Green Roofs and Vertical Gardens: Benefits and Implementation Challenges

Sumit Kumar Gupta*

Department of Civil Engineering, Galgotias University, Gautam Budha Nagar, UP, India

Abstract
Sustainable urban design, such as vertical gardens and green roofs, is becoming more prevalent. The integration of vegetation into
buildings through green infrastructure systems provides a range of environmental, economic, and aesthetic advantages. Building
rooftops with green roofs and vertical gardens on walls or facades are both beneficial for enhancing air quality, thermal insulation,
stormwater management, and biodiversity enhancement. The global spotlight is shifting towards these nature-based solutions in
response to the challenges of rising temperatures, pollution, and limited urban space. In this review paper, the history and
characteristics of green roofs and vertical gardens are outlined to provide an in-depth analysis. It also discusses the benefits of
such systems, including energy conservation, urban cooling and psychological wellbeing. The benefits of having green roofs and
vertical gardens are not without its advantages, as they pose difficulties with structural load, maintenance costs, water
consumption, and climate sensitivity. While addressing these challenges, the paper highlights recent breakthroughs and
approaches that tackle them. The review emphasizes the importance of collaborating across disciplines to achieve success by
critically analysing case studies, materials, and policy frameworks. The primary objective of this paper is to assist architects,
engineers, and urban planners in incorporating green infrastructure into resilient and sustainable urban landscapes.
Keywords: Green Roofs, Vertical Gardens, Urban Sustainability, Stormwater Management, Biodiversity Enhancement, Energy
Efficiency, Urban Heat Island Mitigation, Sustainable Architecture

