Proofs to know off-by-heart

1) Derivative of sin 𝑥 from first principles

2) Derivative of cos 𝑥 from first principles
3) Derivative of 𝑎 𝑥
4) Derivative of 𝑎𝑘𝑥
5) Sum of arithmetic series
6) Sum of geometric series
7) Proof by contradiction that √2 is irrational
8) Proof by contradiction that there are infinite primes
9) Geometric proof of compound angle formulae
sin⁡(𝐴 ± 𝐵), cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) , tan(𝐴 ± 𝐵)

Other useful derivations/proofs

10) Proof that diagonals in a parallelogram bisect each other
11) Proof that diagonals in a cuboid bisect each other
12) Proof by contradiction that (eg log 2 3) is irrational
13) Proof of area of sector and arc length (in radians)
14) Derivations of double-angle formulae

15) Derivations of identities for sin(3𝑥) and cos(3𝑥)

16) Derivative of polynomial from first principles

17) Proof that 1 + tan2 𝑥 ≡ sec 2 𝑥 and 1 + cot 2 𝑥 ≡ cosec 2 𝑥

18) Linearisation of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏

19) Proof of sum to infinity of geometric series

20) Proof of equation of motion (projectiles)
1) Prove, from first principles, that the
derivative of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 is 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin(𝑥+ℎ)−sin(𝑥 )
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin(𝑥 ) cos(ℎ)+cos(𝑥 ) sin(ℎ)−sin(𝑥 )
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos ℎ−1 sin ℎ
= lim (( ) sin 𝑥 + ( ) cos 𝑥)
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ

= (0) sin 𝑥 + (1) cos 𝑥

= cos 𝑥
𝑑
∴ 𝑑𝑥 (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
ℎ2
cos ℎ−1 1− −1 ℎ2
2
As ℎ → 0, ≈ =− = −ℎ → 0
ℎ ℎ ℎ
sin ℎ ℎ
As ℎ → 0, ≈ℎ=1
ℎ
2) Prove, from first principles, that the
derivative of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 is −𝒔𝒊𝒏⁡𝜽
𝑓(𝜃 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠⁡𝜃
′( cos(𝜃+ℎ)−cos 𝜃
𝑓 𝜃 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝜃 cos ℎ−sin 𝜃 sin ℎ−cos 𝜃
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

cos ℎ−1 sin ℎ

= lim (( ℎ
) cos 𝜃 − ( ℎ
) sin 𝜃)
ℎ→0

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= (0) cos 𝜃 − (1) sin 𝜃

= − sin 𝜃
𝑑
∴ 𝑑𝜃 (cos 𝜃 ) = − sin 𝜃
ℎ2
cos ℎ−1 1− 2 −1 ℎ2
As ℎ → 0, ≈ =− = −ℎ → 0
ℎ ℎ ℎ
sin ℎ ℎ
As ℎ → 0, ℎ
≈ℎ=1
3) Prove that the derivative of 𝒂𝒙 is 𝒂𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒂
Let 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎
ln 𝑦 = (ln 𝑎)𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦
= ln 𝑎
𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= (ln 𝑎 )𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= (ln 𝑎 )𝑎 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
∴ (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

Alternative
𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 = 𝑒 (ln 𝑎)𝑥
𝑑 (ln 𝑎 )𝑥
(𝑒 )
𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 (ln 𝑎)𝑥 (ln 𝑎)

𝑥
= 𝑒 ln 𝑎 (ln 𝑎)
= 𝑎 𝑥 (ln 𝑎)
𝑑
∴ (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
4) Prove that the derivative of 𝒂𝒌𝒙 is 𝒂𝒌𝒙 (𝒌 𝐥𝐧 𝒂)
Let 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑘𝑥
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎𝑘𝑥
ln 𝑦 = (𝑘𝑥 ) ln 𝑎
ln 𝑦 = (𝑘 ln 𝑎)𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑘 ln 𝑎
𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= (𝑘 ln 𝑎)𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= (𝑘 ln 𝑎)𝑎𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑘𝑥 )
∴ (𝑎 = 𝑎𝑘𝑥 (𝑘 ln 𝑎)
𝑑𝑥

Alternative
𝑘𝑥
𝑎𝑘𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 ln 𝑎 = 𝑒 (𝑘 ln 𝑎)𝑥
𝑑 (𝑘 ln 𝑎 )𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(𝑒 )

