UNIT-1 EVS

I. Basic Ideas and Concepts of Environment:

• Environment: Sum total of all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components and their
interactions that surround and influence an organism or a population.
• Basic Concepts:
o Ecosystem: A functional unit of the environment comprising biotic communities
interacting with their abiotic surroundings.
o Biotic Factors: Living components (plants, animals, microorganisms).
o Abiotic Factors: Non-living components (air, water, soil, sunlight, temperature).
o Carrying Capacity: The maximum population size that an environment can
sustainably support given available resources.
o Homeostasis: The tendency of an ecosystem to maintain a state of dynamic
equilibrium.
o Interdependence: The reliance of different components of the environment on each
other.
II. Man, Society & Environment: Their Interrelationship:
• Human Impact: Human activities poses significant pressure on the environment.
• Resource Utilization: Society relies on environmental resources for survival and
development.
• Waste Generation: Human activities produce waste that can pollute the environment.
• Environmental Degradation: Human actions can lead to the deterioration of
environmental quality.
• Societal Factors: Population growth, consumption patterns, technological advancements,
economic systems, and cultural values influence environmental impact.
III. Mathematics of Population Growth and Associated Problems:
• Population Growth Models:
o Exponential Growth: Population increases at a constant rate, resulting in a J-shaped
curve (occurs under ideal conditions with unlimited resources). Formula: dN/dt=rN,
where N is population size, t is time, and r is the intrinsic rate of increase.
o Logistic Growth: Population growth slows down as it approaches the carrying
capacity (K), resulting in an S-shaped curve. Formula: dN/dt=rN(1−N/K).
• Associated Problems:
o Resource Depletion: Overpopulation can strain the availability of essential resources
like water, food, and energy.
 o Environmental Pollution: Increased waste generation and resource extraction
contribute to air, water, and land pollution.
o Social and Economic Strain: Increased competition for resources, poverty, and
social unrest.
IV. Importance of Population Study in Environmental Engineering:
• Resource Management: Understanding population size and growth patterns is crucial for
planning and managing water supply, waste treatment, and infrastructure.
• Environmental Impact Assessment: Population data helps in predicting the potential
environmental consequences of development projects.
• Public Health Planning: Population density and distribution are important factors in
assessing and managing public health risks.
• Urban Planning: Population projections are essential for designing sustainable cities and
managing urban sprawl.
V. Definition of Resource and Types of Resource:
• Resource: Any substance, organism, or energy form from the environment that is utilized
by humans.
• Types of Resource:
o Renewable Resources: Resources that can be replenished naturally over a relatively
short period (e.g., solar energy, wind energy, forests .
o Non-Renewable Resources: Resources that exist in finite quantities and cannot be
replenished at a rate comparable to their consumption .e.g., fossil fuels .
o Potentially Renewable Resources: Resources that are naturally replenished but can
become non-renewable if used unsustainably .
VI. Effect of Excessive Use Vis-à-vis Population Growth:
• Increased Demand: Higher population leads to increased demand for all types of
resources.
• Overexploitation: Excessive consumption can deplete renewable resources faster than their
regeneration rate, making them behave like non-renewable resources.
• Resource Scarcity: Unsustainable use can lead to shortages of critical resources, impacting
human well-being and economic stability.
• Environmental Degradation: Over-extraction and consumption often result in pollution,
habitat destruction, and loss of biodiversity.
VII. Sustainable Development:
• Definition: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland Commission, 1987).
• Key Principles:
 o Environmental Sustainability: Protecting and conserving natural resources and
ecosystems.
o Economic Sustainability: Promoting economic growth in an environmentally sound
and socially equitable manner.
o Social Equity: Ensuring fair distribution of resources and opportunities.
• Goals: Integrating environmental, economic, and social considerations in decision-making
to achieve long-term well-being.
VIII. Materials Balance:
• Concept: The principle of conservation of mass applied to environmental systems. "What
goes in must come out" (as accumulation, outflow, or transformation).
• Steady State Conservation System: Input rate equals output rate; no net accumulation of
the substance within the system.
o Input=Output
• Steady State System with Non-Conservative Pollutants: Input rate equals output rate
plus the rate of reaction/decay/transformation of the pollutant within the system.
o Input=Output+Reaction
• Step Function: A sudden change in the input rate of a substance into a system. Analyzing
the system's response to a step input helps understand its dynamics and potential for
accumulation.
IX. Environmental Degradation:
• Definition: Damage to the environment through resource depletion (air, water, soil),
ecosystem destruction, habitat loss, wildlife extinction, and pollution.
• Flood: Heavy rain/snowmelt causes overflow, leading to damage and displacement.
Control: Dams, drainage, land-use planning, early warning.
• Earthquake: Tectonic plate movement causes shaking, damage, and potential tsunamis.
Control: Resistant buildings, land-use, preparedness.
• Landslide: Slope instability due to rain, deforestation, etc., causing mass movement.
Control: Stabilization, reforestation, regulations.
• Acid Rain: SO₂/NOx emissions from burning fossil fuels form acids in the atmosphere,
harming ecosystems and structures. Control: Emission reduction (cleaner fuels, scrubbers,
efficiency, renewables).