Introduction origin. During the 1980s, French botanist Patrick Blanc

introduced hydroponic
Urban green spaces, such as vertical gardens and green
roofs, are a novel approach to mitigate environmental
degradation caused by rapid urbanization. Plant
systems that allowed plants to grow vertically without soil,
incorporation into building infrastructure through these
making them widely used. The living walls gained
systems is beneficial for sustainability, aesthetics, and air
popularity for their ability to conserve space and enhance
quality. The term green roof denotes a roof that has fewer
the appearance of an urban environment. The use of both
leaves, while cactus garden refers to an artificial roof. A
systems is prevalent throughout Europe, Asia and North
vertical garden is where plants are grown on vertical
America today. The desire to reconnect urban living with
surfaces such as walls, using modular panels or fabric
natural ecosystems is becoming more prevalent as they have
systems. Urban areas are increasingly adopting both
evolved.... These green technologies continue to evolve in
methods to counteract heat island effects, improve insulation
tandem with cultural, environmental, and technological
and support biodiversity. These systems are nature-based
trends.
solutions to climate change and urban pollution. They also
enable the production of food, particularly in cities with
limited areas. Such systems are attracting increasing
international attention due to the need to create
infrastructure that is greener and more energy efficient.
While both offer many ecological and economic benefits,
they pose different challenges in terms of infrastructure as
well as technical and maintenance concerns. It is essential
for architects, engineers, and urban planners to comprehend
their functioning. In this paper, the benefits and challenges Fig 1: Schematic representing the diverse processes
of green roofs and vertical gardens are discussed with involved in conventional roofs and GRs (AQI—Air Quality
emphasis on their role in future sustainable urban design. Index).
The practice of including vegetation in architecture has been 2. Historical Evolution of Green Roofs and
around for centuries. One of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World is known as the Hanging Gardens of Vertical Gardens
Babylon, which are one of its earliest examples. Although Generally speaking, green roofs can be classified as
mostly mythical, they served as inspiration for centuries- extensive roofing, intensive roofing or semi-intensive
long architectural integration of nature. In Viking-era roofing. There are variations in the type depending on their
Scandinavia, wooden roofs were made of turf and covered design, cost, maintenance requirements, and ecological
with sod to provide insulation and waterproofing. These benefits. Typically, the most common and lightweight
techniques were also used in northern Europe. Urban systems are extensive green roofs that grow on relatively
expansion and environmental concerns led to the evolution shallow soil with a growing medium that ranges from 2 to 6
of modern green roofs in Germany during the 1960s. inches. These are well-suited for low-maintenance plants,
Initially, the systems were uncomplicated and predominantly such as mosses, grasses, and sedums. Mainly serving the
utilized for managing stormwater and providing insulation. purpose of managing stormwater, insulating it, and
Technological advancements facilitated the creation of more mitigating the urban heat island effect. Unlike other areas,
intricate, multi-layered systems that offered both roofs with intensive greenness offer a wider range of plant
environmental and visual benefits. Vertical gardens, or living life, including shrubs and trees, as well as small gardens. A
walls as they are sometimes called, have a more recent deeper medium (over 6 inches) and strong foundation are
necessary for their growth, along with frequent upkeep. 2.3. Improved Air Quality.
These roofs are frequently open and can be utilized as play
areas. Compared to intensive systems, semi-intensive roofs i. Air Filtration: Plants trap dust, soot, and airborne
provide a balance between providing plant life with more particles, reducing air pollution levels.
diversity and being less maintenance-consuming. Structure, ii. Gas Absorption: Vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide
budget, climate and intended use dictate the choice between and other pollutants, contributing to cleaner and
these. Large commercial structures may be favored for their healthier urban air.
cost-efficiency, while luxurious multi-story buildings often iii. Oxygen Production: Through photosynthesis,
feature elaborate rooftops that create lush, verdant terraces. plants release oxygen, improving the overall air
By recognizing the dissimilarities between these green roof quality and benefiting urban dwellers.
options, one can determine which one is the most 2.4. Biodiversity and Habitat Creation.
sustainable in terms of design aesthetics, function, and more.
I. Urban Ecosystem Support: Green roofs provide a
There are many types of vertical gardens, classified by their refuge for birds, insects, and pollinators like bees
structural system and the type of growing medium and plant and butterflies, especially in densely built-up cities.
support mechanism. The most conventional form is the
trellis system, in which climbing plants such as ivy or
jasmine are trained to grow up a vertical structure. These are
uncomplicated, inexpensive, and require minimal effort. II. Pollinator Corridors: When used in networks, green
Panels or containers that are pre-planted and fixed to walls roofs can serve as “stepping stones” for wildlife to
are used in modular panel systems. The ability to offer travel across urban areas.
greater design flexibility and room for diversity in plant III. Conservation Opportunity: They offer habitat for
growth makes these a popular choice for both commercial endangered or local native plant species, supporting
and residential facades. A more sophisticated approach is the biodiversity conservation efforts.
hydroponic living wall, in which weeds are raised in a
2.5. Noise Reduction.
potable water supply without the need for soil. Often, these
systems are equipped with automated irrigation and Sound Insulation: Soil, plants, and trapped air layers on
fertilization systems and layering of fabric or felt. The use of green roofs act as natural sound barriers.
pocket systems, typically made of fabric or plastic, enables
individual plants to grow in small pouches that are mounted Exterior Noise Mitigation: They reduce external noise such
on vertical surfaces. These items are frequently employed as traffic or aircraft, enhancing acoustic comfort indoors.
for small or decorative purposes. Maintenance, cost,
2.6. Enhanced Building Microclimate.
aesthetics, and environmental performance are the primary
advantages and disadvantages associated with each type. i. Moderated Temperature Extremes: Green roofs
However, there are also differences between types. buffer temperature extremes by stabilizing daily
temperature variations.
Roofs that are green offer a diverse range of environmental
ii. Increased Humidity: By increasing local humidity
advantages that promote sustainable urban development.
levels, they help create a more pleasant and stable
Beyond the individual building, these benefits are also
microenvironment.
important for ecosystem health and urban resilience....
Below are the key environmental benefits of green roofs, as 2.7. Carbon Sequestration.
outlined in the subsections.
Carbon Storage: The plants and soil media on green roofs
2.1. Stormwater Management. can capture and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
While per-household impacts are limited, a widespread
Absorption and retention are important in green roofs, as
implementation can help achieve climate change goals.
they absorb rainfall through their vegetative and soil layers,
which helps to minimize the amount of stormwater that 3: Green roofs and vertical gardens.
enters municipal drainage systems.
3.1. Classification of Green Roofs
The multi-level construction delays down water flow to
prevent flooding and sewer overflows during heavy rainfall. Green roofs are typically classified into three categories
Improved Water Quality: As water filters through the soil based on their structural load, plant varieties, and
and plant roots, pollutants such as heavy metals and maintenance demands:
particulates are removed, improving the quality of water
entering the ecosystem.
2.2. Urban Heat Island Mitigation.
Temperature Regulation: Vegetation absorbs less heat
compared to conventional roofing materials. This helps
lower rooftop temperatures significantly. Cooling Through
Evapotranspiration: Plants release water vapor through
evapotranspiration, cooling the surrounding air and creating
a more comfortable microclimate.
Citywide Temperature Impact: When implemented widely,
green roofs can help reduce the urban heat island (UHI)
effect, lowering overall city temperatures during summer.
 Fig 2: Green roofs of cooling extends beyond individual buildings and
contributes to a decrease in urban ambient temperature.
Shallow substrates, typically 2-6 inches, are used in
extensive green roof systems that are lightweight. Their
habitat is devoted to supporting plants that can tolerate
drought and are low-growing, such as sedums and mosses.
The use of extensive green roofs is a cost-effective and
maintenance-free option for retrofitting existing buildings.
These intensive green roofs are designed with deeper
substrates (over 6 inches) and can accommodate a wide
range of vegetation, such as shrubbery, small trees, and even
lawns. Although intensive roofs have ecological and
recreational advantages, they demand substantial structural
support and maintenance.
Semi-Intensive Green Roofs: These are semi-intensive green Fig4 : Urban Heat Island (UHI) Mitigation
roofs, which combine the features of extensive and intensive
systems to provide moderate levels of biodiversity while 4.2. Air Quality Improvement
reducing maintenance requirements for many commercial A natural air purifier is present in green infrastructure.
buildings. Among the air pollutants that plants take in are nitrogen
3.2. Types of Vertical Gardens oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter
(PM10 and PM2.5). By collecting dust and toxic particles,
The design and functionality of vertical gardens can leaves, stems, and roots, they significantly enhance the air
determine the classification of various systems: quality of polluted urban areas. Vertical gardens can be
utilized as bio-shields along road and building facades in
Vertical Gardens: Plants are planted at the foot of a building densely populated areas, which helps to reduce the exposure
and raised by supports. Simpler ones often include species of people and buildings to pollutants. This is especially
like ivy or climbing roses. important for pedestrians.
4.3. Carbon Sequestration
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a major greenhouse gas, is taken in
by plants on green roofs and vertical gardens through
photosynthesis, which also releases oxygen into the air.
