C H A PT E R 3

Rise and Fall of Kushan Rule in Kashm ir

The literary and numismatic evidence testifies to the fact that

Kashmir was incorporated with the Kushan empire by its illustrious
founder K ujala Kadphises sometime after his conquest o f K abul, parts o f
western Bacteria and N orth-W est India. The famous Chinese source, Hou
Han-Shu (A nnals o f the Latter H an) compiled by Fan Yeh (A.D. 4 4 6 ),
sums up this developm ent in its well-known passage:
Formerly the Yue-chih were conquered by the Hiung-nu; they
transferred themselves to Ta-hia and divided that kingdom between
five hi-hou [minor chiefs], viz; those o f Hiu-mi, Shuang-mi, Kuei-
shang, Hi-tun and Tu-mi
More than a hundred years after this the hi-hou o f the Kuei-shuang,
Chiu-chu-chuch (also called K ‘iu-tsiu-k‘io) attacked the other four
hi-how, he styled him self king; the name o f his kingdom was Kuei-
shang. He invaded An-si and seized the territory o f Kao-fu;
moreover he triumphed over Pu-ta and Kipin and entirely
possessed those kingdom s.1
Chiu-chu chuch /K iu-tsiu-k‘io is unanim ously identified with Kujala
Kadphises;2 and the Chinese treatise gives him the credit o f not only
founding the K ushana kingdom but also conquering K ao-fu (K abul) after
defeating A n-his (A racids), P u-t’a (variously identified-Bactra by some

1 Hou Han Shu, C h . 118 P. 9a, V id e M u k h e rje e, B .N ., The Rise and Fall of Kushan
Empire, P. 2 9 n. 1.
2 T'oungPao, 1929, V o l. X X V I, PP. 20 1 -2 0 2 ; Journal Asiatique 1914, S. X I, V ol. IV P.
4 0 1 , f.n. 1; M u k h e rje e B .N ., The Kushana Genealogy, Studies in Kushana Genealogy
and Chronology, P. 9 3 , n. 24.
56
and Pushkalavati by others) and Chi-pin.3 The scholars identify Chi-pin
with Kashm ir.4 It should, however, be m entioned that at that time,
according to the information supplied by Ch ’ien Han-Shu and Hou Han-
Shu, K ashm ir empire included a portion o f N orth-W estern India.5
Certainly, K ashm ir and Gandhara are referred to as one political entity in
the Buddhist records.6 Therefore, the doubt raised by some scholars that
C h’ipin is G andhara and not K ashm ir betrays only ignorance o f a well
known historical fact.
The written evidence is sufficiently supported by numismatic
evidence. Recently a hoard o f copper coins o f Kujala K adphises has been
found from the ancient site o f Tarakpura on Sopore - Bandipore link
road.7 It is w orth noting that one o f the main routes which linked
Kashmir w ith Astor, Gilgit, Chitral, Yasin, Badakshan, Tibet and further
• 8
to Central A sia and China was Bandipur route passing through Gurais.
More over, there are one hundred and three coins o f K ujala Kadphises
housed in Sri Pratab Singh Museum, Srinagar - next only to K anishka’s
in num ber.9 The recently established, Central A sian M useum o f Kashmir
University, also contains three coins belonging to K ujala Kadphises. As
the Kushanas succeeded the Indo-Parthians in N orth-W estern India, it

