Chapter – 3 (Load and Stress Analysis)

Equilibrium and Free-Body Diagrams

For equilibrium, the forces and moments acting on the system balance such that

∑ F=0
∑ M =0
Example –1: Compute the magnitude and direction of all forces acting on each member.

Shear Force and Bending Moments in Beams

Example–2: For the beam shown, find the reactions at the supports and plot the shear-force and bending
moment diagrams.
Stress

Normal stress (σ) → Tensile stress (Positive)

Compressive stress (Negative)

Shear stress (τ) → In tangential direction

General three-dimensional stress

 Stresses applied at an element of dimension dx, dy and dz

Plane stress

 A very common state of stress occurs when the stresses on one surface are zero.
 Assuming that the normal for the stress-free surface is the z direction such that σz = τzx = τzy = 0.
 It is important to note that the element in above Figure is still a three-dimensional cube.
 Also, here it is assumed that the cross-shears are equal such that τyx = τxy, and τyz = τzy = τxz = τzx = 0.
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

 Suppose the dx dy dz element is cut by an oblique plane with a normal n at an arbitrary angle φ
counterclockwise from the x axis as shown in Figure.

∑ F n=0 ⇒

∑ F t =0 ⇒
 These two equations are called the plane-stress transformation equations.
 Differentiating the equation for normal stress (σ) with respect to φ and setting the result equal to zero
maximizes σ and gives

 This equation defines two particular values for the angle 2φp, which defines Principal Stresses.
 Maximum normal stress (σ1)
 Minimum normal stress (σ2)

 The angle between the two principal directions is 90°.

 The perpendicular surfaces containing principal stresses have zero shear stresses.

 Again, differentiating the equation for shear stress (τ) with respect to φ and setting the result equal to
zero maximizes τ and gives
 This equation defines two particular values for the angle 2φs, at which the shear stress (τ) reaches an
extreme value of (±τ).

 The angle between the two surfaces containing the maximum shear stresses is 90°.

Mohr’s Circle Diagram

Example-3

For the plane stress states below, draw a Mohr’s circle diagram properly labeled, find the principal normal
and shear stresses, and determine the angle from the x axis to σ1.

σx = 9MPa

σy = −6MPa

τxy = 3MPa cw
General Three-Dimensional Stress

The process in finding the three principal stresses from the six stress components σx, σy, σz, τxy, τyz, and τzx
involves finding the roots of the cubic equation

 In plotting Mohr’s circles for three-dimensional stress, the principal normal stresses are ordered so
that σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3.
 This Figure also shows the three principal shear stresses τ1/2, τ2/3, and τ1/3.

Elastic Strain

 Hooke’s law for the tensile specimen is given by σ=Eε

where the constant E is called Young’s modulus or the modulus of elasticity.

 When a material is placed in tension, there exists not only an axial strain, but also negative strain
(contraction) perpendicular to the axial strain.
 Assuming a linear, homogeneous, isotropic material, this lateral strain is proportional to the axial
strain.
 If the axial direction is x, then the lateral strains are εy = εz = − ν εx .
 The constant of proportionality ν is called Poisson’s ratio, which is about 0.3 for most structural
metals.
 If the axial stress is in the x direction, then

 For a stress element undergoing σx , σy , and σz simultaneously,

 Hooke’s law for shear is given by τ = G γ

 It can be shown for a linear, isotropic, homogeneous material,

the three elastic constants are related to each other by E = 2G (1+ ν) .
Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

Straight beam in positive bending. Bending stresses

 The bending stress varies linearly with the distance from the neutral axis, y, and is given by

I is the second-area moment about the z axis and

I=∫ y 2 dA
where
Mc M
σ max = =
 Maximum magnitude of the bending stress at y = c, I Z

where, Z = I/c = the section modulus.

Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending

The transverse shear stress is

where
 Transverse shear stresses in a rectangular beam.

Torsion

A bar subjected to a twisted moment is said to be in torsion.

The angle of twist, in radians, for a solid round bar is

where T = torque

l = length

G = modulus of rigidity

J = polar second moment of area

 Shear stresses develop throughout the cross section. For a round bar in torsion, these stresses are
proportional to the radius ρ and are given by
For a solid round section,

For a hollow round section,

The maximum shearing stress in a rectangular b × c section bar occurs in the middle of the longest side b
and is of the magnitude

where b is the width (longer side) and c is the thickness (shorter side). They can not be interchanged. The
parameter α is a factor that is a function of the ratio b/c as shown in the following table.5 The angle of twist
is given by

The equation for Power is

Stress Concentration

 Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the neighborhood of the discontinuity
so that the elementary stress equations no longer describe the state of stress in the part at these locations.
 Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the regions in which they occur are called areas of
stress concentration.
 Stress concentrations can also arise from some irregularity not inherent in the member, such as tool
marks, holes, notches, grooves, or threads.

Example-4

For the beam shown, determine (a) the maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses, (b) the
maximum shear stress due to V, and (c) the maximum shear stress in the beam.
Example-5

The 2-mm-thick bar shown in Fig. 3–30 is loaded axially with a constant force of 10 kN. The bar material
has been heat treated and quenched to raise its strength, but as a consequence it has lost most of its ductility.
It is desired to drill a hole through the center of the 40-mm face of the plate to allow a cable to pass through
it. A 4-mm hole is sufficient for the cable to fit, but an 8-mm drill is readily available. Will a crack be more
likely to initiate at the larger hole, the smaller hole, or at the fillet?

Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders

The tangential and radial stresses are

For the special case of po = 0

The longitudinal stress is

Thin-Walled Vessels

 When the wall thickness of a cylindrical pressure vessel is about one-tenth, or less, of its radius, the
radial stress that results from pressurizing the vessel is quite small compared with the tangential stress.

The tangential stress or the hoop stress is

The longitudinal stress is

Example-6

A pressure cylinder has an outer diameter do= 6 in, wall thickness t = 0.25 in and maximum allowable shear
stress τmax = 10 kpsi In the table given, determine the internal pressure Pi .

Stresses in Rotating Rings

 Many rotating elements, such as flywheels and blowers, can be simplified to a rotating ring to determine
the stresses.
 The tangential and radial stresses so found are subject to the following restrictions: