Kandemir et al.

Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Energy Informatics

https://doi.org/10.1186/s42162-024-00373-9

REVIEW Open Access

Predictive digital twin for wind energy

systems: a literature review
Ege Kandemir1*, Agus Hasan1, Trond Kvamsdal2 and Saleh Abdel‑Afou Alaliyat1

*Correspondence:
ege.kandemir@ntnu.no Abstract
1
Department of ICT and Natural In recent years, there has been growing interest in digital twin technology
Sciences, Norwegian University in both industry and academia. This versatile technology has found applications
of Science and Technology, across various industries. Wind energy systems are particularly suitable for digital twin
Ålesund, Norway
2
Department of Mathematical platforms due to the integration of multiple subsystems. This study aims to explore
Sciences, Norwegian University the current state of predictive digital twin platforms for wind energy systems by sur‑
of Science and Technology, veying literature from the past five years, identifying challenges and limitations,
Trondheim, Norway
and addressing future research opportunities. This review is structured around four
main research questions. It examines commonly employed methodologies, includ‑
ing physics-based modeling, data-driven approaches, and hybrid modeling. Addition‑
ally, it explores the integration of data from various sources such as IoT sensors, histori‑
cal databases, and external application programming interfaces. The review also delves
into key features and technologies behind real-time systems, including communica‑
tion networks, edge computing, and cloud computing. Finally, it addresses current
challenges in predictive digital twin platforms. Addressing these research questions
enables the development of hybrid modeling strategies with data fusion algorithms,
which allow for interpretable predictive digital twin platforms in real time. Filter meth‑
ods with dimensionality reduction algorithms minimize the computational resource
demand in real-time operating algorithms. Moreover, advancements in high-band‑
width communication networks facilitate efficient data transmission between physical
assets and digital twins with reduced latency.
Keywords: Wind energy systems, Predictive digital twin, Digital twin enabling
technologies, Digital twin literature review, Wind energy literature review, Trends in
predictive digital twin

Introduction
As the world shifts towards renewable and sustainable energy sources, wind turbines
play a crucial role in this global change. Wind energy offers a promising new frontier in
meeting the growing need for sustainable energy by utilizing the vast potential of wind
resources in diverse environments. On the other hand, the installation and operation of
wind farms pose challenges that demand innovative solutions to improve overall perfor-
mance, reliability, and efficiency. In this context, predictive digital twins have attracted
attention as an innovative technology with the potential to fundamentally alter the wind
energy market. Digital twins, which are virtual replicas of physical assets or systems,

© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits
use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third
party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the mate‑
rial. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or
exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://​
creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 2 of 36

allow real time monitoring, simulation, and predictive analysis. The application of pre-
dictive digital twins, especially in wind farms, offers valuable insights into the behavior
and performance of systems, enhancing proactive decision-making, energy forecasting,
and competence in the energy market.

Motivation and objective

The motivation behind of this literature review lies in the fact that, while there are sev-
eral reviews on digital twins, this study specifically focuses on predictive digital twins
within the context of wind energy systems-a perspective that has not been previously
explored. Conducting a review of predictive digital twins for wind farms is essential due
to the critical necessity of addressing the inherent challenges in this dynamic and volatile
environment. Some main challenges with wind farms are diverse and severe conditions,
including variable wind patterns, complex environment interaction, and difficulties in
data collection. These factors can impact the structural integrity, energy yield, and over-
all operational efficiency of wind turbines. Predictive digital twins have the potential to
transform the way wind farms are monitored and managed. By integrating advanced
data analytics, machine learning algorithms, statistical and probabilistic methods, and
real time sensor data, these digital assets can predict potential issues before they esca-
late. This approach helps optimize performance and contributes to the reliability and
cost-effectiveness of wind energy projects.
This review aims to comprehensively explore the current state of predictive digital
twins for wind farms. The key objectives include:

• Surveying existing literature Providing a thorough overview of existing studies,

research, and implementations related to predictive digital twins in the context of
wind energy.
• Assessing current methods Evaluating the advancements in predictive modeling, data
analytics, and machine learning techniques applied to wind farm operations. Inves-
tigating how predictive digital twins contribute to enhancing the performance, reli-
ability, and energy yield of wind farms.
• Identifying challenges and limitations Identifying and critically analyzing the chal-
lenges, limitations, and gaps in current research and applications of predictive digital
twins in the wind industry.
• Proposing future directions Proposing potential directions for future research,
emphasizing areas that necessitate exploration to enhance the capabilities of predic-
tive digital twins in the realm of wind energy.

This review aims to consolidate and synthesize the existing knowledge, providing valua-
ble insights for researchers and stakeholders who are involved in advancing wind energy
through the application of predictive digital twin technologies.

Problem definition and contribution

Predictive digital twins within the realm of wind energy systems have attracted sig-
nificant attention in recent decades. The creation of predictive digital twin platforms
has been made possible by real time data, simulation models, and advanced analytical
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 3 of 36

methods. This technology not only allows stakeholders to forecast potential issues but
also enhances informed decision-making and performance optimization. Despite the
growing investment in this field, there remains a need for a comprehensive understand-
ing of the current state of research and development in predictive digital twin appli-
cations specific to wind energy systems. The main challenge lies in the lack of solid
knowledge regarding key challenges and advancements, along with a gap in the literature
related to predictive digital twins in wind energy systems. As the field is rapidly evolving,
there is a risk of inconsistency and limited transferability of findings across different sys-
tems and industries. Additionally, the effectiveness of predictive digital twins in enhanc-
ing the overall performance and reliability of wind energy systems remains unclear, given
the data provided by several independent sources. The integration and analysis of vari-
ous data still pose prominent issues. To address these challenges, a literature review is
necessary to comprehend existing knowledge, identify trends, and provide a foundation
for future research.
This paper contributes to the understanding and development of digital twin tech-
nology within wind energy systems through a comprehensive literature review. A sys-
tematic approach is used in the review, beginning with the formulation of the research
question and establishment of the review protocol. Relevant studies are then searched in
the selected databases using the defined query strings. By conducting a literature survey
from the past five years, this study presents key trends and advancements in predictive
digital twin platforms. The analysis identifies current challenges and limitations, while
also discussing commonly employed methodologies, with a focus on enhancing digital
twin systems. Furthermore, future research opportunities are outlined to lay a founda-
tion for ongoing advancements in this field. This review seeks to offer valuable insights
and practical guidance for academics, industry professionals, or technology developers
working on digital twin technology in the wind energy sector.