3 Hou Han Shu, C h . 118, P .9a, V id e., M u k h erjee, B .N ., The Rise and Fall of Kushan
Empire, P. 3 9 n. 1
4 M u k h e rje e , B .N ., T h e R ise and Fall o f K u sh a n E m p ire, P .9; A lso see h is, An Agriphan
Source of Indo-Parthian History, PP. 192-93, n .25.
5 Chien Han Shu, C h . 9 6 A , P. 106; Hou Han Shu, C h. 118, P. 4 , V id e , M u k h e rje e , B .N .,
The Rise and Fall of Kushan Empire, P. 39 n. 11; M u k h e rje e , B .N ., An Agriphan Source
of Indo-Parthian History, P P. 192-93 n.25.
6 D u tt, N a lin a k s h a ., Buddhism in Kashmir, D elhi, P. 5
7 Indian Archaeology - A R ev iew , 1984-85, P. 144.
8 B a g c h i, P .C . India and China, C a lc u tta, 1944, P P . 68-74.
9 S .P .S M u se u m , A c c e ssio n R eg ister.
57
was natural for K ujala to continue, at least to a certain extent, the coin
type o f his predecessors.
The non-conventional sources namely philology and surnames can
perhaps help us in throwing additional light on the contribution o f Kujala
Kadphises to the foundation o f Kushan rule in Kashmir. As we know
Kujala carried many titles namely, Kadphises, Kara, Kasa, Kavsa, and
K ausa.10 The term Khadphench used in K ashm ir to denote an authority is
perhaps the K ashm irized version o f K adphises. It is com m on-place in
K ashm ir to call a person after a ruler if he/she behaves in an authoritative
manner. For exam ple, in our contem porary history it is often heard
people contem ptuously calling their haughty, overbearing and
authoritarian adversaries as M ahraja Hari Singh/ Shaikh Sahab/Indra
Gandhi/Bakshi Sahib and the like. Since K ujala K adphises not only ruled
for a pretty long time but also founded a mighty K ushan empire, and that
Kadphises continued to be the surname o f his m ost illustrious successor
at whose hands the empire reached to its zenith, the title Kadphises
symbolized great pow er and authority, passing on from generation to
generation through the word o f mouth to become an established often-
quoted term by all and sundry without being affected by the influx o f
substitute w ords in the wake o f the repeated culture changes.
As K ara and K ausa were also the coveted titles o f the founder o f
Kushan dynasty, it may perhaps be reasonable to infer that the famous
surnames o f K ashm ir which continue till date, namely, K ar and Kawusa
owe their origin to these titles o f Kujala. Perhaps the Kushana nobles
who were assigned the job o f ruling over K ashm ir on behalf o f the

10 British Museum Catalogue, P. 120-122, 174; Punjab Museum Catalogue, P. 85, 181-82.
58
Kushan king w ere either bestowed with these titles or they assumed them
as local rulers ju st as subsequently we find the ruling class bestowed with
titles like Raina and M alik which became their perm anent surname. The
physiognomy and DNA tests o f the Kars and K aw usa’s o f Kashmir
notwithstanding the common practice o f inter-group m arriages would
help in proving or disproving o f the hypothesis. There are also some
families bearing the surname Kashu in Kashmir. Is this the derivative of
K ushan? Perhaps, yes because the base o f the word Kushana is Kusha. It
may also be pertinent to mention here that alm ost all the families bearing
the krams o f Kar, K awusa, and Kush were am ong the rich families o f
Kashmir till recently. The reason is simple if we consider that throughout
the pre-m odem history it was the general policy o f all the rulers to own
and patronize the vocal sections regardless o f political changes. The
only condition was that they had to agree to becom e a part o f the
supporting structure. This is the reason that the fortune o f the “faithful”
upper classes, though changed slightly, but they seldom w itnessed fall,
especially if they w ere traders simultaneously. The above mentioned
upper classes have traditionally rem ained traders plus landed magnets. In
Kashmir there is a surname ( kram ) called kanjwal. Is this the
Kashmirized version o f K ujula? We leave it open.
W hile the conquest o f Kashmir by K ujula Kadphises is established
beyond doubt, it is, however, not clear w hen exactly K ujula’s army
marched tow ards K ashm ir and took it over. Yet the indirect evidence
weighs in favour o f drawing the inference that it was only after the
conquest o f Kabul and the immediate N orth-W est o f India that Kashmir
fell in the hands o f Kushan army. It may be recalled that Hou Han Shu