Despite the small amount of carbon per square meter
sequestered in urban areas, it can be effective in mitigating
climate change by examining the cumulative effect across
multiple installations. In addition, native or perennial
species can enhance carbon capture throughout the life cycle
of the structure.
4.4. Stormwater Management
Vertical gardens and green roofs are essential for managing
urban stormwater. The absorption and temporary storage of
rainfall by vegetation and substrate layers decreases runoff
volumes and increase peak flow rates. This contributes to
Fig 3: Vertical Gardens the prevention of floods in cities and reduces the strain on
municipal drainage systems. Depending on the design and
Living Walls are constructed using modular panels that have local climate conditions, extensive green roofs can hold onto
irrigation and growing media integrated into them. They 50 to 80 percent of annual rainfall. Additionally, green roofs'
provide habitat for a wide range of plants and enable the filtration system enhances the quality of water that enters
growth of lush greenery in restricted areas. ground level or storm drains.
4: Environmental Benefits
4.1. Urban Heat Island (UHI) Mitigation
The Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect can be minimized by
incorporating green roofs and vertical gardens, which are
environmental benefits. The presence of concrete and
asphalt surfaces in densely populated cities with low
vegetation levels can often trap heat. Despite this, green
roofs and living walls prevent sunlight from entering and
encourage the release of evapotranspiration, which cools the
air that surrounds them. Vegetative surfaces have been found
to reduce roof temperatures by as much as 40°C compared
to conventional rooftops, according to research. The effect
 which reduces the need for air conditioning and lowers
interior temperatures.
5.2. Extended Roof and Building Lifespan.
The protection of underlying roofing materials from extreme
temperatures, UV light and mechanical damage is achieved
by green roofs. By providing this protective layer,
waterproof membranes can extend their lifespan by up to
three times. Therefore, the costs of maintenance and
replacement are postponed for a longer period. Large
commercial buildings or institutional properties can
experience significant savings when replacing their roofs.
Correspondingly, vertical gardens safeguard exterior walls
from weathering and deterioration, decreasing long-run
maintenance costs on facades.
Fig 5: Stormwater Management
5.3. Increased Property Value
4.5. Noise Reduction.
The presence of green infrastructure enhances the aesthetic
Vegetation has natural sound-absorbing qualities. Especially appeal and environmental profile of buildings, which has a
in dense, noisy urban centres, green roofs and living walls positive impact on real estate values. Pattered with green
are effective at dampening both airborne and structural roofs and vertical gardens, these buildings are often the envy
noise. The absorption, reflection and refraction of sound of environmentally conscious buyers or tenants who
waves by soil substrates and plant materials can be used to appreciate biophilic design elements. Why? Visible
reduce noise pollution caused by traffic, industrial activities, vegetation enhances the ambiance of both indoor and
and construction. The implementation of multi-layered outdoor spaces, elevating the appeal of areas such as arches
planting systems and thick foliage can enhance sound or verdant balconies. Buildings with green walls and roofs
insulation performance, resulting in improved building are more likely to attract buyers or tenants due solely to their
acoustic comfort. environmental factors, as per various real estate research.
4.6. Biodiversity Enhancement. 5.4. Job Creation and Economic Stimulus
Including vegetation in urban architecture promotes the A team of specialists in the design, installation and
growth and development of different types of wildlife, such maintenance of green roofs and vertical gardens includes
as birds (including bees), butterflies, and other pollinators. architects as well as horticulturists irrigation technicians and
Intensive and semi-intensive green roofs in cities serve as a general maintenance workers. It creates jobs of all skill
link between fragmented green spaces, strengthening levels and helps to support local economies. The growth of
ecological networks. These systems include rooftop gardens green infrastructure in the public and private sectors is likely
or terraces. Vertical gardens have a lower biodiversity and to result in an increase for skilled labour. Local industries
more limited biodiversity, but they still provide linked to green materials, urban farming, and environmental
microhabitats for insects. Local species are protected in consultancy also reap economic benefits from cities that
urban ecosystems through the use of these systems. adopt green building incentive programs.
4.7. Energy Efficiency and Climate Regulation. 5.5. Stormwater Fee Discounts and Tax Benefits
Buildings are protected from high temperatures with energy- Property owners in various cities worldwide are required to
efficient features like solar-based roofs and vertical gardens. pay stormwater fees that are determined by the impervious
They reduce the need for air conditioning in summer by area of their property. Green roofs reduce runoff, which
keeping interiors cooler, and they decrease heat loss in means properties can be eligible for a fee reduction. Also,
winter. Passive temperature regulation reduces energy usage many states offer financial aid through tax breaks, subsidies
and lowers greenhouse gases released by heating and or grants to encourage the use of renewable energy. Why?
cooling systems. These incentives help to offset initial installation costs,
which in turn improves the return on investment. Green roof
5.The economic benefits of green infrastructure schemes in Toronto, New York, and Singapore have been
5.1. Energy Cost Reduction implemented to compensate developers for incorporating
vegetation into their buildings.
The immediate and measurable economic benefit of green
roofs and vertical gardens is their contribution to building 5.6. Urban Agriculture and Food Production
energy efficiency. The use of natural insulators in these
Vertical gardens and urban farming can be designed to
systems reduces the need for artificial heating during winter
promote food production without requiring additional
and cooling during summer. This is advantageous. HVAC
investment. Both intensive roof gardens and modular
energy consumption is reduced by the vegetation layer
vertical farming units are suitable for cultivating crops such
adhering to the soil or substrate, which in turn limits heat
as lettuce, herbs (Hydras tie), tomatoes or strawberries.
transfer through the building envelope. Research indicates
Apart from enhancing food security, this facilitates the
that green roofs can help to reduce energy expenses by up to
establishment of new businesses like rooftop farms, organic
25% in temperate areas. High-rise buildings with vertical
produce production, and community-supported agriculture
gardens have a facade covering that blocks solar radiation,
(CSA) initiatives. Additionally, social enterprises can also
take advantage of this opportunity. These programs can help rooftop gardens is becoming more prevalent in sectors such
urban residents earn money while also reducing the costs of as healthcare, education, and hospitality, where user
transporting food and carbon emissions. experience and aesthetics are the primary concerns. The
installation results in more aesthetically pleasing and
6. Social and Health Benefits emotionally engaging constructed spaces.
6.1. Improved Mental Well-Being 6.6. Aid for Urban Resilience and Equity
Better mental health is linked to greater access to greenery Green roofs and vertical gardens are effective in increasing
and natural environments. In dense urban areas where access to green spaces in areas where there is little or no
natural landscapes are few and far between, green roofs and service or population growth. Insufficient green
vertical gardens can be vital pockets of nature. Many studies infrastructure in low-income communities can exacerbate
indicate that seeing or touching vegetation can decrease the health disparities. This disparity can be addressed by
symptoms of stress, anxiety and depression. Creating a sense integrating these systems into public housing, schools, and
of calmness and leisure for urban residents is possible with community centres. Moreover, involving local people in the
green roofs, which include accessible rooftop gardens, design and operation of these green systems can promote
providing psychological benefits. Vertical gardens, which inclusivity and resilience at the community level through
may be inaccessible, provide visual pleasure that can empowerment and sense of ownership.
positively impact mood and emotional health.
7. Addresses the Structural and Technical
6.2. Improved Social Interaction and Community
Requirements
Engagement
The long-term sustainability and safety of green roofs and
Community building can be enhanced through the design of
vertical gardens require careful planning, engineering, and
green roofs, which are conducive to social interaction. The
material selection. The integration of vegetation with
availability of these spaces for gardening, recreation, or
buildings demands a comprehensive understanding of
events allows residents to build and maintain a sense of
structural capacity, waterproofing, drainage methods, and
community. Collaborative activities such as planting days or
plant biology.
harvest festivals are promoted by rooftop community
gardens and vertical farms, which promote the importance 7.1. Structural Load-Bearing Capacity
of collective responsibility and collaboration. These social
relationships are essential in urban areas, where loneliness Prior to installation, it's important to assess whether the
and anonymity can be widespread issues.' building can bear the extra mass of vegetation, soil and
water as well as other structural components.".
6.3. Educational and Awareness Opportunities
i. Green Roofs: In the case of extensive roofs, it is
Schools, colleges, and public institutions utilize vertical common to add 60-150 kg/m2 per structure. The
gardens and green roofs as living laboratories. Practical maximum load that intensive roofs can handle is
learning in botany, ecology, sustainability, and often greater than 300-500 kg/m2.
environmental science is provided by them. The inclusion of ii. Vertical Gardens: Panel systems, water reservoir,
these systems in school curricula can facilitate the growing medium, and mature plant biomass are all
development of students' awareness of environmental issues part of the load. If required, roofs or walls must be
and sustainability practices. Municipal green installations reinforced while engineers carry out load
that are easily accessible can inform people about local assessments.
environmental concerns and promote responsible practices
such as composting, recycling or landscaping. 7.2. Waterproofing and Root Barriers

6.4. Improved indoor air quality and comfort i. A multi-layered protection system is necessary to
prevent water damage and root intrusion.
The use of vertical gardens inside buildings has been proven ii. To be effective, the membrane must be resistant to
to improve indoor air quality by filtering pollutants, root damage, UV-stable, and last.
increasing humidity, and stabilizing temperature iii. Discard roots that may cause damage to roofing or
fluctuations. Plants' absorption of indoor air toxins, wall surfaces.
including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), iv. To prevent damage from plant materials, Plant
formaldehyde, and other pollutants, can lead to healthier Protection Mats are designed to have an additional
living and working conditions. Indoor air quality in layer between the membrane.
commercial office buildings is particularly advantageous as
it has a direct impact on employee health, productivity, and 7.3. Drainage and Irrigation Systems
absented absence rates. Also greenery can reduce eye strain,
fatigue and noise levels indoors, thus easing general Proper water management can help prevent overloading,
physical discomfort. leaks, or plant stress.

6.5. Contribution to Biophilic Design Principles Green Roofs: Use drainage mats, filter fabrics and water-
retention coatings. Allows for the discharge of excess water
Biophilic design promotes the connection between humans but maintains sufficient moisture for plant cultivation.
and nature in architecture, with emphasis on vertical gardens Vertical Gardens: Employ automated irrigation systems,
and green roofs. Evidence suggests that biophilic conditions frequently either drip or hydroponics. The use of drainage
can boost creativity, concentration and cognitive functions. trays is necessary to prevent water from pouring onto walls
Everything. The use of natural features like green walls and or interiors.
7.4. Growing Medium and Soil Composition functionality (traffic, etc.) and contextual significance within
the urban or natural setting.
In contrast to natural groundwater, engineered substrates
must be both compact and well-drained for plant growth. 8.1. Architectural Harmony and Integration
Key Properties: The building's structure, facade, and purpose should be
complemented by green systems.
i. A decrease in bulk density helps to lower structural
load. i. Façade Compatibility: The arrangement of living
ii. Good water retention and drainage. walls should correspond with the placement of
iii. Nutrient-rich and well-aerated. windows, balconies, or architectural features.
Greenery and material finishes (such as wood,
Standard Features: Multifunctional materials such as steel, glass) should complement or contrast each
expanded clay, perlite, compost, sand, and organic matter at other.
diverse levels. ii. Colour and Texture Balance: It is important to take
7.5. Plant Selection Criteria into account the seasonal changes in leaf colour and
texture when designing. Adding colour and colour
Plant species should be chosen based on the site's to plants can create depth and interest.
environmental conditions and maintenance potential.
8.2. Site-Specific Climate Considerations
Green Roofs: Drought-tolerant plants (e.g, sedums, grasses
to succulent) and species with shallow roots. The use of To ensure optimal performance throughout the year, design
shrubs and small trees in intensive systems is feasible. choices must be compatible with local climate conditions.
The Sunlight Availability: Some may require heat-tolerant
and drought resistant species to be placed in walls/roofs that
face south or west. It may be necessary to provide shade for
Vertical Gardens: Sorts that prefer being in the shade or sun, plants that face north. Wind Exposure: To prevent damage
based on their exposure. They are usually fast growing, non- from plants, taller buildings or open roof spaces require
invasive species that do not require much care and are easy windbreaks or low-profile vegetation.
to maintain.
8.3. User Accessibility and Functionality
7.6. Access, Safety, and Maintenance Provisions
If feasible, green roofs can be constructed for agricultural or
Easy accessibility and safety measures are essential for recreational purposes.
regular inspections, maintenance, and success in the long
run. i. Usable Spaces:
 Urban farms can be built as rooftop
Access Requirements: gardens with features such as benches,
pathways, or pergolas.
 Safety rails, ladders and walkways (on roofs)
ii. Safety and Comfort:
 Elevator or ventilation (for high-rise green walls)
 The incorporation of railings, shaded
Maintenance Needs: areas, and nighttime lighting enhances
usability and safety for users.
 Pruning, irrigation system maintenance, iii. Vertical Garden Integration:
fertilization, pest management. All are necessary.  The addition of green walls indoors can
 Routine checks and maintenance of drainage enhance the atmosphere in reception areas,
systems. hallway or lounge environments.
7.7. Wind Uplift protection and fire resistance 8.4. Aesthetic Design in Vertical Gardens
Complying with local safety regulations requires taking into Vertical gardens are an excellent means of creating a unique
account fire and wind resistance. artistic expression and brand identity in both indoor and
outdoor settings. Pattern and Shape Design: Various abstract
i. Fire Resistance:
patterns, logos, or geometric shapes can be created by
 Plant in layers with non-flammable materials and
plants. Modular Systems: The modular vertical panels allow
plants that are able to withstand fires.
designers to experiment with texture, color contrast, and
 Incorporate fire pits in roof structures.
plant orientation. This is a novel concept. Lighting Effects:
LED or solar lighting can enhance a building's landmark
ii. Wind Protection:
status by highlighting vertical greenery at night.
 Edge detailing, plant anchoring, and wind shields
are effective in minimizing the risk of uplift.

8.The Integration of Design Considerations

into Aesthetics
Rather than functional design, green roofs and vertical
gardens aim to create visual harmony, spatial efficiency, and
integration into a building's architecture. Effectiveness in
green infrastructure depends on factors such as appearance,
 EPDM synthetic rubber, and TPO thermoplastic membranes.
A flexible, long-lasting membrane that is compatible with
the building's structure is necessary. Proper installation is
vital to prevent future failures or water leakage.
9.2. Drainage Layers and Water Retention Components
Drainage layers are essential to remove excess water,
preventing waterlogging which can harm plants and
overload the building. Materials used include expanded clay
pellets, gravel, and plastic drainage mats that allow water to
flow freely. Water retention mats or substrates store moisture
Fig 6: Aesthetic Design in Vertical Gardens for use during dry periods, promoting plant survival. Filter
fabrics separate the soil from the drainage layer, preventing
8.5. Integration with Existing Urban Landscape clogging and maintaining system efficiency.
It is important to incorporate green roofs and vertical 9.3. Growing Media and Substrates
gardens into the wider urban design scheme. Contextual
Relevance: The design should be designed to reflect the The growing media is specially engineered soil designed to
character of the surrounding area or community. The be lightweight yet capable of retaining water and nutrients
incorporation of cultural and historical elements can be necessary for plant growth. Composed of lightweight
achieved through plant selection or architectural design. aggregates (like pumice, perlite), organic compost, and
Visibility and Impact: Highly visible green elements such as mineral particles. The depth of the substrate varies
roadside facades, transit hubs and other similar features depending on the type of plants: shallow layers (about 5-15
should be kept especially well maintained and attractive cm) for sedums and grasses, and deeper layers (20-30 cm or
from the outside. Looking out over the taller buildings more) for shrubs or small trees. The substrate must be free
surrounding the roof should provide a constant visual from contaminants and tailored to the climatic and
interest. environmental conditions of the site.