Background information
A digital twin is a representation of a physical system created through digital informa-
tion. This digital counterpart serves as a duplicate of the information embedded in the
physical system and remains interconnected with it throughout the lifecycle. The origins
of the Digital Twin concept can be traced back to a 2002 University of Michigan presen-
tation aimed at establishing a Product Lifecycle Management. Figure 1 provides a visual
depiction of the digital twin, highlighting its primary components: real space, virtual
space, the link for data and information flow from real space to virtual space (Grieves
2016).
The digital twin concept operates on three main fronts: first, it stores essential
component data. In this capacity, the digital twin systematically collects, organizes,
and stores critical information pertaining to the physical system’s components. This
encompasses a detailed inventory of the structure, dynamics, and configuration of the
various elements of the system. This repository is not only used for the current state
but also lays the groundwork for several processes. The stored data becomes the foun-
dational building block upon which the digital twin can further analyze, simulate, and
visualize the behavior of the physical system. In the realm of wind energy, the digital
twin may capture detailed information about the turbine’s components, such as the
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 4 of 36

Fig. 1 Conceptual framework of digital twin for a wind turbine. The physical asset consists of sensors and IoT
devices. The digital twin platform consists of three main fronts: big data and analytics, simulation & property
modeling, and visualization. Data is provided from the physical assets to the digital twin platform, where
information and processes are sent to the physical asset from the digital twin platform

specifications of the rotor blades, turbine output, the configuration of the generator
or gearbox, also parameters related to environment like wind speed and wind direc-
tion. More specifically, the digital twin might store data on the aerodynamic profiles
of the rotor blades, including their material composition and dimensions (Jureczko
et al. 2005). It would document the specifications of the gearbox, detailing gear ratios
and load-bearing capacities (Moghadam et al. 2021). Wind sensor data, historical
wind patterns, and turbine performance metrics, such as power output and efficiency,
would also be systematically recorded. This detailed component data can be used as
the foundation for subsequent analyses and simulations. This information can then
be used to simulate the wind turbine’s behavior under various conditions, to optimize
the turbine’s performance. Second, it analyzes and simulates the asset based on that
data, where computational models and algorithms are utilized to examine the stored
data within the digital twin. The digital twin employs advanced analytical tools and
machine learning algorithms to simulate the behavior of the physical system under
various conditions. These models are intended to replicate the dynamic interactions
between components and the environment. The simulations and models enable us to
gain insights into how the asset responds to different inputs, environmental factors,
or operational scenarios. These virtual tests can identify potential issues or efficiency
losses, enabling us to comprehensively assess the system. A digital twin for a wind
turbine leverages stored data to conduct detailed performance analyses and simula-
tions. For instance, the digital twin may employ computational models that consider
parameters such as wind speed, blade geometry, and turbine specifications. Analyz-
ing the data could involve simulations to predict power generation output at varying
wind speeds. The digital twin can be used to assess the wind direction impact on the
turbine’s yaw mechanism, optimizing its alignment for maximum energy capture (Wu
and Wang 2012). Structural simulations may also be employed to evaluate the integ-
rity of turbine components, helping identify potential stress points or areas requiring
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 5 of 36

maintenance (Bazilevs et al. 2015). Forecasting algorithms can also be implemented

to estimate the power output in different time horizons (Hanifi et al. 2020). Imple-
menting all these models enhances efficiency by providing a deep understanding of
performance, minimizing downtime under diverse conditions. Third, it visualizes rel-
evant data and results according to predefined objectives. These presentations pro-
vide insights through the digital twin’s simulation processes. In this phase, the digital
twin transforms complex data and simulation results into comprehensible visual rep-
resentations. These visualizations align with predefined objectives, to ensure that the
information presented is relevant and serves specific needs. Visualization of a digital
twin involves creating graphical representations, a dashboard, 3D visualizations, and
other illustrative formats that convey key findings (Kandemir et al. 2023). These visual
outputs may include performance metrics, trends, and critical insights derived from
the analytical simulations. The primary goal is to present the information in a clear
and accessible way, facilitating effective communication and decision-making among
various stakeholders. In this way, stakeholders can intuitively grasp the complexities
of the physical system. In the context of wind turbines, a predefined objective is to
optimize energy production; the digital twin could generate visualizations that display
real time power output, efficiency trends, and the impact of different wind conditions
on energy generation. These tools could include graphical representations of power
curves, efficiency maps, and performance trends of subsystems (Rafiee et al. 2018).
These visualizations can be used to quickly assess the impact of wind speed, direction,
or turbine settings on energy production. Additionally, the digital twin might gener-
ate visual alerts or dashboards highlighting areas of the turbine that require attention
or maintenance.
Digital twin applications rely on four key technologies: “Internet of Things”, “Data
and Analytic”, “Cloud Computing” and “Accessibility and Interaction” (Wang and Liu
2022). The Internet of Things (IoT) functions as a system where physical devices are
embedded with software, utilizing Internet connectivity. Various techniques, such
as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, RFID, and GPRS, can establish connections in IoT, facilitating
communication between physical and virtual entities for data transfer. Many compa-
nies are actively investing in IoT to foster machine-to-machine communications. The
framework is structured into three primary layers: perception, network, and appli-
cation. In the perception layer, interaction with the environment occurs through
sensors and actuators. The network layer manages connections between diverse enti-
ties, including “things,” network devices, and servers, processing data in the process.
The final layer provides services to users (Shah et al. 2018; Mouha 2021). Data and
Analytics encompass the utilization of various corporate tools like Standard Query
Language (SQL) for tasks such as data storage, manipulation, and retrieval. In this
process, it’s crucial to evaluate data through advanced methods that align with spe-
cific objectives. These analytics involve a range of methods, including physics based
models, statistical and predictive analysis, machine learning, and artificial intelligence
(Fowdur et al. 2018). Cloud Computing enables people to reach, share, and store
information via the Internet. This innovative computing technology utilizes a network
of data centers with interconnected computers, allowing the execution of software
functions. Users have access to powerful platforms, and services over the Internet,
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 6 of 36

making it a versatile collection of network-enabled services. Cloud Computing pro-

vides on-demand, flexible, and tailored computing infrastructures to a wide range of
stakeholders (Kalapatapu and Sarkar 2012). Accessibility and Interaction with Digital
Twin involve examining physical systems from a distance. The digital twin stands out
by being reachable remotely, facilitating global data transfer with fewer limitations.
In scenarios where local access is limited, the need for remote monitoring and con-
trol of assets becomes apparent. Moreover, within complex systems, understanding
subsystems poses a challenge, but the digital twin simplifies understanding both sub-
systems and the interaction between systems (Singh et al. 2021). Human interaction
emphasizes communication and interaction between humans and machines. Emerg-
ing technologies in this area include virtual and augmented reality, 3D visualizations,
and recognition algorithms (Ma et al. 2019).

Outline
In "Methodology" Section, the methodology is outlined, detailing the establishment of
a review protocol that plays a pivotal role in the investigation of predictive digital twin
technology. Specifically, inclusion criteria are outlined, the search strategy is executed,
and a systematic approach is employed to explore relevant literature. In "Results" Sec-
tion, the results of the literature review are provided, aligning with the research ques-
tions and presenting key findings on predictive digital twin technology, including current
applications, methods, and emerging trends. Section "Discussion" engages in a discus-
sion, analyzing the implications, trends, and methods identified in the literature. This
section aims to gain a deeper understanding of the context of predictive digital twins. In
"Conclusions and future work" Section, conclusions are drawn, summarizing the state of
predictive digital twins based on insights obtained from the literature review.