59
refers to the conquest o f Kashmir by K ujula after he had captured Kao-fu
and P ’u-ta." Secondly, the coins o f Kujula so far found in Kashmir
belong to his later period. This can be assumed on the basis o f a careful
comparison o f the titles adopted by K ujula K adphises on his various coin
types. We can reconstruct the relative chronological sequence o f the
coins issued by him. M ost probably the H erm aeus — K ujula Kadphises
coins were the earliest issues o f Kadphises I, the coins bearing the titles,
Yavuga K ushana or only Kushana with the nam e o f K ujula Kadphises
can be regarded as earlier than those which show full fledged imperial
titles like Maharajasai and Rajatirajasa. And the coins bearing both the
titles yavuga (c h ie f or leader) and Maharajasa Rajatirajasa (suprem e
king or king o f kings) should m ark the period o f transition and thus come
in between the coin types with title yavuga and those bearing the titles
maharajasa Rajartirajasa. Thus the coins with the title Maharajasa
Rajartirajasa should be placed last o f all in this sequence. Follow ing this
scheme various coin types o f K ujula K adphises can be placed in
chronological order as:
1). H erm aeus and K ujula type
2). D iadem ed head and enthroned king type, helm eted head and
M acedonian solider type, king seated and Zeus standing type.
3). Bust o f king and nike type, and
4). Bull and Bacterian camel type.

11 Hou Han Shu., Ch. 118 P.9a, Vide., Mukherjee, B.N., The Rise and Fall of Kushan
Empire. P. 2 9 n. 1.
60
 A ccording to B.N. Puri Kujula Kadphises ruled between 45 A.D.
and 78 A.D;12 and “in the year 122 o f the old era= 6 4 A.D. He sets his
foot in N orth-w est India as a king (M aharaja) and for fourteen years he
consolidated his hold and expanded his territory, as is evident from the
use o f higher appellations.13 Given this chronological construction, it
would mean K ujula conquered Kashmir after 64 A .D .14 However,
according to the advocates o f 78 A.D. as N ew Saka year, K ushana
conquest o f K ashm ir took place around 50 A .D .15
Earlier it was believed that K ujula K hadphises was succeeded by
Vima K adphises, known in Chinese sources as Y en-Kao-Chen. However,
startling discovery o f the Rabtak inscription clearly dem onastrates that
Kujula K adphises w as succeeded by his son V im a Tak [to ].16
Interestingly R abtak inscription has also been helpful in solving the Soter
M egas issue. In the light o f Rabtak inscription it appears that it was Vima
Tak [to] w ho issued the coins with Soter M egas titles. Significantly one
coin w ith Soter M egas titles is preserved in S.P.S. M useum Srinagar,
which indicates his presence in Kashmir.
* 1 7 *
Vima Tak [to] was succeeded by his son Vim a Kadphises.
U nfortunately about Vima K adphises’ reign in Kashmir, we have no
evidence except for his one copper coin18 and the inscription o f K haltse.19

12 P u ri, B .N ., India under the Kushans., P. 14.

13 Ib id ., P. 15.
14 Ib id ., P. 16.
15 M u k h e rje e , B .N ., The Rise and Fall ofKushan Empire, pp. 34-38.
16 S ee A p p e n d ix I, R a b ta k In scrip tio n
17 Ibid
18 K aK , R .C ., Handbook of the Archaeological and Numismatic Sections of the S.P. S.
Museum, S rin a g a r, P. 155.
19 K o n o w , Kharoshti Inscriptions, PP. 79-81, PP. X V /2;
61
The copper coin carries the legend in Greek, reading SO TER M EGAS
Ooemo BASILEOS BASILEO N K AD PH ISES.20 The depiction o f king
bears striking resem blance with the V im a’s effigy depicted on the
21
Khaltse inscription.
As Vim a w as m ore comm only know n as O oemo, it seems that the
present O om pur village situated near Srinagar w as originally a capital
city o f V im a or it was a newly established settlement, founded under his
patronage. As is true o f m ost o f the habitations o f Kashm ir, it also came
to be called after the name o f its patron/donor.
22
Vima K adphises was succeeded by K anishka I. A s mentioned
earlier, the date o f K anishka’s accession to pow er is a subject o f great
controversy.23 The occidental scholars are more inclined in placing
Kanishka to the second century A.D, with, o f course, a few exceptions;24
while those in India, again with a few exceptions, are inclined to credit
him w ith the founding o f the era o f 78 A.D.25 The final solution o f the
riddle can not be done in the present state o f our knowledge. Though the
chronology is shrouded in mystery, it is clear that K anishka I ruled for 23

years.
A bout K anishka’s rule in Kashmir we have sufficient evidence -
both num ism atic and literary. The conventional evidence is also
supported by place-nam es and oral history. There are presently five