8.6. The concept of sustainability is evident in Design 9.4. Structural Support and Framing
Material and Maintenance
Vertical gardens require strong support structures to hold the
Material selection, water usage, and maintenance planning weight of plants, soil, and water, especially on walls that
must align with sustainability standards. weren't originally designed to carry such loads. Frameworks
are commonly made from steel, aluminium, wood, or
i. Eco-Friendly Materials: The use of non-toxic composite plastics. Systems may use modular panels or tray
finishes, sustainable wood, and recycled plastics. systems that simplify planting, irrigation, and maintenance.
ii. Smart Irrigation: Drip irrigation systems that Proper anchoring ensures stability against wind and seismic
incorporate moisture sensors are utilized to activity.
minimize water consumption.
iii. Low-Maintenance Species: Increased system 9.5. Irrigation Systems
longevity is achieved by reducing upkeep costs
Plants on green roofs and walls need reliable watering
associated with drought-tolerant and disease-
systems that conserve water and adapt to environmental
resistant plants.
conditions. Drip irrigation delivers water directly to roots,
The use of green roofs and vertical gardens has multiple reducing evaporation and waste. Automated irrigation
aesthetic and design elements that enhance the urban visual controllers combined with soil moisture sensors optimize
experience, architectural integrity, and sense of community. watering schedules based on plant needs. Rainwater
harvesting systems may be integrated to supply water
9.Materials and Construction Techniques sustainably, reducing dependence on municipal sources.

To ensure the longevity of green roofs and vertical gardens, 9.6. Plant Installation Techniques
which are made from sustainable materials that can
withstand weather conditions or provide structural support i. The method of planting influences how well the
for years, these living systems require special consideration. vegetation establishes and grows.
The subsequent part describes the fundamental elements and ii. Plants may be installed as pre-grown mats,
approaches required to construct sustainable and enduring individual plugs, or seeds, depending on project
green infrastructure. requirements.
iii. Hydroponic or aeroponic techniques are often used
9.1. Waterproofing and Root-Resistant Membranes in vertical gardens to reduce substrate weight and
enhance nutrient delivery.
The primary layer that is essential to keep the building dry is iv. Adequate spacing and species selection prevent
waterproofing. What is the first step? A waterproof overcrowding and support healthy growth.
membrane is needed beneath the growing media for green
roofs and vertical gardens to ensure their integration of soil 9.7. Maintenance and Longevity Considerations.
& water. Plant roots can penetrate weak membranes, which
means that the membrane must be resistant to root Durability and ease of maintenance are essential for the
penetration and therefore prone to leaks and structural long-term success of green systems. Use UV-resistant
damage. Among the typical materials are bituminous sheets, materials to withstand sun exposure. Design systems for
easy access to membranes, irrigation components, and plants 10.5. Climate Change Mitigation and Carbon
to facilitate inspections and repairs. Sequestration

10: Environmental Benefits Plants in green roofs and vertical gardens are responsible for
storing carbon dioxide (CO2) to aid in climate change
Green roofs and vertical gardens are among the many mitigation. Plant biomass and soil contain atmospheric CO2
environmental benefits that contribute to sustainability, captured by vegetation, which is stored through
biodiversity, and urban ecosystem health. The benefits photosynthesis. Carbon capture is comparatively small in
of urbanization aim to mitigate the negative impacts of individual installations, but when adopted across urban
such urbanisation, including the urban heat island areas, cumulative effects are significant. These green
effect, air pollution, and loss of natural habitats. The systems result in a decrease in cooling energy and also lower
implementation of green infrastructure in city planning indirect CO2 emissions from power plants.
and architecture can only be justified by recognizing 10.6. Noise Reduction and Acoustic Benefits
these environmental benefits.
I. Urban noise pollution is reduced through the
10.1. Urban Heat Island Mitigation implementation of environmentally friendly
infrastructure.
Environmental benefits include the reduction of urban heat
II. Plants and soil act as natural soundproofing agents,
island (UHI) effect through green roofs and vertical gardens.
absorbing and deflecting sound waves.
Sunlight is absorbed by plants, which provides shade and III. The incorporation of green materials in buildings
lowers the temperatures of the surface and air. Through can promote indoor comfort by reducing noise
transpiration, plants release moisture and naturally cool the transmission through their roofs and walls.
air surrounding them. Reduced energy consumption and IV. This advantage is particularly significant in urban
associated emissions can be attributed to green areas with high population density and industrial
infrastructure, which reduces the need for air conditioning noise levels.
by reducing heat accumulation on building surfaces.
11.Economic Benefits and Cost Analysis
10.2. Air Quality Improvement
Beyond their environmental and aesthetic advantages, green
By utilizing vertical gardens and green roofs, urban air roofs and vertical gardens offer substantial economic
quality can be improved by effectively filtering out benefits that justify their initial investment.... Although
pollutants and particulate matter. Plants collect airborne upfront costs may be greater than those of traditional roofing
dust, pollen, and other particulates from their leaves. Their or wall systems, the long-term savings, higher property
absorption consists of gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen values, and other financial benefits make green
oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and ozone (O3). The infrastructure financially viable. In this section, we examine
expansion of green spaces results in an increase in oxygen the economic advantages and costs of these systems.
production through photosynthesis.
11.1. Lower utility expenses and Energy-efficient solutions
10.3. The improvement of stormwater management and
water quality. Green roofs and vertical gardens are among the tangible
economic benefits of reducing energy consumption in
Enhanced rainfall and reduced stormwater runoff through buildings. Natural insulation in green roofs helps to decrease
vegetated roofs and walls are beneficial as they also help to heat loss during winter and increase heat gain during
mitigate flood risks. Reduced runoff volume and rate affect summer. Lower utility bills can be achieved by reducing
drainage system due to green roofs absorbing and holding heating and cooling expenses. This is advantageous.
rainwater. The effect of buffering reduces the risk of urban According to research, green roofs have the potential to
flooding and decreases stress on stormwater infrastructure. reduce air conditioning expenses by as much as 25-30%
during hot weather months, resulting in significant savings.
By introducing pollutants to plants and substrates, rainwater
can be treated to improve the quality of the water before it 11.2. Increased lifespan and lower maintenance expenses
re-abounds natural channels. on rooftop structures