Methodology
The methodology is inspired by the guidelines proposed by Kitchenham and Charters
(2007) for a systematic literature review. Well-formulated research questions are essen-
tial as they guide the search, selection, and analysis of relevant studies which provides a
comprehensive overview of existing research on a specific topic. The predefined search
strategy and inclusion/exclusion criteria enhance reliability. Reviews significantly con-
tribute to scientific knowledge by summarizing findings, identifying gaps, and establish-
ing a reliable foundation for future research. The format also promotes transparency and
credibility, owing to the well-established protocol. This paper is conducted in three main
steps, as shown in Fig. 2, which include planning, execution, and reporting.
The planning phase is dedicated to the formulation of an effective search strat-
egy and establishing criteria to evaluate the quality of the gathered studies. Dur-
ing the execution stage, the focus lies on the identification of pertinent studies and
the extraction of the employed methodologies for the corresponding studies. The
reporting phase synthesizes all the acquired findings and methodologies, facilitating
a comprehensive and critical discussion of the outcomes. In essence, this three-step
methodology provides a structured framework for conducting literature review.
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 7 of 36

Fig. 2 Framework for a literature review. Plan: Develop the research question, establish the review protocol,
and create query strings for database searches. Execution: Identify relevant research, filter results based on
established quality criteria, and identify proposed methods. Report: Analyze multiple methods found in the
literature and document the findings

Research questions
The research question in a literature review is crucial as it shapes the entire study. Its sig-
nificant role lies in establishing an unbiased framework essential for maintaining objec-
tivity, reliability, and credibility. A well-formulated research question ensures a thorough
analysis of existing literature, contributing to the academic integrity of the review. In
this context, four research questions have been formulated: (1) targeting methodologies,
(2) addressing the integration of data from various sources, (3) focusing on real time
decision-making, and (4) delving into challenges.

• RQ1: What methodologies are commonly employed in developing predictive digital

twin models for wind energy systems?
• RQ2: How do predictive digital twin applications integrate and analyze data from
diverse sources to enhance their predictive capabilities?
• RQ3: What are the key features and technologies that facilitate real time wind energy
systems through predictive digital twin?
• RQ4: What are the challenges commonly encountered in wind energy systems when
implementing predictive digital twin solutions?

Search strategy
For the literature review on predictive digital twin in wind energy systems, a com-
prehensive search strategy was developed. This strategy involved the utilization of
academic databases and search engines such as IEEE Xplore, Scopus, ACM Digital
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 8 of 36

Table 1 Search strings used in the digital libraries and databases

No Keywords

RQ-1 (“DT” OR “Predictive Digital Twin” OR “Wind Energy” OR “Wind Turbine” OR “Wind Farm”) AND (“Physics Based
Modelling” OR “Data Driven Models” OR “Hybrid Models”)
RQ-2 (“DT” OR “Predictive Digital Twin” OR “Wind Energy” OR “Wind Turbine” OR “Wind Farm”) AND (“Data” OR
“Feature Selection” OR “Dimensionality Reduction” OR “Real Time”)
RQ-3 (“DT” OR “Predictive Digital Twin” OR “Wind Energy” OR “Wind Turbine” OR “Wind Farm”) AND (“Key Features”
OR “Enabling Technologies” OR “IoT” OR “Communication” OR “Computing” OR “Human Machine Interface”)
RQ-4 (“DT” OR “Predictive Digital Twin” OR “Wind Energy” OR “Wind Turbine” OR “Wind Farm”) AND (“Challenges”
OR “Quality” OR “Complex Models” OR “Model Order Reduction” OR “Validation” OR “Calibration”)
Boolean logical operators (“AND”, “OR”) used in the search. “AND” searches find all the search strings, while “OR” searches find
one term or the other. The first part of the “AND” search is common for all four research questions, targeting studies focused
on digital twin or wind energy related studies. The second part of the “AND” term is specified for each research question

Table 2 Systematic literature review inclusion and quality criteria

No Criteria

1 The study is written in English

2 The study is available as a full-text
3 The study is published in a scientific peer-reviewed journal, conference, book or book chapter
4 The study is related to Digital Twin “OR” Wind Energy Systems “OR” Digital Twin Enabling Technologies
5 The study is published within last five years
6 The study is implements Experimental Study “OR” Simulation “OR” State of Art Framework

Library, SpringerLink, Wiley Online Library, and Taylor & Francis Online. The search
string was structured using a combination of keywords and Boolean operators (AND,
OR) to refine the search results effectively. The keywords and logical operators are
explicitly detailed in Table 1 with the corresponding research questions. The search
was conducted across the selected databases between the years 2019 and 2024, aim-
ing to identify relevant studies published within the last 5 years.

Quality criteria and study selection

To ensure transparency and minimize potential bias in the literature review on pre-
dictive digital twins for wind energy systems, quality and inclusion criteria were
established. These criteria were applied to the selection of studies in accordance with
PRISMA guidelines (Page et al. 2021). The selection process involved evaluating stud-
ies based on predefined criteria, as outlined in Table 2. The criteria emphasize studies
employing research methodologies such as experimental studies, case studies, simu-
lations, and theoretical frameworks relevant to predictive digital twin applications in
wind energy. Only peer-reviewed articles published in academic journals, conference
proceedings, and scholarly books from recognized publishers are included, with Eng-
lish as the publication language. The review captures the most current advancements
and developments in the field over the last 5 years. The qualified study went through
the process of multiple stages, including title, abstract, and keyword screening fol-
lowed by full-text assessment. Figure 3 explicitly outlines each step of the study selec-
tion procedure.
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 9 of 36

Fig. 3 Study selection diagram. Step 1: Study search in selected databases, Step 2: Removal of duplicate
studies, Step 3: Filtering the studies according to quality criteria, Step 4: Screening the studies based on
abstract and keywords, Step 5: Screening the studies based on full text, Step 6: Inclusion of relevant studies

Methodology extraction and synthesis

This section outlines the methodology extraction and synthesis process utilized in the
literature review on predictive digital twin technology in wind energy systems. The
objective was to gather and integrate information on the methods, models, and tech-
nologies employed in the selected studies. Each study was examined for the methods
and frameworks implemented or conceptualized in predictive digital twin models for
wind energy systems, including validation models. Another important aspects were the
sources of data, modeling techniques, simulation tools, validation methods, and reason-
ing approaches applied. By identifying the methodologies, and technologies employed in
these studies, the review provides a comprehensive overview of the diverse approaches
in predictive digital twin technology for wind energy. The synthesis of methodologies
given in the discussion ("Discussion" Section ), directly aligned with the research ques-
tions posed at the outset of the review, allowing insights into specific aspects of pre-
dictive digital twin technology. The initial number of studies from the database search
and the selected studies with complete citations are provided at the end of each research
question in the results section as Tables 3, 5, 6 and 7.

Results
RQ1: What methodologies are commonly employed in developing predictive digital twin
models for wind energy systems?
Developing predictive digital twin models for wind energy systems involves leverag-
ing advanced methodologies to accurately simulate and forecast the performance and
behavior of wind turbines. In this context, three main categories of methodologies are
identified: physics-based modeling, data-driven approaches, and hybrid models. These
categories were selected based on current research and applications within the field of
wind energy systems (Vargas et al. 2019; Liu and Chen 2019).