= 𝑒 (𝑘 ln 𝑎)𝑥 (𝑘 ln 𝑎)
𝑘𝑥
= 𝑒 ln 𝑎 (𝑘 ln 𝑎)
= 𝑎𝑘𝑥 (𝑘 ln 𝑎)
𝑑 𝑘𝑥 )
∴ (𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 (𝑘 ln 𝑎)
𝑑𝑥
5) The nth term of an arithmetic sequence is
𝒖𝒏 = 𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅, where 𝒂 is the first term
and 𝒅 is the common difference.
Prove that the sum of 𝒏 terms of an
arithmetic series is given by the formula
𝒏
𝑺𝒏 = [𝟐𝒂 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒅]
𝟐
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑 ) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + ⋯ + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
+
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑) + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 3)𝑑) + ⋯ + 𝑎
2𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) + (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑) + ⋯ + (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)

Each pair of terms sums to (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑).

eg: (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + (𝑎 + (𝑛 − 3)𝑑)
= 𝑎 + 2𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑛𝑑 − 3𝑑
= 2𝑎 + 𝑛𝑑 − 𝑑
= 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

There are 𝑛 pairs of 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛[2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
𝑛
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2
6) The nth term of a geometric sequence is
𝒖𝒏 = 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏, where 𝒂 is the first term and 𝒓 is
the common ratio.
Prove that the sum of 𝒏 terms of geometric
series is given by the formula
𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 =
𝟏−𝒓

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
−
𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛

𝑆𝑛 − 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛

𝑆𝑛 (1 − 𝑟) = 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )

𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
∴ 𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
7) Prove that √𝟐 is irrational
NB: This proof can be adapted for √3, √5⁡𝑒𝑡𝑐 and
3 3
√2, √5 etc. following a similar method

Assume √2 is rational
𝑎
Let √2 = 𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 have no common factors
other than 1 (are coprime)
𝑎2
2=
𝑏2

2𝑏 2 = 𝑎2
∴ 𝑎2 even, so 𝑎 is even. Let 𝑎 = 2𝑘.
2𝑏 2 = (2𝑘 )2
2𝑏 2 = 4𝑘 2
𝑏 2 = 2𝑘 2
∴ 𝑏 2 even, so 𝑏 is even.
𝑎 and 𝑏 share a factor of 2.
This contradicts the assumption that 𝑎 and 𝑏 have
no common factors (are coprime).
∴ √2 is an irrational number.
8) Prove that there are infinitely many primes
Assume there is a finite list of primes 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … 𝑝𝑛
Let 𝐴 = 𝑝1 × 𝑝2 × 𝑝3 × … × 𝑝𝑛 + 1
If we divide 𝐴 by any of 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … 𝑝𝑛 the remainder is always 1.
∴ 𝐴 is not divisible by any of the primes in our list.
∴ 𝐴 must itself be prime, or its prime factorisation contains prime
numbers not in our original list.
This contradicts the assumption that 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , … 𝑝𝑛 contained the
list of all prime numbers
∴ There are infinitely many primes.

9) Geometric proof of compound angle formulae

𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡(𝑨 ± 𝑩), 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 ± 𝑩) , 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝑨 ± 𝑩)
This is best studied by watching the video from TL Maths here and
then applying it to the diagram below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KaxRZkO0aPY&t=331s
10) Proof that diagonals in a parallelogram
bisect each other
OABC is a parallelogram. P is the point where the diagonals OB and
AC intersect.

The vectors 𝒂⁡and 𝒄 are equal to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ respectively.

𝑂𝐴⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝑂𝐶
Prove that the diagonals bisect each other.

If the diagonals bisect each other, then P must be the midpoint of

OB and the midpoint of AC.
From the diagram,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐵 = 𝒄⁡+ 𝒂

And ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑂 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⁡ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐶 = −𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐶 ⁡⁡= −𝒂 + 𝒄

P lies on OB ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 ⁡⁡= 𝜆(𝒄⁡ + ⁡𝒂)

P lies on AC ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 ⁡⁡= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 + ⁡ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝑃 ⁡⁡= 𝒂 + 𝜇(−𝒂⁡ + ⁡𝒄)
⇒ ⁡𝜆(𝒄⁡ + ⁡𝒂)⁡= 𝒂 + 𝜇(−𝒂⁡ + ⁡𝒄)
⇒⁡ 𝜆 = 1 − 𝜇⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝜆 = 𝜇⁡
1
⇒⁡ 𝜆 = ⁡𝜇 = ⁡ 2, so P is the midpoint of both diagonals, so the
diagonals bisect each other.
11) Proof that diagonals in a cuboid bisect
each other
The diagram shows a cuboid whose vertices are 𝑂, 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹
and 𝐺.
Vectors 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄 are the position vectors of the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵 and
𝐶 respectively.
Prove that the diagonals 𝑂𝐸 and 𝐵𝐺 bisect each other.

