities and consequences of such a decision. This
method, advocated by Benjamin Franklin, shows a detailed
consideration of choices. However, in the context of modern
machine learning, the concept of "overfitting" suggests that
sometimes thinking less is more beneficial, revealing a
paradox of decision-making.

The Case Against Complexity

Every decision involves predictions based on known and
unknown factors, creating inherent tension. When analyzing
life satisfaction data from marriage, different models
(one-factor to nine-factor) demonstrate that while complexity
can fit existing data perfectly, it can lead to poor predictions
for future cases, illustrating the risk of overfitting.

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The Idolatry of Data
Overfitting emphasizes the dangers of treating data as
absolute truth. Real-world applications often involve noise
and mismeasurement, making complex models vulnerable to
erroneous conclusions. This pattern of focusing too heavily
on flawed data is reminiscent of idolatry in classical texts,
where tangible metrics are mistaken for the underlying truths
they represent.

Overfitting Everywhere
Examples of overfitting can be observed in health, fitness,
sports, and business practices where the focus on quantifiable
metrics leads to misguided decisions. Incentive structures can
inadvertently encourage harmful or counterproductive
behaviors, revealing that optimizing for the wrong metrics
often results from overfitting.

Detecting Overfitting: Cross-Validation

Cross-validation is essential for distinguishing between
genuine predictions and overfitted models. Holding back data
for testing allows for evaluation of a model’s ability to
generalize, aiding in the detection of overfitting phenomena.

How to Combat Overfitting: Penalizing Complexity

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Penalizing complexity in models can mitigate overfitting.
Techniques such as Lasso introduce complexity penalties that
reduce the number of factors used in models, echoing natural
evolutionary processes where simplicity often prevails as a
quality due to resource constraints.

The Upside of Heuristics

Nobel Prize-winning economist Harry Markowitz's own
approach to investing exemplifies the practical utility of
heuristics in decision-making. Using straightforward
strategies can help avoid overfitting, suggesting that less
processing of information can yield more accurate outcomes.

The Weight of History

Cultural and biological evolution emphasizes the advantages
of slow change and historical constraints in resisting fads.
The rapid alteration of societal habits contrasts with the slow
evolution of organisms, raising the value of tradition.

Early Stopping
Early stopping is a technique that can help prevent overfitting
by limiting the complexity of models. In decision-making,
sometimes it's advantageous to take a simpler, intuitive
approach rather than overthinking, as demonstrated by

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Darwin's approach to marriage.

When to Think Less

In light of high uncertainty and limited data, cutting back on
overly complex considerations favors simpler and often more
effective decision-making strategies. The balance between
calculated thinking and intuitive judgment can significantly
impact outcomes, sometimes confirming that trusting one’s
first instincts can be rational.

Overall, understanding overfitting teaches us the value of

simplicity and the importance of focusing on key factors
rather than overwhelming ourselves with complexity.

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Chapitre 8 : Relaxation: Let It Slide
8 Relaxation

Let It Slide
Meghan Bellows, while working on her PhD in chemical
engineering and planning her wedding, encountered a
complex problem: seating arrangements. Using insights from
her research on protein structures, she applied algorithms to
optimize seating. By quantifying relationships among guests
and setting constraints, she managed to find a satisfying
arrangement despite the sheer number of possible
combinations. This illustrates how some problems may seem
unsolvable, yet relaxing constraints can lead to workable
solutions.

The Difficulty of Optimization

Lincoln’s challenge as a traveling lawyer exemplifies
constrained optimization problems. The famous "traveling
salesman problem" asks for the shortest route through
multiple towns without returning to any town. Studied
extensively, it's computationally hard due to the
exponentially increasing possible routes as towns increase.
While brute-force solutions exist, efficient methods remain

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elusive, defining some problems as intractable.

Defining Difficulty
Edmonds and Cobham proposed the Cobham–Edmonds
thesis, establishing that problems solvable in polynomial
time are tractable, while those requiring non-polynomial
(intractable) solutions are not effectively solvable, illustrating
a key concept in computer science.

Just Relax
To tackle hard problems, relaxation techniques provide
alternative approaches. One method is Constraint Relaxation,
where strict rules are temporarily removed to simplify the
problem, followed by reintroducing constraints. For instance,
allowing multiple visits to towns in the traveling salesman
problem simplifies finding the minimum spanning tree,
which serves as a baseline for estimating actual solution
distances.

Uncountably Many Shades of Gray: Continuous Relaxation

Discrete optimization problems, like seating arrangements or
fire truck placement, face complexities due to binary choices.
Researchers can relax these constraints into continuous ones,
allowing fractional solutions to guide back to feasible

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real-world answers, yielding solutions that are efficient
enough even without full optimization.

Just a Speeding Ticket: Lagrangian Relaxation

Lagrangian Relaxation combines constraints into scores,
allowing for adjustments without strictly adhering. It diffuses
strict rules into penalties, making previously intractable
problems more manageable. In sports scheduling, this
method aids in balancing various constraints effectively,
enabling practical solutions.

Learning to Relax
Computational optimization, particularly in discrete contexts,
often leads to hard problems. Reflecting on relaxation
techniques—Constraint, Continuous, and
Lagrangian—highlights their utility in navigating
complexity. Relaxations give bounds on potential solutions
and help frame expectations, offering a strategic way forward
without getting bogged down by the quest for utopian
perfection. By embracing relaxed approaches, we can handle
intractable challenges more effectively, paving the way for
realism and practicality.

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Chapitre 9 : Randomness: When to
Leave It to Chance
9 Randomness

When to Leave It to Chance

Randomness is often perceived as the opposite of logical
reasoning, yet it plays a critical role in algorithms for
complex problems. Randomized algorithms leverage chance
to find good approximate solutions faster than deterministic
ones, sometimes being the only practical method available.

Sampling
George-Louis Leclerc's Buffon's Needle problem illustrated
how sampling could provide estimates for complex quantities
like À. The advent of computers transformed sampling from a
labor-intensive process to an efficient algorithmic method,
notably through the development of the Monte Carlo Method
at Los Alamos during the Manhattan Project, which utilized
random sampling to solve challenges in nuclear physics.

Randomized Algorithms
Michael Rabin showcased the utility of randomness in

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algorithms, particularly in primality testing. The
Miller-Rabin primality test allows for quick prime
verification with high confidence by checking random values
multiple times, which significantly enhances efficiency in
cryptography.

In Praise of Sampling
Random sampling can yield results where exhaustive
analysis fails. This principle applies to complex societal
decisions, where randomized sampling techniques can help
make sense of intricate policy changes.

The Three-Part Tradeoff

Computer science often involves trade-offs among time,
space, and certainty. Randomized algorithms, like Bloom
filters, capitalize on the error probability trade-off to enhance
operational efficiency in contexts such as web indexing and
security.

Hills, Valleys, and Traps

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Chapitre 10 : Networking: How We
Connect
10 Networking

How We Connect
The concept of connection encompasses various meanings,
from the physical and logical paths between entities to the
protocols guiding those connections, whether human or
machine. Significant milestones in communication history,
such as the first telegraph, telephone call, and text message,
illustrate how our desire for connection has evolved. The
internet's format for connections relies on protocol and has
redefined these interactions.

Packet Switching
The internet operates on various protocols, with
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) being primary. Unlike
circuit switching, where a dedicated channel is established,
packet switching divides messages into packets transmitted
independently, allowing flexible communication. This
system enhances bandwidth utilization and network
robustness, especially in dynamic and potentially hazardous

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circumstances.

Acknowledgment
Reliability in transmission cannot be guaranteed. The
"Byzantine generals problem" illustrates challenges in
ensuring messages are received. TCP handles
acknowledgment through a "triple handshake" and ACK
(acknowledgment) packets, ensuring that messages reach
their destination despite potential drops or disorganization.

Exponential Backoff: The Algorithm of Forgiveness

In wireless networks like ALOHAnet, interference
necessitated the development of strategies to manage
conflicting signals. The Exponential Backoff algorithm was
created to increase wait times after failures, allowing
networks to handle multiple competing signals efficiently.
This approach has broader applications in human
interactions, including managing relationships and
expectations.

Flow Control and Congestion Avoidance

In networking, after establishing reliable transmissions, the
next focus was on managing network overloads. Additive
Increase, Multiplicative Decrease (AIMD) is a dynamic

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algorithm that adjusts transmission rates based on success or
failure of packet delivery, enabling networks to adaptively
optimize bandwidth use.

Backchannels: Flow Control in Linguistics

Similar to TCP's need for feedback, human communication
benefits from acknowledgment mechanisms, known as
backchannels. These cues help regulate the flow of
conversation, making interactions more effective. Linguistic
research emphasizes the collaborative nature of
communication, where both parties are actively engaged.

Bufferbloat: It’s the Latency, Stupid

Bufferbloat describes issues arising from excessively large
data queues, causing latency in network communication. This
phenomenon affects various devices universally,
complicating internet interactions. Understanding and
addressing bufferbloat is essential for optimizing latency and
enhancing user experience.

Better Never than Late

Modern communication should focus on timely interactions
rather than eternal buffering. The relentless pursuit of
managing connections can lead to overload. By reconsidering

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communication strategies, both in technology and
interpersonal relations, we can maintain effective exchanges
without succumbing to the pitfalls of excessive buffering.

With insights drawn from networking principles, we can

navigate relationships with a blend of flexibility and
resilience, proposing that even in the face of failures, the aim
should be to maintain an ongoing connection while managing
expectations effectively.

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Chapitre 11 : Game Theory: The Minds
of Others
11 Game Theory

The Minds of Others

Game theory explores the complexities of human
interactions, highlighting the challenges that arise when
individuals operate in groups. The dynamics of
decision-making are influenced by others' thoughts, leading
to recursive reasoning and unpredictable outcomes.

Recursion
John Maynard Keynes emphasized that successful investing
requires anticipating others' anticipations. This recursive
thought process complicates decision-making, as players
must consider not only their views but also those of their
competitors.

Reaching Equilibrium
Game theory aims to identify equilibrium in interactions, a
stable state where no player benefits from changing their
strategy. This concept is exemplified in the Nash

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equilibrium, proven by John Nash, which predicts the
outcome of strategic interactions, influencing economic
policies significantly.

Dominant Strategies, for Better or Worse

The prisoner’s dilemma illustrates that rationally chosen
individual strategies can lead to suboptimal collective
outcomes. When individuals act independently to maximize
their payoffs, it can result in worse results for everyone
involved, demonstrating the paradox of rational behavior.

The Tragedy of the Commons

Garrett Hardin's concept outlines how shared resources often
lead to overexploitation, reflecting how individual rational
choices can detrimentally affect community resources. This
dynamic emphasizes the need for external intervention to
create a more beneficial equilibrium.

Mechanism Design: Change the Game

Mechanism design shifts the focus from behavior under
existing rules to altering those rules to achieve desired
outcomes. Through effective design, unfavorable equilibria
can be transformed into more favorable ones, demonstrating
the power of structured incentives.

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Mechanism Design by Evolution
Cooperation in society may arise through emotions, which
can bind individuals voluntarily without external
enforcement. Emotions can guide behavior toward collective
good, fostering environments conducive to collaboration.

Information Cascades: The Tragic Rationality of Bubbles

Information cascades occur when individuals rely
excessively on the behavior of others, often leading to herd
mentality and market bubbles. This can result in collective
misjudgments, even when each participant acts rationally
based on limited information.

To Thine Own Self Compute

Algorithmic game theory suggests that simplistically
structured games can mitigate complex strategic thinking,
paving the way for better solutions. The Vickrey auction
exemplifies a mechanism where honest bidding is
incentivized, minimizing strategic complexity.

This chapter reflects on the intricate interplay of human

behavior, strategic decision-making, and the systemic
structures that influence them. Understanding these dynamics

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allows for better navigation through social interactions and
economic environments, promoting healthier outcomes.

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