Physics based modeling

Physics based modeling constitutes one of the core elements for wind energy systems,
crucial for optimizing performance and ensuring reliability. This section elaborates on
the key submodels involved: structure, aerodynamics, electric model, and control. These
four submodels in wind energy system modeling are essential for design, analysis, and
optimization.
The structural model covers the mechanical behavior of wind turbine compo-
nents. Structural dynamics enable the investigation of wind turbines under various
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 10 of 36

Table 3 Primary studies related to research question 1

Model type Number of studies Selected studies
from initial database
search

Physics based modelling 182 Hernandez-Estrada et al. (2021), Jahani et al. (2022),
Rajamohan et al. (2022), Fu et al. (2020), Njiri et al. (2019),
Chen et al. (2021), Li et al. (2020), Ma et al. (2019), Pradeep
et al. (2019), Igwemezie et al. (2019), O’Leary et al. (2019),
Ren et al. (2021), Zhao et al. (2019), Mu et al. (2023), Zilong
and Xiao Wei (2022), Porchetta et al. (2021) Qian et al.
(2020), Vogel and Willden (2020), Hornshøj-Møller et al.
(2021), Ledoux et al. (2021), Zhang and Qu (2021), Tahir
et al. (2019), Branlard et al. (2022), Papi et al. (2024), Ferreira
et al. (2022), Kaviani and Nejat (2021), Sedaghatizadeh et al.
(2019), Tian et al. (2019) Xiaoyu and Chao (2019), Huang
et al. (2019), Ravanji et al. (2020), Basit et al. (2020), Li et al.
(2020), Navarrete et al. (2019), Sierra-García and Santos
(2021), Gambier (2021), Yang et al. (2021), Saenz-Aguirre
et al. (2019), Liu et al. (2021), Bashetty et al. (2020), Akbari
et al. (2019), Merizalde et al. (2019), Udo and Muhammad
(2021), Hsu et al. (2020)
Data-driven approaches 134 Fahrmeir et al. (2021), Liu and Chen (2019), Gualtieri (2019),
Barhmi et al. (2020), Dupré et al. (2020), López and Arboleya
(2022), Wang et al. (2021), Niu et al. (2022), Liu et al. (2021),
Naik et al. (2019), Zheng et al. (2023), Carneiro et al. (2022),
Elyasichamazkoti and Khajehpoor (2021), Li et al. (2020),
Tuerxun et al. (2021), Lu et al. (2020), Barhmi and Fatni
(2019), Nielson et al. (2020), Sun et al. (2020), Huang et al.
(2021), Kisvari et al. (2021), Banik et al. (2020), Shahid et al.
(2021), Shivani et al. (2019), Elsaraiti and Merabet (2021),
Sheoran and Pasari (2022), Liu et al. (2021), Tyass et al.
(2022), Keyantuo et al. (2021), Messner and Pinson (2019), Li
and Wu (2020), Qian et al. (2019), Simon et al. (2024), Mbuli
et al. (2020), Yan et al. (2022)
Hybrid modelling 141 Kosovic et al. (2020), Zhang et al. (2020), Du et al. (2019),
Zhang et al. (2019), Wang et al. (2022), Korprasertsak and
Leephakpreeda (2019), Aly (2020), Hur (2021), Alhussein
et al. (2020), Aly (2020), Lv et al. (2022), Mamun et al. (2020),
Kaya (2019), Morita et al. (2022), Dong et al. (2021), Dong
et al. (2022), Liang et al. (2020), Liu and Liang (2021), Choi
et al. (2022), Cai et al. (2021), Zhilyaev et al. (2022), Li et al.
(2024), Cheng and Yao (2022), Kareem (2020), Miyanawala
and Jaiman (2019a), Reddy et al. (2019b), Wu and Ma
(2022), Selvaraj and Selvaraj (2022), Buabeng et al. (2021),
Heydari et al. (2021), Beretta et al. (2021), Pandit et al.
(2023), Maldonado-Correa et al. (2024), Zhang et al. (2022),
Liu et al. (2021), Guo and Wang (2021)

loads. Techniques such as finite element analysis enable the prediction of wind tur-
bine responses. These dynamics involve modeling bending and torsion moments,
along with tension, compression, and shear forces (Hernandez-Estrada et al. 2021;
Jahani et al. 2022; Rajamohan et al. 2022). Studies also consider periodic loads that
may cause fatigue effects (Fu et al. 2020; Njiri et al. 2019). Additionally, due to the
high aspect ratio of wind turbines, aeroelastic effects such as flutter are accounted
for (Chen et al. 2021; Li et al. 2020; Ma et al. 2019). By assessing all these factors,
structural integrity and longer lifespan can be achieved. Material properties play a
pivotal role in the structural model. Incorporating characteristics such as elastic-
ity, damping, or strength is crucial for accurately representing the behavior of tur-
bine components (Pradeep et al. 2019; Igwemezie et al. 2019; O’Leary et al. 2019).
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 11 of 36

Given the diverse operating conditions and environmental effects, assessing the life-
long performance also relies on correctly represented material properties. In terms
of structural modeling, tower and foundation design are additional aspects that need
to be considered. The analysis of interactions with the ground, such as soil properties
or seismic loads, is essential for onshore wind farm infrastructures (Ren et al. 2021;
Zhao et al. 2019). Moreover, in offshore wind farms, the hydrodynamic effects on
the wind turbines have a significant impact, requiring materials that can withstand
harsher conditions such as high salinity causing oxidation (Mu et al. 2023). The influ-
ence of high-amplitude waves on freestream affects the dynamic pressure. Especially
for floating offshore wind turbines, precise models are required to investigate com-
plex dynamics involving surface waves and subsurface ocean currents (Zilong and
Xiao Wei 2022; Porchetta et al. 2021).
The aerodynamics model predicts the interaction between the wind, turbine blades,
and the influence of the wind turbines on one another. Computational fluid dynamics
uses numerical methods to analyze and solve fluid flow problems. Several techniques,
such as finite volume or finite differences, are employed in the solution method. The dif-
ferential equations, such as the Navier–Stokes equations, enable the description of the
relation between pressure, temperature, velocity, and density of a moving fluid (Qian
et al. 2020; Vogel and Willden 2020; Hornshøj-Møller et al. 2021). Additionally, the Blade
Element Momentum Theory combines two phenomena, the blade element theory and
momentum theory, to calculate aerodynamic forces and moments, considering airfoil
characteristics and aerodynamic losses (Ledoux et al. 2021; Zhang and Qu 2021; Tahir
et al. 2019). Dynamic inflow affects the wind energy system as wind turbines reach a
steady state after a change in the existing state, such as sudden pitch angle variation or
tower shadow. Accounting for this effect would enhance the capability to capture the
time-varying behavior of aerodynamic performance (Branlard et al. 2022; Papi et al.
2024; Ferreira et al. 2022). Although aeroelastic effects are mentioned in the previous
paragraph, it should be noted that elastic deformations lead to changes in the aerody-
namic characteristics of the wind turbine, causing unpredictable behavior (Kaviani and
Nejat 2021). Boundary layer models, both in laminar and turbulent flow on the blade
surface, should be another consideration due to their effect on aerodynamic perfor-
mance and noise generation (Sedaghatizadeh et al. 2019; Tian et al. 2019).
The electric model simulates the electrical aspects of wind energy systems, focusing
on power conversion and integration with the grid. It involves simulating the electrical
properties a generator, such as synchronous/asynchronous operation (Xiaoyu and Chao
2019), excitation control, and voltage regulation (Huang et al. 2019; Ravanji et al. 2020),
to enhance power generation and grid stability. Additionally, the electric model includes
models of power electronics such as rectifiers, inverters, and converters to link variable-
speed turbines with the grid, ensuring efficient energy conversion. Moreover, the electric
model examines grid connection dynamics, ensuring compliance with grid codes, and
managing reactive power, thereby facilitating the smooth integration of wind turbines
into the electrical grid. Basit et al. (2020); Li et al. (2020)
The control model governs the operation of the wind turbine for optimum per-
formance, safety, and reliability. Pitch control algorithms are one of the most popular
methods for adjusting the blade pitch angle to optimize energy capture and respond to
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 12 of 36

different wind conditions. By implementing pitch control algorithms, stable operations

can be conducted across a wide range of environmental conditions (Navarrete et al.
2019; Sierra-García and Santos 2021; Gambier 2021). Similarly, yaw control is a method
used to increase efficiency. With this control strategy, the turbine aligns with the incom-
ing wind direction, capturing maximum energy with minimum structural load (Yang
et al. 2021; Saenz-Aguirre et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2021). Another algorithm in the con-
trol model is the rotor speed regulation algorithm, which determines the optimum rota-
tional speed through pitch control or generator torque control. This helps minimize
mechanical stress while maximizing efficiency (Bashetty et al. 2020; Akbari et al. 2019).
Additionally, fault detection and diagnostics algorithms enhance wind energy system
operations. Monitoring system health and detecting anomalies can prevent catastrophic
consequences. Fault detection and predictive maintenance enable cost-effective opera-
tion (Merizalde et al. 2019; Udo and Muhammad 2021; Hsu et al. 2020).

Data‑driven approaches
In data-driven approaches for wind energy systems, several techniques can be applied
depending on the characteristics of a dataset and the required prediction task. These
methods are investigated in three main categories: regression models, machine learning
algorithms, and statistical methods.
A regression model is a statistical method used to analyze the relationship between
a dependent variable and one or multiple independent variables. The aim is to pre-
dict the value of the dependent variable based on the values of the independent vari-
ables (Fahrmeir et al. 2021). Regression models are commonly used for prediction,
forecasting, and understanding the influence of different variables on an outcome (Liu
and Chen 2019; Gualtieri 2019). Although there are several types of regression models
in wind energy systems, three model types are commonly used: linear regression, poly-
nomial regression, and ridge regression. Linear regression is mainly used to predict the
linear relation of turbine power output based on variables such as wind speed, wind
direction, or environmental effects (Barhmi et al. 2020; Dupré et al. 2020; López and
Arboleya 2022). On the other hand, polynomial regression captures the nonlinear corre-
lation of input variables with turbine performance parameters. This method enables the
comprehension of complex nonlinear interactions among independent variables (Wang
et al. 2021; Niu et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2021). Ridge regression ensures more stable pre-
dictions between input variables and output performance by including a regularization
term to prevent overfitting. It is particularly useful when the correlation between inde-
pendent variables is high, and it finds application in design, optimization, and forecast-
ing (Naik et al. 2019; Zheng et al. 2023; Carneiro et al. 2022).
Machine learning algorithms are popular methods used in wind energy systems. By
analyzing various datasets, including weather patterns, turbine operations, and mainte-
nance records, machine learning algorithms can identify patterns to improve the over-
all efficiency of wind energy production (Elyasichamazkoti and Khajehpoor 2021). The
most common algorithms used for this purpose include support vector machines (SVN),
artificial neural networks (ANN), recurrent neural networks (RNN), and long short-term
memory (LSTM) networks. A support vector machine is a supervised machine learn-
ing algorithm used for data classification and regression analysis. It can classify different
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 13 of 36

wind conditions, enabling optimal wind settings (Li et al. 2020; Tuerxun et al. 2021; Lu
et al. 2020). Artificial neural networks learn complex patterns such as wind speed or
direction to predict turbine power output accurately with optimum parameters (Barhmi
and Fatni 2019; Nielson et al. 2020; Sun et al. 2020). Recurrent neural networks are pow-
erful tools, especially for learning sequential data and predicting sequential outputs.
They can capture temporal dependencies and nonlinear dynamics in time-series data,
allowing for accurate forecasts (Huang et al. 2021; Kisvari et al. 2021). Long short-term
memory networks are specialized versions of recurrent neural networks that enable
forecasts over extended time horizons (Banik et al. 2020; Shahid et al. 2021).
Statistical models are another popular method due to their interpretability and abil-
ity to capture temporal patterns. Some of the commonly used methods, specifically for
wind energy systems, are autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA), vector
autoregression, and seasonal decomposition. Autoregressive integrated moving aver-
age models consist of three main components: autoregression, differencing, and moving
average (Shivani et al. 2019; Elsaraiti and Merabet 2021; Sheoran and Pasari 2022). This
model can also be extended for non-stationary time series by accounting for seasonality.
The method facilitates short term planning for turbine operation (Liu et al. 2021; Tyass
et al. 2022). Unlike the previous method, vector autoregression is useful for dealing with
multiple time series variables as they interact with each other. For instance, the influ-
ence of wind speed, temperature, and pressure on wind power generation, along with
their dependencies with each other, can be investigated with this model (Keyantuo et al.
2021; Messner and Pinson 2019; Li and Wu 2020). Although seasonal decomposition is
not a forecasting technique, it is an important technique for understanding the underly-
ing components of time series. The main classical decomposition components are trend,
seasonal, and residual components. This technique is widely used in wind energy sys-
tems (Qian et al. 2019; Simon et al. 2024; Mbuli et al. 2020; Yan et al. 2022).

Hybrid modelling
In the evolving field of wind energy, hybrid modeling techniques have attracted signifi-
cant attention as robust solutions by integrating physics knowledge with data-driven
approaches. This section focuses on the main five advanced hybrid methodologies in
forecasting, grid integration, fluid dynamics, structure, and predictive maintenance. As
they rely on both physical laws and machine learning, accurate and reliable models for
predictive digital twin platforms for wind energy systems can be achieved.
Hybrid forecasting models integrate machine learning algorithms with numeri-
cal weather prediction models for accurate wind speed predictions, which later yield
power output forecasts for the wind turbines. Time series analysis employs methods like
ARIMA, LSTM, or fuzzy logic with the numerical weather prediction models to forecast
wind conditions (Kosovic et al. 2020; Zhang et al. 2020; Du et al. 2019). Ensemble meth-
ods are particularly useful for merging different models to quantify uncertainties (Zhang
et al. 2019; Wang et al. 2022; Korprasertsak and Leephakpreeda 2019). Also, data assimi-
lation methods like the Kalman filter or its variations are important for combining real-
time sensor data with forecast models implemented in digital twin platforms (Aly 2020;
Hur 2021). As wind energy production forecasting models enhance the supply side of
grid integration, hybrid models for electricity load estimation can be utilized to estimate
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 14 of 36

the demand side. Some commonly deployed hybrid algorithms include artificial neural
networks, wavelet neural networks, Kalman filtering, convolutional neural networks
(CNN), and LSTM models with physics-based models (Alhussein et al. 2020; Aly 2020;
Lv et al. 2022; Mamun et al. 2020).
Hybrid aerodynamic models combine high-fidelity computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) simulations with machine learning models for optimum aerodynamic perfor-
mance. Computational fluid dynamics simulations are used to generate data for machine
learning models, such as Gaussian process regression or support vector regression, to
reduce computational costs (Kaya 2019; Morita et al. 2022). Similarly, reinforcement
learning algorithms based on real-time data and computational fluid dynamics data
are applied for control strategies (Dong et al. 2021, 2022). Additionally, data derived
from computational fluid dynamics simulations are corrected with real-time data using
Kalman filtering to improve accuracy (Liang et al. 2020; Liu and Liang 2021). A phys-
ics-informed neural network incorporates partial differential equations governing fluid
dynamics, such as the Navier–Stokes equations, into the neural network architecture,
allowing for interpretability (Choi et al. 2022; Cai et al. 2021).
Similar to hybrid aerodynamic models, hybrid structural models integrate finite ele-
ment analysis with machine learning algorithms such as SVM, ANN, and CNN (Zhily-
aev et al. 2022; Li et al. 2024; Cheng and Yao 2022). These analyses are used to optimize
design parameters. Moreover, the multiphysics interaction of fluid flow with structures
(fluid–structure interaction), integrating mechanical and fluid dynamics and enhanced
with machine learning algorithms, enables the prediction of complex interactions in the
environment (Kareem 2020; Miyanawala and Jaiman 2019a; Reddy et al. 2019b).
Hybrid predictive maintenance models combine various anomaly detection techniques
with data-driven approaches to identify potential failures or estimate the remaining life
of wind turbines. These hybrid models can be used to diagnose several components of
the wind turbine using different sensor data and in-built predictive models (Wu and Ma
2022; Selvaraj and Selvaraj 2022; Buabeng et al. 2021). In wind turbines, the gearbox,
bearings, and other rotating components are the main points of interest. In study (Hey-
dari et al. 2021), hybrid modelling for gearboxes, which are often prone to failure, is the
focus. The proposed framework consists of several different methods: clustering filters,
ant bee colony optimization algorithm, variational mode decomposition, multi-verse
optimization algorithm, and wavelet transform. Combining these methods enables the
detection of anomalies before a failure occurs. Primarily, supervisory control and data
acquisition system data are utilized for this purpose (Heydari et al. 2021; Beretta et al.
2021; Pandit et al. 2023; Maldonado-Correa et al. 2024). Another important predictive
analysis is the estimation of the remaining useful life of the components for proactive
maintenance scheduling (Zhang et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2021; Guo and Wang 2021).

RQ2: How do predictive digital twin applications integrate and analyze data from diverse
sources to enhance their predictive capabilities?
From the reviewed studies, the integration and analysis of data from diverse sources for
predictive digital twin platforms primarily focuses on three main challenges: integration,
execution, and monitoring. As depicted in Table 5, research on data integration emerged
most prominently during the initial database search, highlighting the critical need for
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 15 of 36

Table 4 Summary of different methodologies for Integrating and analyzing data from diverse
sources
Management of data from multiple sources Commonly employed techniques

Data integration Data Collection: IoT devices, Databases, API Data Cleaning:
Missing Values and Duplicate Removal, Outlier Detection Data
Transformation: Normalization, Discretization Data Alignment:
Time Series Alignment, Event Synchronization, Georeferencing,
Data Fusion: Kalman Filter, Ensemble Methods
Feature selection and dimensionality reduction Feature Selection: Filters, Wrappers Dimensionality Reduction:
PCA, T-distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding
Real time monitoring SCADA, Anomaly Detection, Predictive Maintenance, Environ‑
ment Variable Monitoring, Reactive Control, Continuous
Learning

Table 5 Primary studies related to research question 2

Management of data from multiple Number of studies Selected studies
sources from initial database
search

Data integration 82 Zhang and Qu (2021), Minerva et al.

(2020), Jacoby and Usländer (2020), Kaur
et al. (2020), Platenius-Mohr et al. (2020),
Bonney et al. (2022), Xu et al. (2019), Ben‑
zon et al. (2022), Alasadi and Bhaya (2017),
García et al. (2016), Lv et al. (2020), Liu
et al. (2023), Nguyen et al. (2013), Mei et al.
(2020), Mohamed et al. (2023), Booshehri
et al. (2021), Sharma and Balachandra
(2019), Yue et al. (2024), Majidi Nezhad
et al. (2019), Ma et al. (2024), Lio et al.
(2021), da Silva et al. (2021)
Feature selection and dimensionality 41 Marti-Puig et al. (2019), Qadir et al. (2021),
reduction Liu and Chen (2019), de Sá et al. (2020), Mir
et al. (2020), Deng et al. (2021), Wang et al.
(2020), Gu et al. (2019), Kong et al. (2015),
Shen et al. (2019), Khan et al. (2019),
Kouadri et al. (2020)
Real time monitoring 57 He et al. (2022), Chakraborty et al. (2023),
Maldonado-Correa et al. (2020), Gonzalez
et al. (2019), Xiang et al. (2022), Morrison
et al. (2022), Hsu et al. (2020), Wang et al.
(2020), Shin et al. (2021), van Dinter et al.
(2022), Falekas and Karlis (2021), Zhong
et al. (2023), Lio et al. (2021), Chen et al.
(2019), Moness and Moustafa (2020), Tu
et al. (2022), Fernandez-Gauna et al. (2022),
Yang et al. (2019), Zhao et al. (2020), He
et al. (2021)

effective methods due to the heavy reliance of digital twin platforms on data from multi-
ple sources to build accurate and comprehensive models. The integration of heterogene-
ous data is essential for enabling a functional platform (Correia et al. 2023). Regarding
execution, advancements in computational power have facilitated efficient model analy-
sis. However, the majority of reviewed studies concentrate on methods such as feature
selection and dimensionality reduction to manage large datasets (Qi et al. 2021). Real-
time monitoring of digital twin platforms enables proactive decision-making and accu-
rate forecasting, which are crucial for real-world applications. As indicated in Table 5,
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 16 of 36

monitoring represents the second most studied aspect in the literature (Correia et al.
2023). The commonly employed techniques and methods are summarized in Table 4.

Data integration
Data is one of the key elements for predictive digital twin platforms. Integrating data
from diverse sources into the digital twin platform requires several processes (Zhang
and Qu 2021). The first step is identifying relevant data sources, which can include IoT
devices, sensors, databases, external application programming interfaces, or historical
trends (Minerva et al. 2020; Jacoby and Usländer 2020; Kaur et al. 2020; Platenius-Mohr
et al. 2020). Each data source may have its own structure, including structured data from
SQL databases, unstructured text files and images, or semi-structured data from various
application programming interfaces (Bonney et al. 2022; Xu et al. 2019; Benzon et al.
2022).
These collected data need to go through cleaning and transformation methods to
be useful and meaningful for further analysis. Data cleaning techniques address miss-
ing values, duplicates, outlier detection, and inconsistencies within the dataset (Alasadi
and Bhaya 2017). Transformation methods may include normalization, discretization,
and dimensionality reduction (García et al. 2016).1 After preprocessing the data with
cleaning and transformation methods, the data from different schemas and structures
need to be aligned to have a unified format (Lv et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2023; Nguyen et al.
2013). Schema matching algorithms and ontology alignment enable the reconciliation
of data schemas and types from diverse sources (Mei et al. 2020; Mohamed et al. 2023;
Booshehri et al. 2021).
The different sources may provide temporal and spatial data. The alignment of these
data is essential for reliable operation. Temporal alignment methods, such as time
series alignment or event synchronization, ensure consistency across time-stamped
data streams (Sharma and Balachandra 2019; Yue et al. 2024). On the other hand, spa-
tial alignment techniques may include georeferencing or coordinate transformation for
integrating geospatial data (Majidi Nezhad et al. 2019; Ma et al. 2024). As the data are
aligned and synchronized, data fusion algorithms, such as Kalman filters or ensemble
methods, can fuse information from diverse sources while considering uncertainties (Lio
et al. 2021; da Silva et al. 2021).