20 Kak, op. cit., P. 155.

21 Compare Konow, op. cit, pp. 79-81, PP XV/2 and Kak, op. cit P. 155.
22 Rabtak Inscription
23 See Appendix II - Date o f Kanishka.
24 Puri, B.N., ‘ The Kushans’ in Harmatta Jonos (ed.) History o f Civilizations o f Central
Asia, Vol. II, The Development o f Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D.
250. PP. 249-251
25 Ibid.; See also ref. 34 Chapter (Kushan Civilization: A brief overview).
62
hundred and seventy two Kushan copper coins in the S.P.S. Museum,
Srinagar. O f them, four hundred and sixty-seven belong to K anishka.26
This is besides his two gold coins (out o f total four) preserved in the
same M useum .27
K alhana’s Rajatarangni not only refers to K anishka as a ruler o f
Kashmir, but he also makes a mention o f his building activities.
According to K alhana he built a town after his name and also constructed
29
mathas and Chaityas elsewhere in the Valley. Clearly, he refers to the
same K anishka who is famous in history as a great patron o f Buddhism .30
Hieun Tsang, who visited Kashmir in the early 7th century A.D.
found local traditions regarding K anishka’s rule still fully alive in the
Valley.31 A nd it appeared so true to the Chinese pilgrim that he faithfully
recorded them in his travel account, particularly the holding o f third great
•3

Buddhist Council by Kanishka. “

The continued existence o f a place called K anishkapur in district
Baramulla, described as a foundation o f Kanishka, till present times, is a
living evidence o f K anishka’s rule in Kashmir.
Evidently, during the period o f K anishka K ashm ir attained
unprecedented prosperity.33 This is evident from the K ushan art treasures

26 Accession Register S.P.S. Museum

27 KaK, R.C., Handbook of the Archaeological and Numismatic sections of S.P.S. Museum,
Srinagar, P. 131.
28 Kalhana, Rajatarangini., Book I vs. 168.
29 Ibid.,
30 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 76.
31 Ibid.
32 Life ofHiuen Tsang
33 See chapter on Coinage.
63
with Buddhist them es found in different nooks o f the valley.34 Some sites
are so distantly located that even today only an adventurer can reach to
them.35 The huge quantity o f K anishka’s coins so far retrieved in
Kashmir further attests to this fact. No less significant evidence o f
K ashm ir’s em ergence as a famous place o f K ushan em pire is K anishka’s
decision to choose K ashm ir as a venue for the third world Buddhist
Conference in preference to any other place o f the vast K ushan empire.
Besides K anishka, Rajatarangini refers to two more K ushan rulers
of Kashmir, namely, Jushka and Hushka.36 Jushka is in all probability
Vasishka who succeeded Kanishka I on the K ushana throne in the year
-3 *7

24 o f K anishka Era and ruled for about four years. It may be mentioned
that Vasishka is also called as Vajheshka in the contem porary records,38
and it is quite probable that he was known by this name in Kashmir
which till the time o f K alhana came to be reduced to Juska in the local
environment. Significantly enough Rajatarangni o f Kalhana makes a
special m ention o f him as besides clubbing the building activities o f the
three K ushana rulers (K anishka, Jushka and H uska) and the efflorescence
of Buddhism during their rule, Rajatrangni writes exceptionally about
Juska “That wise king Juska, who built Juskapura with its Vihara, was
also the founder o f Jayasvam ipura.”39

34 See chapter on Art.

35 Sites Like Doen Pather and Kutbal are on high altitudes, having rocky tracks still
unlinked by modem roads and transportation.
36 Kalhana, Rajatarangini., Vol. I, Book I vs. 168-170.
37 Rosenfield, J.M., Dynastic Arts o f the Kushans, P. 57; Mukherjee, B.N., The Rise and
F all o f Kushan Empire, PP. 92, 93.
38 Ibid.
39 Kalhana, Rajatarangni., Vol. I Book I vs. 169.
64
 Vasishka was succeeded by Huvishka, who was perhaps the brother
of Vasishka. H is reign marks one o f the brightest periods o f Kushana
history. He ruled for a long period o f 34 years (betw een 2 8 and 62 o f the
Kanishka E ra).40 H is coins from K apisa B ihar alludes to a vast Kushan
empire inherited by him from his father which he certainly preserved.
The variety o f his coins in gold and copper are equally suggestive o f the
peace and prosperity in his time.
H uvishka’s nam e figures among the three K ushana rulers mentioned
by Rajatarangini, to have ruled Kashm ir.41 He also credits him for having
built a tow n H ushkapura (H uvishkapura) after his name. The town
survives in m odem U shkur,42 a village about three kilom eters to the
south-east o f Baram ulla on the left bank o f V itasta (Jehlum ). He also
attributes to him and the other two K ushana rulers the construction o f
stupas and m athas at Suskaletra.43 H uvishka’s rule in K ashm ir is also
corroborated by his gold coin found by chance som ewhere in the valley.44
Like his father (K anishka), H uvishka’s coins also portrayed the
divinities draw n from different Pantheons,45 although in the Indian
environment the tendency seems more tow ards the depiction o f new
Brahmanical deities.46 The solitary gold coin o f H uvishka retrieved in
Kashmir inter alia depicts ankusa, sun god and the legend M ioro.47 This

40 M u k h e rje e , B .N ., The Rise and Fall of Kushan Empire, pp. 9 2 -9 9

41 K a lh a n a , Rajatarangini., V ol. I, B ook I, vs. 168.
42 Ibid.
43 Ibid., vs. 170.
44 K aK , R .C ., Handbook of the Archaeological and Numismatic Sections of the S. PS.
Museum, S rin a g a r P. 132.
45 R o se n fie ld , Dynastic Arts of the Kushans, PP. 69-101.
46 Ib id ., PP. 7 6 -7 7 , 7 9 ,9 2 - 9 5 .
47 K aK , R .C ., op. cit, P. 132.
65
 undoubtedly alludes to syncretic religious system prom oted by Kanishka
and his successors.
H uvishka was succeeded by Vasudeva I, the last great ruler o f the
Kanishka group o f rulers. And he was followed by K anishka II, Kanishka
III and V asudeva II. We have no information about the rule o f these
Kushana rulers in Kashmir. However, given the fact that upto Vasudeva
II, K ushana’s ruled the whole immediate neighbourhood o f Kashmir, it is
quite reasonable to conclude that the Valley o f K ashm ir w ould have also
remained the part o f K ushan empire at least until they lost the North
West o f India to the Sassanians around A.D 2 62 . It m ay be mentioned
, that so far one gold coin o f Vasudeva has been found in Kashm ir.48
However, it still awaits a serious scholarly attention to ascertain whether
it belongs to V asudeva I or Vasudeda II. Besides, Ratarangini refers to
the name o f a ruler Abhimanyu, who by all m eans seems an independent
ruler but the one who had K ushana affiliation.49 K alhana refers to him as
a true heir o f K ushanas in that he was favourably disposed towards
Buddhism.50 A fter him Kalhana makes a m ention o f the revival of
traditional N aga w orship at the hands o f a local ruling dynasty-
Gonandas.51 I f on the basis o f the revival o f N aga w orship by Gonanda
III we presum e that K ushanas ceased to rule K ashm ir after Abhimanyu, it
seem that K ushana rule ended at the m ost a few years after it came to an
end in the Peshaw ar region w hich passed in the hands o f Sassanians in
262 A.D. K alhana refers to five local rulers w ho ruled betw een the death

48 Ibid
49 Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Book I vs. 174.
50 Ibid., vs. 174-176.
51 Ibid., vs. 185-187.
66
o f Abhm anyu and K im nare (K idara).52 These five rulers m ight not have
probably ruled for m ore than a century. As K idarites occupied Kashmir
around 4 1 0 A.D, probably K ushana rule came to an end there around 300
A.D or so.

52 Ibid., vs. 185-197; The five rulers mentioned are, Gonanda III, Vibhisana I, Indrajit,
Ravana, Vibhisana II