X. Nature and Scope of Environmental Science and Engineering (Brief):

• Nature: Interdisciplinary field studying environmental interactions and problems using
science and engineering principles.
 • Scope:
o Understanding environmental processes and human impacts.
o Identifying and assessing pollution, resource depletion, climate change, etc.
o Developing solutions for pollution control, waste management, and resource
conservation.
o Monitoring environmental quality.
o Environmental Engineering Focus: Water/wastewater treatment, air pollution
control, waste management, remediation, impact assessment, sustainable design.

UNIT-2
Elements of Ecology:
• System: A set of interacting components forming a unified whole, exchanging energy
and/or matter with its surroundings.
• Open System: Exchanges both energy and matter with its surroundings.
• Closed System: Exchanges only energy, not matter, with its surroundings.
• Ecology (Definition): The scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their
environment, including both biotic and abiotic components.
• Species: A group of organisms that can interbreed naturally and produce fertile offspring.
• Population: A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular area and
interacting with each other.
• Community: An assemblage of different populations of different species living and
interacting in a particular area.
• Ecosystem (Definition): A functional unit of the environment consisting of a community of
living organisms interacting with their physical environment.
• Components:
o Abiotic: Non-living factors (sunlight, temperature, water, soil).
o Biotic: Living organisms (producers, consumers, decomposers).
• Types: Natural (forest, grassland) and Artificial (cropland, urban).
• Function: Energy flow, nutrient cycling, ecological succession, species interactions.

Structure and Function of Specific Ecosystems (5 Marks)

Different ecosystems exhibit unique structures and functions based on their dominant
organisms and environmental conditions:
1. Forest Ecosystem:
(1) Structure: Dominated by tall trees forming distinct vertical layers, high species
diversity, complex food webs.
 (2) Function: High primary productivity (photosynthesis by trees), crucial for carbon
absorption and oxygen production, provides diverse habitats, prevent soil erosion
(ক্ষয়).
2. Grassland Ecosystem:
i) Structure: Dominated by grasses and herbs plants, fewer trees.
ii) Function: Primary productivity supports large grazing(চারণ) animal populations,
important for soil formation and nutrient cycling.
3. Desert Ecosystem:
(1) Structure: Sparse vegetation adapted to arid conditions (succulents, shrubs with
reduced leaves), animals with adaptations for water conservation, low biodiversity.
(2) Function: Low primary productivity due to water scarcity, specialized adaptations
for survival, nutrient cycling often slow, plays a role in regional climate.
4. Aquatic Ecosystems :
i) Structure: Varies greatly (lakes, rivers, oceans, coral reefs), defined by salinity, light
penetration, and water flow. Diverse organisms adapted to aquatic life (plankton, fish,
etc.).
ii) Function: Primary productivity by phytoplankton and aquatic plants, supports complex
food webs, crucial for global nutrient cycles, influences climate (especially oceans).
5. Mangrove Ecosystem :
i) Structure: Salt-tolerant mangrove trees with specialized roots, high biodiversity,
nursery grounds for many marine species.
ii) Function: High primary productivity, protects coastlines from erosion and storms and
pollutants, provides critical habitat for diverse flora and fauna .

Food Chain and Food Web:

• Food Chain (Definition): A linear sequence of organisms through which energy and
nutrients are transferred, starting from a producer (plant) and moving through different
levels of consumers .
o Grazing (চারণ) Food Chain (Example): Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake
→ Hawk
o Detritus Food Chain (Example): Dead leaves → Earthworm → Robin → Fox
• Food Web: A complex network of interconnected food chains within an ecosystem,
showing the multiple feeding relationships between different organisms. Provides a more
realistic representation of energy flow.

Biogeochemical Cycles:
• Definition: The cyclic movement of chemical elements or compounds through the biotic
and abiotic components of an ecosystem. Essential for the availability of nutrients required
for life.
• Significance: Ensure the continuous supply of essential elements for growth, development,
and maintenance of living organisms. Link the living and non-living parts of the
environment.
Flow Chart with Elementary Reactions:
• Oxygen Cycle:
o Photosynthesis: CO₂ + H₂O → Glucose + O₂ (Producers release O₂)
o Atmospheric O₂ ⇌ O₃ (Ozone) in stratosphere.
• Carbon Cycle:
o Photosynthesis: Atmosphere CO₂ taken up by producers.
o Decomposition: Organic carbon broken down, releasing CO₂ or other carbon
compounds.
o Combustion: Burning of organic matter releases CO₂.
• Nitrogen Cycle:
o Nitrification: Conversion of ammonia (NH₃) to nitrite (NO₂⁻) and then to nitrate
(NO₃⁻) by nitrifying bacteria.
o Ammonification: Decomposition of organic nitrogen compounds into ammonia.
o Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates (NO₃⁻) back to atmospheric N₂ by
denitrifying bacteria under anaerobic conditions.
• Phosphorus Cycle:
o Weathering of rocks releases phosphate into soil and water.
o Uptake by plants and incorporation into organic molecules.
o Decomposition returns phosphates to soil and water.
• Sulphur Cycle:
o Uptake by plants.
o Decomposition releases sulfur compounds.
o Volcanic emissions release sulfur dioxide.
o Industrial emissions contribute sulfur oxides to the atmosphere (acid rain).

Biodiversity:
• Types of Biodiversity:
o Genetic Diversity: Variation in genes within a species.
o Species Diversity: Variety of different species in a given area.
o Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of different ecosystems in a region.
• Importance of Biodiversity:
o Ecosystem Stability: More diverse ecosystems are generally more resilient to
disturbances.
o Resource Provision: Source of food, medicines, fuel, and other essential resources.
 o Ecosystem Services: Pollination, water purification, climate regulation, nutrient
cycling.
• Endemic Species: Species that are found exclusively in a specific geographic area and
nowhere else. Often highly vulnerable to extinction.
• Biodiversity Hot-spot: Regions with high levels of endemic species and a significant loss
of habitat. Prioritized for conservation efforts.

Threats to Biodiversity:
• Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Destruction and division of natural habitats due to
human activities (deforestation, urbanization.
• Pollution: Contamination of air, water, and soil with harmful substances.
• Climate Change: Alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns affecting species
distribution and survival.

Conservation of Biodiversity:
• Habitat Conservation: Protecting species within their natural habitats.
• Artificial Conservation: Protecting species outside their natural habitats (e.g., zoos,
botanical gardens).
• Sustainable Use of Resources: Utilizing biological resources in a way that does not lead to
their long-term decline.
• Restoration Ecology: Efforts to restore degraded ecosystems.
• Legislation and Policy: Implementing laws and regulations to protect endangered species
and habitats.
• International Cooperation: Collaborative efforts between nations to address global
biodiversity loss.

UNIT-3
. Atmospheric Composition (1L):
• Troposphere: Lowest layer (0-10/15 km), contains most weather, temperature decreases
with altitude.
• Stratosphere: Above troposphere (10/15-50 km), contains ozone layer, temperature
increases with altitude.
• Mesosphere: Above stratosphere (50-85 km), temperature decreases with altitude, coldest
layer.
• Thermosphere: Above mesosphere (85+ km), temperature increases with altitude due to
absorption of high-energy radiation. Includes ionosphere.
• Tropopause: Boundary between troposphere and stratosphere, temperature minimum.
• Mesopause: Boundary between mesosphere and thermosphere, temperature minimum.
Energy Balance :
• Heat Transfer:
o Conduction: Heat transfer through direct molecular contact.
o Convection: Heat transfer through the movement of fluids (air, water).
o Radiation: Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves (e.g., solar radiation).
• Simple Global Temperature Model:
o Earth as a Black Body: Absorbs all incident radiation and emits radiation based on
its temperature (σT4, where σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant, T is temperature).
o Earth as Albedo: Fraction of incoming solar radiation reflected back to space (α).
Effective absorbed radiation = (1−α)×Incoming Solar Radiation.
• Problems: Simple calculations involving black body radiation and albedo to estimate
Earth's temperature.

Greenhouse Effects :
• Definition: The warming of Earth's surface and lower atmosphere due to the absorption and
re-emission of infrared radiation by greenhouse gases.
• Impact of Greenhouse Gases:
o Global Climate: Increased global average temperatures, altered precipitation
patterns, more extreme weather events.
o Sea Water Level: Thermal expansion of water and melting of glaciers/ice sheets lead
to sea level rise.
o Agriculture: Changes in temperature and precipitation affect crop yields and water
availability.
o Marine Food: Ocean acidification (due to increased CO₂ absorption) impacts marine
organisms with shells and skeletons.
• Global Warming and its Consequence: Long-term increase in Earth's average surface
temperature leading to widespread environmental and societal impacts.
• Control of Global Warming: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions through renewable
energy, energy efficiency, carbon capture, afforestation, international agreements.
• Earth’s Heat Budget: The balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing
terrestrial radiation. Greenhouse gases disrupt this balance by trapping outgoing radiation.

Lapse Rate :
• Ambient Lapse Rate (ALR): The actual rate of temperature decrease with altitude in the
atmosphere at a given time and location (highly variable).
• Adiabatic Lapse Rate: The rate of temperature change of an air parcel as it rises or sinks
due to expansion or compression, assuming no heat exchange with the surroundings.
 • Atmospheric Stability: Determined by comparing ALR with DALR/SALR.
• Temperature Inversion (Radiation Inversion): Temperature increases with altitude in a
specific layer. Radiation inversion occurs at night when the ground cools rapidly by
emitting infrared radiation, cooling the air layer directly above it, while higher air layers
remain warmer.

Atmospheric Dispersion (2L):

• Maximum Mixing Depth (MMD): The maximum vertical distance available for pollutant
mixing in the lower atmosphere, often limited by a stable layer or temperature inversion.
• Ventilation Coefficient: A measure of the atmosphere's ability to dilute and disperse
pollutants, calculated as the product of the average wind speed and the mixing depth (VC =
wind speed × MMD). Higher VC indicates better dispersion.
• Effective Stack Height (He): The height to which a plume of pollutant effectively rises
above the physical stack height (Hs), considering plume rise (Δh) due to buoyancy and
momentum: He=Hs+Δh.
• Smokestack Plumes and Gaussian Plume Model:
o Smokestack Plumes: The visible or modeled path of pollutants emitted from a stack,
influenced by atmospheric stability and wind conditions (e.g., looping, coning,
fanning, fumigation, lofting).
o Gaussian Plume Model: A mathematical model used to estimate the concentration
of pollutants downwind from a continuous point source (like a smokestack),
assuming a Gaussian (normal) distribution of pollutant concentration in both the
horizontal and vertical directions. The model considers factors like emission rate,
wind speed, stack height, atmospheric stability, and dispersion coefficients.

Pollutants and Contaminants :