Feature selection and dimensionality reduction

Enhancing the predictive capabilities of digital twin platforms, dimensionality reduc-
tion and feature selection are two important aspects to focus on the most relevant and
informative features with the minimum data complexity. In digital twin applications,
large amounts of data are necessary for reliable operation. These data include several
input features, causing overfitting, an increase in model complexity, more computational
resources, and decreased interpretability (Marti-Puig et al. 2019). Feature selection tar-
gets finding the most relevant subset of features to predict the target variables (Qadir
et al. 2021). Filter and wrapper approaches are some commonly used frameworks. Filter

1
The study published before 2019.
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 17 of 36

methods assess the relevance of the features independently of the predictive model,
whereas wrapper methods evaluate different combinations of features, yielding slower
but more precise results (Liu and Chen 2019; de Sá et al. 2020). In wind forecasting algo-
rithms, feature selection methods are deployed for comprehensive results with mini-
mum computational resource demand (Mir et al. 2020).
Similarly, dimensionality reduction aims to reduce the number of input dimensions
while retaining essential information. Principal component analysis (PCA) is a technique
that projects high-dimensional data onto a lower-dimensional subspace defined by prin-
cipal components. These components are then used in data-driven algorithms in wind
energy systems (Deng et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2020; Gu et al. 2019; Kong et al. 2015).
T-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding is a nonlinear dimensionality reduction
technique that preserves the local structure of the data in a lower-dimensional space.
In wind energy systems, T-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding is used to reduce
the dimensionality of data clusters to identify patterns (Shen et al. 2019; Khan et al. 2019;
Kouadri et al. 2020).

Real time monitoring

Efficient utilization of wind power depends on the real-time monitoring and optimiza-
tion of turbine performance. Critical parameters like rotor speed, power output, and
component temperature must be continuously monitored (He et al. 2022; Chakraborty
et al. 2023). Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems are commonly
used technologies that interface with the turbines. The knowledge gained from such
tools in real-time monitoring can be further implemented into the digital twin platform
to increase predictive capabilities (Maldonado-Correa et al. 2020; Gonzalez et al. 2019).
Another important aspect of real-time data analysis techniques is to detect anomalies
in turbine performance, which can address potential component failures (Xiang et al.
2022; Morrison et al. 2022). Advancements in these techniques can evolve into predic-
tive maintenance to predict the needs of individual components. By integrating subsys-
tem models and real-time environment and turbine parameters, potential issues can be
addressed, allowing proactive maintenance planning (Hsu et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2020;
Shin et al. 2021). Several ongoing studies specifically focus on these areas, where meth-
ods and enabling technologies can be transferred to wind energy systems (van Dinter
et al. 2022; Falekas and Karlis 2021; Zhong et al. 2023).
Real-time monitoring also plays a vital role in assessing wind resources. Continuous
monitoring of wind speed, direction, and other meteorological data enables the assessment
of available wind resources in real-time (Lio et al. 2021). With the methods mentioned in
"Data integration" Section, integrating various types of data with the meteorological models
built into the digital twin enables more precise wind forecasts. These forecast data can then
be used to adjust turbine settings, such as yaw angles or pitch angles, to maximize energy
production (Chen et al. 2019; Moness and Moustafa 2020; Tu et al. 2022). In study (Chen
et al. 2019), a real-time feedback blade pitch control system is proposed for vertical axis
wind turbines. To optimize the pitch angle of the blade, the suggested equation relies on
real-time flow velocity, azimuth angle of the blade, and tip speed ratio. This real-time feed-
back pitch angle control system increases overall performance. Predictive digital twin appli-
cations can create a feedback loop, comparing predictions with actual outcomes to refine
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 18 of 36

Fig. 4 Real-time operation facilitating features and technologies

Table 6 Primary studies related to research question 3

Key features and technologies Number of studies Selected studies
from initial database
search

IoT Sensors and Data Acquisition 49 Li et al. (2023), Wang et al. (2023), Liew et al.
(2020), Karad and Thakur (2021), Guo et al.
(2022), Dimitrov et al. (2019), Yang et al.
(2020), Silva et al. (2023)
Communication Networks 64 Zheng et al. (2019), Haghshenas et al.
(2023), Sasikala et al. (2021), Fahim et al.
(2022), Isto et al. (2020), Nguyen et al.
(2021), Farkas et al. (2018), Wu et al. (2021),
Mashaly (2021), Mccarty et al. (2023), Liu
et al. (2020)
Edge Computing and Cloud Computing 32 Saad et al. (2020), Hungud and Arunacha‑
lam (2020), Li et al. (2021), Fahim et al.
(2022), Olatunji et al. (2021), Zhang et al.
(2022)
Human Machine Interface 55 Kumar and Lee (2022), Qin et al. (2020),
Evergreen (2020), Kandemir et al. (2023),
Haghshenas et al. (2023), Stadtmann et al.
(2023), Lalik and Watorek (2021), Kilimann
et al. (2019), Erdei et al. (2022), Kaarlela et al.
(2020), Bucchiarone (2022)

models iteratively. This continuous learning process enhances the predictive capabilities
of the digital twin over time, enabling more accurate and reliable predictions (Fernandez-
Gauna et al. 2022; Yang et al. 2019). The technologies explained in "RQ3: What are the key
features and technologies that facilitate real time wind energysystems through predictive
digital twin?" Section enable the remote diagnosis of issues and implementation of control
strategies in real-time from a centralized digital twin platform (Zhao et al. 2020; He et al.
2021).
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 19 of 36

Table 7 Primary studies related to research question 4

Common challenges Number of studies Selected studies
from initial database
search

Data Quality Assurance 31 Avanzini and Eriksson (2021), Eriksson and Markussen
(2023), Ward et al. (2021), Koo and Yoon (2024), Mogh‑
adam and Nejad (2022), Chen et al. (2021), Adedipe et al.
(2020), Hirvoas et al. (2021), Hung et al. (2022)
Model Complexity and 73 Taira et al. (2020), Siddiqui et al. (2019), Andersen and
Model Order Reduction Murcia Leon (2022), Liang et al. (2023), Zhao et al. (2023),
Gözcü and Dou (2020), Sayed et al. (2019), Grinderslev
et al. (2021), Liu et al. (2019), Michalakes (2020), Veers et al.
(2023), Kumar and Ezhilarasi (2023), Siddiqui et al. (2020),
Premaratne et al. (2022), Zhao et al. (2021), Lin et al. (2020),
Bui (2023), Morovati et al. (2021), Al-Iedani and Gajic
(2020), Wu et al. (2021), Zhang et al. (2022), Ali and Cal
(2020), Siddiqui et al. (2020), Tabib et al. (2022)
Validation and Calibration 45 Pimenta et al. (2020), Jonscher et al. (2022), Lee and Fields
(2021), Bergua et al. (2023), Vahidi and Porté-Agel (2022),
Wang et al. (2022), Valikhani et al. (2024), Hirvoas et al.
(2022), Sousa and Gorlé (2019), Poterjoy (2022), Han et al.
(2020), Schwegmann et al. (2023), Habibi et al. (2019), Liu
et al. (2021), Rajpoot et al. (2021), Hur (2019), Cho et al.
(2021), Petrović et al. (2021), Collet et al. (2021), Mahmoud
and Oyedeji (2019), Ghareveran and Yazdizadeh (2019),
Wang et al. (2022), Barhate et al. (2024), Saenz-Aguirre
et al. (2020), Xie et al. (2023), Saenz-Aguirre et al. (2019)

RQ3: What are the key features and technologies that facilitate real time wind energy
systems through predictive digital twin?
Real-time wind energy systems are important for optimizing wind farm performance.
By integrating advanced technologies, real-time operating platforms facilitate decision-
making processes. To identify the key features and technologies that enhance real-time
wind energy systems through predictive digital twins, a comprehensive literature review
was conducted, primarily focusing on academic journals and conference papers on digi-
tal twins and wind energy systems. The technologies were evaluated based on their rel-
evance, impact on real-time monitoring and prediction, as well as overall contribution
to system efficiency (Stadtmann et al. 2023; Qi et al. 2021). Figure 4 summarizes the key
features and technologies enabling real-time operations.