10.4. Biodiversity and Habitat Creation Green roofs shield the roofing materials from UV radiation,
extreme temperatures, and mechanical damage. The
Biodiversity in cities is sustained by the creation of green vegetation layer serves as a barrier around waterproof
roofs and vertical gardens, which also foster habitat for membranes, decreasing thermal stress and deterioration. By
wildlife. The birds, insects (including pollinators), and small doing so, the roof's longevity can be either doubled or triple
animals rely on them for food, shelter, and nesting sites. that of a conventional roof. Lower maintenance and repair
Species can be moved and ecological connections are costs are associated with reduced building management
enhanced through the creation of green corridors or pockets. costs.
Native plants promote local biodiversity and support
ecosystems in their habitat. 11.3. The Rise in Property Value and Appeal
The use of green roofs and vertical gardens enhances the
aesthetic appeal and environmental performance of
buildings, resulting in increased market value. Green-
houses, which have green infrastructure, are often attractive
to either environmentally conscious buyers or tenants who
pay high rents. In the real estate market, green spaces can be
an effective means of promoting a building's sustainability
and making it more attractive to buyers. Research indicates
that property values can go up by 5% to 15% depending on
location and design quality.

11.4. Stormwater Fee Reductions and Incentives

Municipalities frequently offer financial aid, discounts or

rebates on stormwater fees for properties that adopt green
roofs and other sustainable management practices. By
reducing runoff volume and peak flow, green roofs ease the
burden on city drainage systems. In some cities, there are
stormwater credit programs that offer reduced fees based on
the amount of runoff left over. Installation costs can be
partially covered through the use of grants, tax credits, or
subsidies. Fig 7: Advantages of Vertical Gardening

11.5. Job Creation and Economic Stimulus 12.1. Development of Urban Look and Community.

i. Green roofs and vertical gardens are responsible for Vertical gardens and green roofs bring colour to otherwise
creating jobs that help boost local economies. concrete-dominated urban areas. Residents are encouraged
ii. Horticulturalists, landscape architects and green to feel proud of the beautification they have created. Social
roof installers are all required. cohesion can be enhanced by outdoor recreation, which
iii. Continuous maintenance activities lead to the strengthens community connections and promotes greater
creation of jobs. social engagement. Also, there is a correlation between
iv. Green infrastructure industries contribute to the having greenery and experiencing less loneliness and more
innovation and business growth of sustainable happiness in heavily trafficked cities.
building technologies.
12.2. Stress Elimination and Improved Mental Well-being
11.6. First things first: Cost and the period of payback
The scientific evidence suggests that being exposed to
Although it offers substantial economic advantages, one nature and plants can help reduce stress, blood pressure, and
must also take into account the early investment and mood. City dwellers and employees can rest and refresh
payback period. Depending on the size and complexity of themselves with the natural surroundings offered by green
the roof, the installation cost for green roofs is typically 10 roofs and vertical gardens, which provide accessible spaces.
to 20% more expensive than conventional roof designs. The Symptoms of anxiety and depression can be alleviated by
cost of vertical gardens can differ significantly depending on these green installations, which offer a peaceful respite from
the type of system and the types of plants chosen. the bustling city life. Seeing green through windows can
Depending on the location of construction, maintenance also have calming effects.
costs, incentives, energy savings and other factors, payback
time usually ranges from 7 to 15 years. 12.3. Better air quality and respiratory health

Green roofs and vertical gardens filter out pollutants and

12.Social and Health Benefits
particulate matter from the air, improving people's breathing.
Social welfare and public health are greatly enhanced by the The prevalence of respiratory illnesses like asthma,
use of green roofs or vertical gardens, particularly in urban bronchitis, and allergies can be reduced by cleaner air. This
areas with sparse natural green spaces. These installations benefit is especially important for cities, where air pollution
not only enhance the aesthetic appeal of cities but also from vehicles, industry, and other sources can have a
promote community interaction, stress reduction, and significant impact on public health. In addition, plants
improved air quality, all of which contribute to better mental placed on building facades help to temper the air around
and physical health outcomes. them, resulting in healthier indoor environments.

12.4. Temperature Regulation and Thermal Comfort

Urban heat islands are less affected by green infrastructure,

resulting in cooler outdoor environments. City residents can
experience better thermal comfort in cooler conditions,
reducing the likelihood of heat-related illnesses like heat
stroke and dehydration, particularly during heatwaves. This
cooling phenomenon also reduces the reliance on air 41, 863-
conditioning in buildings and indirectly benefits the public 871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.203
health by decreasing energy consumption and associated
atmospheric pollution. 9. Vijayaraghavan, K. (2016). Green roofs: A
critical review on the role of components,
Acknowledgments benefits, limitations, and trends. Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 57, 740-
The authors sincerely acknowledge the contributions of 752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.119
researchers, academicians, and practitioners whose
pioneering work in green roofs and vertical gardens formed 10. Dunnett, N., Kingsbury, N. (2008). Planting
the foundation of this review. green roofs and living walls. Timber
Press. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.46-0466
We appreciate the insights shared by experts in sustainable
architecture, urban ecology, and environmental engineering, 11. Li, W.C., Yeung, K.K.A. (2014). A
whose discussions helped refine the scope of this paper. comprehensive study of green roof
Finally, we thank our colleagues and research team for their performance from an environmental
encouragement and critical feedback during the writing perspective. International Journal of
process. Sustainable Built Environment, 3(1), 127-
134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2014.05.00
References 1

1. Getter, K.L., Rowe, D.B. (2006). The role of 12. Castleton, H.F., et al. (2010). Green roofs;
green roofs in sustainable development. Hort building energy savings and the potential for
Science, 41(5), 1276- retrofit. Energy and Buildings, 42(10), 1582-
1285. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.41.5. 1591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.05
1276 .004