• Pollutants: Substances introduced into the environment that have harmful or undesirable
effects.
• Contaminants: Substances present in the environment that are not naturally occurring or
are present at elevated levels, but may not necessarily cause immediate harm. All pollutants
are contaminants, but not all contaminants are pollutants.
• Primary Pollutants: Emitted directly from a source (e.g., SO₂, NOx, CO, particulate
matter).
• Secondary Pollutants: Formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions between
primary pollutants and other atmospheric constituents (e.g., ozone (O₃) in photochemical
smog, PAN, acid rain components).
• Emission Standard: Legal limits on the amount of pollutants that can be released from a
specific source.
• Criteria Pollutant (in US EPA context): Common air pollutants for which national
ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) have been established to protect public health and
 welfare (Particulate Matter, Ozone, Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide,
Lead).
• Sources and Effects of Different Air Pollutants:
o Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): Combustion, industrial processes, dust.
Respiratory problems, visibility reduction.
o Oxides of Carbon (CO, CO₂): Incomplete combustion (CO - toxic, reduces oxygen
carrying capacity of blood), complete combustion, respiration (CO₂ - greenhouse gas,
climate change).
o Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx): High-temperature combustion (vehicles, power plants).
Respiratory irritation, acid rain, smog formation.
o Oxides of Sulphur (SOx): Burning of sulfur-containing fuels, industrial processes.
Respiratory problems, acid rain, damage to vegetation.
o Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Evaporation of fuels, solvents, industrial
processes. Smog formation, some are carcinogenic.
o Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN): Secondary pollutant formed from NOx, VOCs, and
sunlight. Eye and respiratory irritant, damages vegetation.

Smog and Ozone Depletion :

• Smog: General term for air pollution that reduces visibility.
• Photochemical Smog (Los Angeles Smog): Occurs in warm, sunny, and dry conditions
with high concentrations of NOx and VOCs. Sunlight drives reactions forming ozone, PAN,
and other oxidants.
• London Smog (Classical Smog/Industrial Smog): Occurs in cool, humid conditions with
high concentrations of smoke (particulate matter), SO₂, and fog. Chemically reducing in
nature.
• Depletion of Ozone Layer: Reduction in the concentration of ozone (O₃) in the
stratosphere, particularly over the polar regions.
• CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons): Synthetic organic compounds formerly used as refrigerants
and aerosol propellants. Very stable in the troposphere but break down in the stratosphere,
releasing chlorine atoms that catalytically destroy ozone.
• Destruction of Ozone Layer by CFCs: Chlorine radical (Cl•) reacts with ozone (O₃) to
form chlorine monoxide (ClO•) and molecular oxygen (O₂). ClO• then reacts with another
ozone molecule or atomic oxygen (O•) to regenerate Cl•, leading to a chain reaction where
one CFC molecule can destroy many ozone molecules.
• Impact of Other Greenhouse Gases: While CFCs are potent ozone-depleting substances,
some other greenhouse gases (e.g., nitrous oxide) can also contribute to ozone depletion.
• Effect of Ozone Modification: Increased penetration of harmful ultraviolet (UV-B)
radiation to the Earth's surface, leading to increased skin cancer, cataracts, immune system
suppression, and damage to plants and marine life.
Standards and Control Measures :
• Industrial, Commercial, and Residential Air Quality Standards: Legal limits on the
concentration of specific pollutants in ambient air, designed to protect public health and
welfare. These standards vary by country and region.
• Control Measures: Technologies and strategies used to reduce air pollutant emissions from
various sources.
o Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP): Uses electric fields to remove particulate matter
from exhaust gases.
o Cyclone Separator: Uses centrifugal force to separate larger particulate matter from
gas streams.
o Bag House Filter (Fabric Filter): Uses fabric bags to filter particulate matter from
exhaust gases.
o Catalytic Converter: Used in vehicles to convert harmful pollutants (CO, NOx,
VOCs) into less harmful substances (CO₂, N₂, H₂O) using catalysts.
o Scrubber (Venturi Scrubber): Uses liquid sprays to remove particulate matter and
gaseous pollutants from exhaust streams through impaction and absorption.
• Statement with Brief Reference: Briefly describe the principle of operation and
application of each control measure.

UNIT-4
Hydrosphere, Hydrological Cycle, and Natural Water :
• Hydrosphere: All the water on Earth, including oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, groundwater, ice
caps, glaciers, and water vapor in the atmosphere.
• Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle): The continuous movement of water on, above, and
below the surface of the Earth. Key processes include evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff.
• Natural Water: Water found in the environment, typically containing dissolved substances
(minerals, gases) and sometimes suspended particles. Quality varies depending on the
source and geological surroundings.

Pollutants of Water, Their Origin and Effects (2L):

• Oxygen Demanding Wastes (Organic Matter):
o Origin: industrial wastewater, agricultural runoff.
o Effects: Microbial decomposition uses up oxygen (DO). This lack of DO leads to
low oxygen (hypoxia) or no oxygen (anoxia) conditions, which can kill fish and other
aquatic life and cause bad smells.
• Pathogens (Disease-causing Microorganisms):
o Origin: Sewage that contains human and animal waste..
 o Effects: Waterborne diseases (typhoid, cholera), raising significant health risks.
• Nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorus):
o Origin: Sewage, fertilizers, detergents.
o Effects: excessive algal growth, leading to oxygen depletion, reduced light
penetration.
• Salts (Increased Salinity):
o Origin: Natural mineral deposits, irrigation return flow, industrial discharges.
o Effects: Harmful to freshwater organisms, can make water unsuitable for drinking
and irrigation.
• Thermal Application (Heat):
o Origin: Discharge of cooling water from power plants and industrial facilities.
o Effects: Thermal shock, reduced DO in warmer water.
• Heavy Metals (e.g., Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, Arsenic, Chromium):
o Origin: Industrial discharges, burning of fossil fuels.
o Effects: Toxic to aquatic life and humans, can cause neurological damage, kidney
problems, cancer.
• Pesticides (Insecticides, Herbicides, Fungicides):
o Origin: Agricultural runoff, industrial applications, domestic use.
o Effects: Toxic to aquatic organisms, potential human health risks .
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) (e.g., Benzene, Toluene, TCE):
o Origin: Industrial discharges, leaks from underground storage tanks, solvents, fuel
spills.
o Effects: Toxic to aquatic life and humans, can contaminate groundwater.

River/Lake/Groundwater Pollution (2L):

• River Pollution:
o DO (Dissolved Oxygen): The amount of oxygen dissolved in water, essential for
aquatic life. Depleted by oxygen-demanding wastes.
o 5-day BOD Test (Biochemical Oxygen Demand): Measures the amount of oxygen
consumed by microorganisms during the biodegradation of organic matter in a water
sample over 5 days at 20°C. Indicator of organic pollution.
o Seeded BOD Test: Used when the sample lacks sufficient microorganisms for
biodegradation. Microorganisms are added ("seeded").
o BOD Reaction Rate Constants (k): Describe the rate at which organic matter is
biodegraded. Influenced by temperature and microbial population.
 o Effect of Oxygen Demanding Wastes on River:
(a) Deoxygenation: Consumption of DO by microorganisms breaking down organic
pollutants, creating an oxygen sag curve downstream from the pollution source.
(b) Reaeration: Replenishment of DO from the atmosphere at the water surface. Rate
depends on water turbulence, surface area, and oxygen deficit.
o COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand): Measures the total amount of oxygen required to
chemically oxidize all organic and inorganic compounds in a water sample. COD value is
usually higher than BOD.
• Oil and Greases: Origin from spills, industrial discharges, urban runoff. Form surface
films, reduce DO, toxic to aquatic life, aesthetic problems.
• pH: Measure of acidity or alkalinity. Industrial discharges can alter pH, harming aquatic
organisms.

o Lake Pollution:
• Eutrophication (Definition): Nutrient enrichment of a water body, leading to excessive
algal growth .
• Eutrophication (Source): Runoff from agricultural fertilizers, sewage discharge,
detergents.
• Eutrophication (Effect): Algal blooms block sunlight, leading to death of submerged
plants. Decomposition of dead algae consumes DO, causing hypoxia/anoxia and fish kills.
Can also lead to the production of toxins by some algae.

o Groundwater Pollution:
• Aquifers: Underground layers of permeable rock or sediment that hold groundwater.
• Hydraulic Gradient (Definition only): The change in groundwater head (pressure) over a
given distance, driving groundwater flow.
• Groundwater Flow (Definition only): The movement of water through aquifers, driven by
the hydraulic gradient from areas of high head to areas of low head.