Suppose there is a point of intersection 𝐻 of 𝑂𝐸 and 𝐵𝐺.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐻 = 𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐸 for some scalar 𝑟
= 𝑟 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
But ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐻 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐻 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐻 = 𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐻 for some scalar 𝑠.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
So⁡𝑂𝐻 𝑂𝐵 + 𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐺
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝑏 + 𝑠(𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐)
⇒ 𝑟 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑏 + 𝑠 (𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
⇒ 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑏 + 𝑟𝑐 = 𝑠𝑎 + (1 − 𝑠)𝑏 + 𝑠𝑐
Comparing coefficients, 𝑟 = 𝑠 and 𝑟 = 1 − 𝑠
1
⇒ 2𝑟 = 1 ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑠 =
2
⇒ lines bisect each other.
12) Prove that 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝟑 is irrational
NB: This proof can be adapted for any log 𝑎 𝑏 where
𝑎 and 𝑏 are coprime following a similar method

Assume log 2 3 is rational

𝑎
log 2 3 = 𝑏 where 𝑎, 𝑏 coprime (no common factors other than 1)
𝑎
3=2 𝑏

𝑎 𝑏
(𝑏 )
3𝑏 = 2
3𝑏 = 2𝑎
The left-hand side is divisible by 3 and the right-hand side is not (it is
divisible by 2 (even))
This contradicts the assumption that log 2 3 is rational.
∴ log 2 3 is irrational
13) i) Prove that the area of a sector, in
radians, where 𝜽 is the angle subtended at
𝟏 𝟐
the centre, is equal to 𝟐 𝒓 𝜽
𝜃
Area of sector OAB = × 𝜋𝑟 2
360°
𝜃
= 2𝜋 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝜃
= 2 × 𝑟2
1 2
= 𝑟 𝜃
2

13 ii) Prove that the arc length, in radians,

where 𝜽 is the angle subtended at the
centre, is equal to 𝒓𝜽
𝜃
Arc length AB = 360° × 2𝜋𝑟
𝜃
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 2𝜋 × 2𝜋𝑟
=𝜃×𝑟
= 𝑟𝜃
14) Derivations of double-angle formulae
NB: All rely on use of compound angle formulae, in the formula booklet

Prove that 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 ≡ 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙

sin(2𝑥) ≡ sin(𝑥 + 𝑥)⁡
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

Prove that 𝐜𝐨 𝐬 𝟐𝒙 ≡ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟏
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ 𝟏 − 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙

cos(2𝑥 ) ≡ cos(𝑥 + 𝑥 )
≡ cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
≡ cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥

Using sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 ≡ 1

≡ cos 2 𝑥 − (1 − cos 2 𝑥 ) ≡ (1 − sin2 𝑥 ) − sin2 𝑥
≡ cos 2 𝑥 − 1 + cos 2 𝑥 ≡ 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥
≡ 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1
⁡
15 i) Show that 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝑨) = 𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 − 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑 𝑨
𝐿𝐻𝑆 ≡ sin(3𝐴)
≡ sin(2𝐴 + 𝐴)
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ sin 2𝐴 cos 𝐴 + cos 2𝐴 sin 𝐴
≡ 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 cos 𝐴 + (1 − 2 sin2 𝐴) sin 𝐴
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ 2 sin 𝐴 (1 − sin2 𝐴) + (1 − 2 sin2 𝐴) sin 𝐴
≡ 2 sin 𝐴 − 2 sin3 𝐴 + sin 𝐴 − 2 sin3 𝐴
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ 3 sin 𝐴 − 4 sin3 𝐴 ≡ 𝑅𝐻𝑆
∴ sin(3𝐴) = 3 sin 𝐴 − 4 sin3 𝐴

15 ii) Show that 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟑𝑨) = 𝟒 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝑨 − 𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑨

𝐿𝐻𝑆 ≡ cos(3𝐴)
≡ cos(2𝐴 + 𝐴)
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ cos 2𝐴 cos 𝐴 − sin 2𝐴 sin 𝐴
≡ (2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1) cos 𝐴 − (2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴) sin 𝐴
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ 2 cos 3 𝐴 − cos 𝐴 − 2 sin2 𝐴 cos 𝐴
≡ 2 cos 3 𝐴 − cos 𝐴 − 2 cos 𝐴 (1 − cos 2 𝐴)
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ 2 cos 3 𝐴 − cos 𝐴 − 2 cos 𝐴 + 2 cos 3 𝐴
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡≡ 4 cos 3 𝐴 − 3 cos 𝐴 ≡ 𝑅𝐻𝑆
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝐴) = 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝐴 − 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
16) Derivative of polynomial from first principles
NB: Polynomial to differentiate will be cubic or lower in order (no quartics)

Prove from first principles that the derivative of 𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐 is 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝟑

𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
5(𝑥+ℎ)2 −3(𝑥+ℎ)+2−(5𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

5𝑥 2 +10𝑥ℎ+5ℎ2 −3𝑥−3ℎ+2−5𝑥 2 +3𝑥−2

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

10𝑥ℎ−3ℎ+5ℎ2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(10𝑥−3+5ℎ)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim(10𝑥 − 3 + 5ℎ)
ℎ→0