2. Oberndorfer, E., et al. (2007). Green roofs as 13. Speak, A.F., et al. (2013). Urban particulate
urban ecosystems: Ecological structures, pollution reduction by four species of green
functions, and services. Bioscience, 57(10), roof vegetation in a UK city. Atmospheric
823-833. https://doi.org/10.1641/B571005 Environment, 61, 283-
293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.0
3. Blanc, P. (2008). The vertical garden: From 7.043
nature to the city. W.W. Norton &
Company. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.46- 14. Nagase, A., Dunnett, N. (2010). Drought
0466 tolerance in different vegetation types for
extensive green roofs: Effects of watering and
4. Berndtsson, J.C. (2010). Green roof diversity. Landscape and Urban Planning,
performance towards management of runoff 97(4), 318-
water quantity and quality: A review. 327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010
Ecological Engineering, 36(4), 351- .07.005
360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.12.
014 15. Williams, N.S.G., et al. (2010). Green roofs
for a wide brown land: Opportunities and
5. Francis, R.A., Lorimer, J. (2011). Urban barriers for rooftop greening in Australia.
reconciliation ecology: The potential of living Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 9(3), 245-
roofs and walls. Journal of Environmental 251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2010.01.00
Management, 92(6), 1429- 5
1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.0
1.012 16. Wong, N.H., et al. (2003). Life-cycle cost
analysis of rooftop gardens in Singapore.
6. Besir, A.B., Cuce, E. (2018). Green roofs and Building and Environment, 38(3), 499-
facades: A comprehensive review. Renewable 509. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82, 915- 1323(02)00131-2
939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.106
17. Köhler, M. (2006). Long-term vegetation
7. Shafique, M., et al. (2018). Green roof research on two extensive green roofs in
benefits, opportunities, and challenges – A Berlin. Urban Habitats, 4(1), 3-26.
review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 90, 757- 18. VanWoert, N.D., et al. (2005). Green roof
773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.006 stormwater retention: Effects of roof surface,
slope, and media depth. Journal of
8. Manso, M., Castro-Gomes, J. (2015). Green Environmental Quality, 34(3), 1036-
wall systems: A review of their characteristics. 1044. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2004.0364
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
19. Lundholm, J.T. (2015). Green roof plant 29. Tee musk, A., Mander, Ü. (2007). Rainwater
species diversity improves ecosystem runoff quantity and quality performance from
multifunctionality. Journal of Applied Ecology, a greenroom: The effects of short-term events.
52(3), 726-734. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365- Ecological Engineering, 30(3), 271-
2664.12425 277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2007.01.
009
20. Razzaghmanesh, M., et al. (2014). The
growth and survival of plants in urban green 30. Rowe, D.B. (2011). Green roofs as a means of
roofs in a dry climate. Science of the Total pollution abatement. Environmental Pollution,
Environment, 476-477, 288- 159(8-9), 2100-
297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.0 2110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.10.
1.014 029

21. Dvorak, B., Volder, A. (2010). Green roof

31. Wilkinson, S. J., & Dixon, T. (2016). Green
vegetation for North American ecoregions: A
Roof Retrofit: Building Urban Resilience. John
literature review. Lan escape and Urban Wiley & Sons.
Planning, 96(4), 197- 32. Douglas, A. N. J., Morgan, A. L., Rogers, E. I.
213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010 E., Riga, P. J., & Torpy, F. R. (2021).
.04.009 Evaluating and comparing the green wall
retrofit suitability across major Australian
22. Coma, J., et al. (2017). Vertical greenery cities. Journal of Environmental Management,
systems for energy savings in buildings: A 298, 113417.
comparative study between green walls and https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113417
green facades. Building and Environment, 111, 33. Convertino, F., Vox, G., & Schettini, E.
228-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.201 (2021). Evaluation of the cooling effect
6.11.014 provided by a green façade as nature-based
system for buildings. Building and
23. Pérez, G., et al. (2014). Vertical greenery Environment, 203, 108099.
systems (VGS) for energy saving in buildings: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108099
A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy 34. Matheson, S., Fleck, R., & Riga, P. J. (2023).
Reviews, 39, 139- Phytoremediation for the indoor environment:
165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.055 A state-of-the-art review. Reviews in
Environmental Science and Bio/Technology,
24. Otello, M., et al. (2011). Comparative life 22, 249–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-
cycle analysis for green façades and living 023-09644-5
wall systems. Energy and Buildings, 43(12), 35. Ysebaert, T., Koch, K., Samson, R., & Denys,
3419-3429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2 S. (2021). Green walls for mitigating urban
011.09.010 particulate matter pollution—A review. Urban
Forestry & Urban Greening, 59, 127014.
25. Hunter, A.M., et al. (2014). Quantifying the https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127014
thermal performance of green façades: A 36. Feitosa, R. C., & Wilkinson, S. J. (2020).
critical review. Ecological Engineering, 63, Small-scale experiments of seasonal heat stress
102-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.201 attenuation through a combination of green
3.12.021 roof and green walls. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 250, 119443.
26. Chen, Q., et al. (2020). A review of energy- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119443
saving mechanisms of green roofs and green 37. Paull, N., Krix, D., Torpy, F., & Riga, P.
walls. Energy and Buildings, 226, (2020). Can green walls reduce outdoor
110381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020. ambient particulate matter, noise pollution and
110381 temperature? International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health,
27. Perini, K., et al. (2013). Vertical greening 17(14), 5084.
systems and the effect on air flow and https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145084
temperature on the building envelope. Building 38. Jim, C. Y., & Peng, L. H. (2012). Weather
and Environment, 58, 1- effects on thermal and energy performance of
an extensive tropical green roof. Urban
9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.06.0
Forestry & Urban Greening, 11(1), 73–85.
16
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2011.10.001
28. Cameron, R.W.F., et al. (2014). The domestic 39. Tam, V. W. Y., Wang, J., & Lea, K. N. (2016).
garden – Its contribution to urban green Thermal insulation and cost effectiveness of
green-roof systems: An empirical study in
infrastructure. Urban Forestry & Urban
Hong Kong. Building and Environment, 110,
Greening, 13(3), 481-
46–54.
485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.04.00 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.09.032
1
40. Ng, E., Chen, L., Wang, Y., & Yuan, C. 52. Cristiano, E., Deidra, R., & Viola, F. (2021).
(2012). A study on the cooling effects of The role of green roofs in urban Water-
greening in a high-density city: An experience Energy-Food-Ecosystem nexus: A review.
from Hong Kong. Building and Environment, Science of the Total Environment, 756,
47, 256–271. 143876.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.07.014 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.14387
41. Castleton, H. F., Stovin, V., Beck, S. B. M., & 6
Davison, J. B. (2010). Green roofs; building 53. Jim, C. Y. (2004). Green-space preservation
energy savings and the potential for retrofit. and allocation for sustainable greening of
Energy and Buildings, 42(10), 1582–1591. compact cities. Cities, 21(4), 311–320.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.05.004 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2004.04.004
42. Theodosiou, T. G. (2003). Summer period 54. Francis, R. A., & Lorimer, J. (2011). Urban
analysis of the performance of a planted roof reconciliation ecology: The potential of living
as a passive cooling technique. Energy and roofs and walls. Journal of Environmental
Buildings, 35(9), 909–917. Management, 92(6), 1429–1437.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(03)00023- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.01.012
9 55. Cater, T., & Jackson, C. R. (2007). Vegetated
43. Fioretti, R., Palla, A., Lanza, L. G., & Principi, roofs for stormwater management at multiple
P. (2010). Green roof energy and water-related spatial scales. Landscape and Urban Planning,
performance in the Mediterranean climate. 80(1–2), 84–94.
Building and Environment, 45(8), 1890–1904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.06.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.03.001 005
44. Sosnowiec, D., Ragusans, P., & Wrobel, R. 56. Coma, J., et al. (2017). Vertical greenery
(2019). The potential of roofs in city centres to systems for energy savings in buildings: A
be used for photovoltaic micro-installations. comparative study between green walls and
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and green facades. Building and Environment,
Engineering, 564(1), 012128. 111, 228-
https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/564/1/0121 237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2016.11
28 .014
45. Coma, J., Perez, G., Solé, C., Castell, A., & 57. Pérez, G., et al. (2014). Vertical greenery
Cabeza, L. F. (2016). Thermal assessment of systems (VGS) for energy saving in buildings:
extensive green roofs as passive tool for A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
energy savings in buildings. Renewable Reviews, 39, 139-
Energy, 85, 1106–1115. 165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.055
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.07.074 58. Otello, M., et al. (2011). Comparative life
46. Silva, C. M., Gomes, G. M., & Silva, M. cycle analysis for green façades and living
(2016). Green roofs energy performance in wall systems. Energy and Buildings, 43(12),
Mediterranean climate. Energy and Buildings, 3419-3429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2
116, 318–325. 011.09.010
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.01.012 59. Hunter, A.M., et al. (2014). Quantifying the
47. Multani, G., & Todeschi, V. (2021). Roof- thermal performance of green façades: A
integrated green technologies, energy saving critical review. Ecological Engineering, 63,
and outdoor thermal comfort: Insights from a 102-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.201
case study in urban environment. International 3.12.021
Journal of Sustainable Development and 60. Chen, Q., et al. (2020). A review of energy-
Planning, 16(1), 13–23. saving mechanisms of green roofs and green
https://doi.org/10.18280/ijsdp.160102 walls. Energy and Buildings, 226,
48. Brenneisen, S. (2006). Space for urban 110381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.
wildlife: Designing green roofs as habitats in 110381
Switzerland. Urban Habitats, 4(1), 27–36. 61. Perini, K., et al. (2013). Vertical greening
49. Williams, N. S. G., Lundholm, J., & MacIvor, systems and the effect on air flow and
J. S. (2014). Forum: Do green roofs help urban temperature on the building envelope. Building
biodiversity conservation? Journal of Applied and Environment, 58, 1-
Ecology, 51(6), 1643–1649. 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.06.0
https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12333 16
50. Gonsalves, S., Starry, O., Sallies, A., & 62. Cameron, R.W.F., et al. (2014). The domestic
Brenneisen, S. (2022). The effect of urban garden – Its contribution to urban green
green roof design on beetle biodiversity. infrastructure. Urban Forestry & Urban
Urban Ecosystems, 25(1), 205–219. Greening, 13(3), 481-
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-021-01145-z 485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.04.00
51. Wooster, E. I. F., Fleck, R., Torpy, F., Ramp, 1
D., & Riga, P. J. (2022). Urban green roofs 63. Tee musk, A., Mander, Ü. (2007). Rainwater
promote metropolitan biodiversity: A runoff quantity and quality performance from
comparative case study. Building and a greenroom: The effects of short-term events.
Environment, 207, 108458. Ecological Engineering, 30(3), 271-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108458
 277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2007.01. 74. Perini, K., et al. (2013). Vertical greening
009 systems and the effect on air flow and
64. Rowe, D.B. (2011). Green roofs as a means of temperature on the building envelope. Building
pollution abatement. Environmental Pollution, and Environment, 58, 1-
159(8-9), 2100- 9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.06.0
2110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.10. 16
029
65. VanWoert, N.D., et al. (2005). Green roof 75. Cameron, R.W.F., et al. (2014). The domestic
stormwater retention: Effects of roof surface, garden – Its contribution to urban green
slope, and media depth. Journal of infrastructure. Urban Forestry & Urban
Environmental Quality, 34(3), 1036- Greening, 13(3), 481-
1044. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2004.0364 485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2014.04.00
1
66. Lundholm, J.T. (2015). Green roof plant
species diversity improves ecosystem 76. Tee musk, A., Mander, Ü. (2007). Rainwater
multifunctionality. Journal of Applied Ecology, runoff quantity and quality performance from
52(3), 726-734. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365- a greenroom: The effects of short-term events.
2664.12425 Ecological Engineering, 30(3), 271-
277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2007.01.
67. Razzaghmanesh, M., et al. (2014). The
009
growth and survival of plants in urban green
roofs in a dry climate. Science of the Total 77. Rowe, D.B. (2011). Green roofs as a means of
Environment, 476-477, 288- pollution abatement. Environmental Pollution,
297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.0 159(8-9), 2100-
1.014 2110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.10.
029
68. Dvorak, B., Volder, A. (2010). Green roof
vegetation for North American ecoregions: A
literature review. Landscape and Urban 78. Wilkinson, S. J., & Dixon, T. (2016). Green
Roof Retrofit: Building Urban Resilience. John
Planning, 96(4), 197-
Wiley & Sons.
213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010
79. Douglas, A. N. J., Morgan, A. L., Rogers, E. I.
.04.009 E., Riga, P. J., & Torpy, F. R. (2021).
69. Coma, J., et al. (2017). Vertical greenery Evaluating and comparing the green wall
retrofit suitability across major Australian
systems for energy savings in buildings: A
cities. Journal of Environmental Management,
comparative study between green walls and
298, 113417.
green facades. Building and Environment, 111, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113417
228-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.201 80. Convertino, F., Vox, G., & Schettini, E.
6.11.014 (2021). Evaluation of the cooling effect
provided by a green façade as nature-based
70. Pérez, G., et al. (2014). Vertical greenery
system for buildings. Building and
systems (VGS) for energy saving in buildings: Environment, 203, 108099.
A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108099
Reviews, 39, 139-
165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.055

71. Otello, M., et al. (2011). Comparative life

cycle analysis for green façades and living
wall systems. Energy and Buildings, 43(12),
3419-3429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2
011.09.010

72. Hunter, A.M., et al. (2014). Quantifying the

thermal performance of green façades: A
critical review. Ecological Engineering, 63,
102-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.201
3.12.021

73. Chen, Q., et al. (2020). A review of energy-

saving mechanisms of green roofs and green
walls. Energy and Buildings, 226,
110381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.
110381