Standard and Control :

• Wastewater Standard: Permissible limits for various pollutants in treated wastewater
before discharge into the environment (e.g., BOD, COD, Oil & Grease, pH, heavy metals).
Standards vary based on the receiving water body and intended use.
• Water Treatment System: Processes used to remove impurities from raw water to make it
potable (suitable for drinking).
o Filtration: Passing the clarified water through layers of sand, gravel, or other porous
media to remove remaining suspended solids and microorganisms.
o Disinfection: Killing or inactivating pathogenic microorganisms using chlorine,
ozone, UV radiation, or other disinfectants.
o Softening: Processes to remove hardness-causing minerals.
 • Wastewater Treatment System: Processes used to remove pollutants from domestic and
industrial wastewater before discharge or reuse.
o Primary Treatment: Physical processes to remove large solids and settleable
organic matter (e.g., screening, grit removal, sedimentation). Reduces BOD and
suspended solids.
o Secondary Treatment: Biological processes to further remove biodegradable
organic matter and nutrients.
▪ Trickling Filters: Wastewater is sprayed over a bed of media (rocks, plastic)
covered with a microbial biofilm that degrades organic pollutants.
▪ Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC): Rotating discs covered with a
microbial biofilm are alternately exposed to wastewater and air, facilitating
organic matter removal.
▪ Activated Sludge: Wastewater is mixed with a microbial suspension in an
aeration tank, where microorganisms consume organic pollutants. The sludge
is then settled out.
▪ Sludge Treatment: Processing of the solid waste removed during wastewater
treatment.
▪ Oxidation Ponds (Lagoons): Large, shallow ponds where sunlight, algae, and
bacteria work together to stabilize organic wastes.
o Tertiary Treatment (Definition): Advanced treatment processes to remove specific
pollutants not effectively removed by secondary treatment (e.g., nutrients, heavy
metals, persistent organic compounds). Examples include nutrient removal (nitrogen
and phosphorus), advanced filtration, and disinfection.

Water Pollution Due to Toxic Elements and Their Biochemical Effects

(1L):
• Lead (Pb): Origin from lead pipes, industrial discharges, leaded gasoline.
▪ Effects: Neurotoxin, affects brain development in children, kidney damage,
cardiovascular problems.
• Mercury (Hg): Origin from industrial discharges, burning of fossil fuels.
▪ Effects: Neurotoxin, bioaccumulates in aquatic food chains (methylmercury), affects
brain, kidneys, and developing fetus.
• Cadmium (Cd): Origin from industrial discharges, fertilizers.
▪ Effects: Toxic to kidneys and bones, carcinogenic.
• Arsenic (As): Origin from natural geological sources, mining, industrial processes.
▪ Effects: Carcinogenic, skin lesions, cardiovascular disease, neurological problems.
These heavy metals can interfere with various biochemical processes in organisms, often
by binding to proteins and enzymes, disrupting their function.
 UNIT-5
Lithosphere :
• Internal Structure of Earth:
o Crust: Outermost solid layer (oceanic and continental).
o Mantle: Thick, mostly solid layer beneath the crust.
o Core: Innermost part, divided into liquid outer core and solid inner core.
• Rock: Naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals. Three main types:
• Soil: Uppermost layer of the Earth's crust, a mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and
air, capable of supporting plant life. Formed by weathering of rocks and decomposition of
organic matter.
II. Solid Waste :
• Types of Solid Waste:
o Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Household waste, commercial and institutional
waste.
o Industrial Solid Waste: Waste from manufacturing and industrial processes.
o Commercial Solid Waste: Waste from businesses.
o Agricultural Solid Waste: Waste from farming.
o Domestic Solid Waste: Waste generated from households.
o Pathological Waste (Biomedical Waste): Waste from healthcare facilities.
o Hazardous Solid Waste: Waste with properties that make it dangerous or potentially
harmful to human health or the environment.
• Recovery and Disposal Methods:
o Open Dumping: Uncontrolled disposal of waste on land, leading to environmental
and health problems.
o Landfilling: Engineered disposal of waste in designated areas, with measures to
contain leachate and landfill gas.
o Incineration: Burning of waste at high temperatures to reduce volume and
potentially generate energy.
o Composting: Biological decomposition of organic waste into a nutrient-rich soil
amendment.
o Recycling: Processing waste materials into new products, conserving resources.
• Solid Waste Management and Control:
o Municipal Solid Waste Management: Integrated strategies including waste
reduction, reuse, recycling, collection, transfer, and final disposal.
o Hazardous Waste Management: Strict regulations for generation, storage,
transportation, treatment, and disposal to minimize risks. Includes identification,
labeling, and tracking.
o Biomedical Waste Management: Specific rules for segregation, collection,
treatment, and disposal to prevent infections and environmental contamination (e.g.,
autoclaving, incineration).