= 10𝑥 − 3
[As ℎ → 0, 5ℎ → 0]
𝑑
∴ 𝑑𝑥 (5𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2) = 10𝑥 − 3

Prove from first principles that the derivative of 𝟓𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏 is

𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟐
𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1
5(𝑥+ℎ)3 −3(𝑥+ℎ)2 +2(𝑥+ℎ)−1−(5𝑥 3 −3𝑥 2+2𝑥−1)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

5𝑥 3 +15𝑥 2 ℎ+15𝑥ℎ2 +5ℎ3 −3𝑥 2−6𝑥ℎ−3ℎ2 +2𝑥+2ℎ−1−5𝑥 2 +3𝑥 2−2𝑥+1

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

15𝑥 2 ℎ+15𝑥ℎ2 +5ℎ3 −6𝑥ℎ−3ℎ2 +2ℎ

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

ℎ(15𝑥 2 +15𝑥ℎ+5ℎ2 −6𝑥−3ℎ+2)

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

= lim(15𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 + 15𝑥ℎ + 5ℎ2 − 3ℎ)

ℎ→0

= 15𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2
[As ℎ → 0, 15𝑥ℎ → 0, 5ℎ2 → 0, −3ℎ → 0]
17 i) Prove that 𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒙 ≡ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 ≡ 1
cos2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 1
+ cos2 𝑥 ≡ cos2 𝑥
cos2 𝑥

∴ 1 + tan2 𝑥 ≡ sec 2 𝑥

17 ii) Prove that 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒙 ≡ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙

sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 ≡ 1
sin2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 1
+ sin2 𝑥 ≡ sin2 𝑥
sin2 𝑥

∴ 1 + cot 2 𝑥 ≡ 𝑐𝑜sec 2 𝑥
18 i) Show that 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒃𝒙 can be rearranged to
the form 𝒍𝒐𝒈⁡𝒚 = (𝒍𝒐𝒈⁡𝒃)𝒙 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈⁡𝒂
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑥
log 𝑦 = log(𝑎𝑏 𝑥 )
log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + log(𝑏 𝑥 )
log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + 𝑥 log 𝑏
log 𝑦 = (log 𝑏)𝑥 + log 𝑎

18 ii) Show that 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙𝒃 can be rearranged to

the form 𝒍𝒐𝒈⁡𝒚 = 𝒃⁡𝒍𝒐𝒈⁡𝒙 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈⁡𝒂

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑏
log 𝑦 = log(𝑎𝑥 𝑏 )
log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + log(𝑥 𝑏 )
log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + 𝑏 log 𝑥
log 𝑦 = 𝑏 log 𝑥 + log 𝑎
19) A geometric series has first term 𝒂 and
common ratio 𝒓. The sum of 𝒏 terms is
𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 =
𝟏−𝒓
Prove that for |𝒓| < 𝟏, the sum to infinity is
𝒂
𝑺∞ =
𝟏−𝒓

|𝑟| < 1 for geometric series to be convergent

As 𝑛 → ∞, 𝑟 𝑛 → 0 for |𝑟| < 1

𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆∞ = lim ( ) when |𝑟| < 1
𝑛→∞ 1−𝑟
𝑎(1−0)
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= 1−𝑟
𝑎
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡=
1−𝑟
20) A particle is projected from a point with speed 𝑼 at an angle
of elevation 𝜶 and moves freely under gravity. When the particle
has moved a horizontal distance 𝒙, its height above the point of
projection is 𝒚.
𝒈𝒙𝟐
Show that 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 − 𝟐𝒖𝟐 (𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜶)
Horizontal: Acceleration = 0
Distance = speed x time. ∴ 𝑥 = 𝑈 cos 𝛼 × 𝑡
𝑥
∴𝑡= ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡
𝑈 cos 𝛼
Vertical: Acceleration ≠ 0
Taking upwards as positive
𝑠=𝑦
𝑢 = 𝑈 sin 𝛼
𝑣=
𝑎 = −𝑔
𝑥
𝑡 = 𝑈 cos 𝛼 (from horizontal equation)

1
Using 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2

𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑈 sin 𝛼 (𝑈 cos 𝛼) + 2 (−𝑔) (𝑈 cos 𝛼)

𝑈 sin 𝛼 𝑔 𝑥2
= 𝑥 (𝑈 cos 𝛼 ) − 2 (𝑈2 cos2 𝛼)
𝑔𝑥 2 1
⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝑥 tan 𝛼 − 2𝑈2 × cos2 𝛼
𝑔𝑥 2
⁡⁡⁡⁡= 𝑥 tan 𝛼 − (sec 2 𝛼)
2𝑈 2

𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝛼 − 2𝑈2 (1 + tan2 𝛼)