IoT sensors for data acquisition

In the complex landscape of the wind energy systems, Internet of Things sensors are one
of the important components, facilitating the collection of essential data for optimum
performance and informed operation. These sensors are positioned across wind turbines
and the operating environment to monitor several vital parameters, providing operators
insights into operational conditions (Li et al. 2023; Wang et al. 2023; Liew et al. 2020).
Advanced multi-sensor platforms are employed in wind energy systems to capture a
diverse range of data. These sensors encompass various technologies, such as anemom-
eters for wind speed and direction, thermocouples for temperature monitoring, humid-
ity sensors for atmospheric moisture levels, accelerometers for vibration analysis, and
power meters for electrical output measurement (Karad and Thakur 2021). Additionally,
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 20 of 36

emerging technologies like Light Detection and Ranging and Sonic Detection and Rang-
ing support precise wind profiling and turbulence detection. Light Detection and Rang-
ing allows for the detection of turbulent wind before it negatively influences turbine
performance, thus optimizing energy production (Guo et al. 2022; Dimitrov et al. 2019).
On the other hand, Sodar provides advantages in measuring the wind profile at different
altitudes and supporting the anemometers mounted on wind turbines (Yang et al. 2020;
Silva et al. 2023).

Communication networks
Communication networks in wind energy systems should be designed to ensure reliable
transfer so that the collected sensor data can be used for comprehensive analysis (Zheng
et al. 2019). Advanced standardized communication protocols such as MQTT and
OPC UA allow sensor data to be transmitted efficiently and securely. Depending on
the requirements, centralized control systems or cloud-based platforms are possible
solutions(Haghshenas et al. 2023; Sasikala et al. 2021). These protocols enable reliable
data transmission over various network infrastructures, facilitating access to critical
operational insights.
Low-latency communication networks are essential for data transmission between
operating subsystems and the central control system. Technologies like 5 G (fifth-gener-
ation cellular network technology) or the standards like time-sensitive networking prior-
itize the reduction of latency problems (Fahim et al. 2022; Isto et al. 2020; Nguyen et al.
2021; Farkas et al. 2018). In study (Isto et al. 2020), the focus is on 5 G networks for digi-
tal twin applications in remote machinery control systems. Two application scenarios
are demonstrated: video feedback and haptic feedback. Compared to LTE (Long-Term
Evolution), lower delay and jitter are observed in both cases. Wind turbines generate
large volumes of data, including sensor readings, environmental parameters, and perfor-
mance metrics. High-bandwidth communication networks, such as fiber-optic cables or
high-speed wireless links, are essential for efficiently transmitting this data to predictive
digital twin systems for analysis (Wu et al. 2021; Mashaly 2021). Security is another criti-
cal aspect of communication networks. Encryption protocols are employed to safeguard
data integrity and protect against cyber threats, ensuring the confidentiality and security
of sensitive information (Mccarty et al. 2023; Liu et al. 2020).

Edge computing and cloud computing

Edge computing enables data acquisition through sensors and IoT devices, as discussed
in "IoT sensors for data acquisition" Section. Although edge devices often have limited
computational power, they can still be useful for local processing. These computational
sources can be programmed to support the predictive models implemented in the digital
twin platform. Through edge computing platforms like NVIDIA Jetson or Intel Movid-
ius, rapid adjustments can be made based on insights from analytics, thereby achiev-
ing optimum performance parameters more quickly (Saad et al. 2020; Hungud and
Arunachalam 2020; Li et al. 2021).
On the other hand, cloud computing provides scalability through platforms capable of
processing large amounts of data and performance parameters. These powerful frame-
works support big data analytics for in depth trend analysis, enhancing the performance
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 21 of 36

of predictive models dynamically. The dynamic update of predictive models supports

long-term optimization. Integrating edge devices allows centralized management and
condition monitoring of wind energy platforms, providing comprehensive insights for
stakeholders (Fahim et al. 2022; Olatunji et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2022).

Human machine interface

The human–machine interface (HMI) is one of the essential features enabling seamless
real time operation. This technology focuses on the interaction between human opera-
tors and complex systems (Kumar and Lee 2022). The interface should provide intui-
tive visualization of real time data along with trends and future predictions. These data
enable predictive analytics and provide a comprehensive view of system status. Visual
elements may vary from simple charts to 3D models (Qin et al. 2020; Evergreen 2020).
Some commonly used libraries and applications include WebGL, Plotly, and Unity (Kan-
demir et al. 2023; Haghshenas et al. 2023). These programs may incorporate interactive
control panels where operators can adjust turbine settings or monitor performance. The
selection of the required interaction should be planned according to operational condi-
tions. Touchscreens, augmented reality, or other virtual controls allow for intuitive inter-
action with quick adaptability to a changing environment (Stadtmann et al. 2023; Lalik
and Watorek 2021; Kilimann et al. 2019).
The human–machine interface, combined with decision support systems based on
predictive insights, provides operators with contextual information and recommenda-
tions for decision-making. Another important role of the human–machine interface is
to enable operational training as a support tool for new operators. Interactive tutorials,
help menus, and troubleshooting guides assist operators in adapting to optimum operat-
ing conditions (Erdei et al. 2022; Kaarlela et al. 2020; Bucchiarone 2022).

RQ4: What are the challenges commonly encountered in wind energy systems
when implementing predictive digital twin solutions?
The integration of predictive digital twin solutions in wind energy systems enhances
efficiency and reliability through advanced analytics. However, implementing these
solutions comes with significant challenges that need to be addressed to realize their
potential. Several review papers identify the most common key challenges in this
domain, including data quality assurance, model complexity, model order reduction, val-
idation, and calibration. These challenges are categorized based on their impact on the
development, deployment, and execution of predictive digital twin solutions (Rodríguez
et al. 2023; Hartmann et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2021).

Data quality assurance

Data quality assurance is a critical aspect of predictive digital twin platforms. High-
quality data enables improved predictive accuracy, effective condition monitoring, and
higher economic viability (Avanzini and Eriksson 2021; Eriksson and Markussen 2023).
However, maintaining high-quality data presents several challenges, including manag-
ing complex data from diverse sources, addressing sensor reliability issues, quantifying
uncertainty, and resolving data completeness problems.
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 22 of 36

The acquisition of reliable data from heterogeneous sensors and IoT devices requires
continuous sensor calibration. In digital twin platforms, implementing periodic calibra-
tion algorithms is necessary to prevent inaccurate data (Ward et al. 2021; Koo and Yoon
2024). The uncertainties in a digital twin platform may originate from various sources,
including measurement errors, variations in wind properties, and operational param-
eters such as rotor speed within the models. Techniques like Monte Carlo simulation
and Bayesian inference are commonly used to quantify the magnitude and distribution
of these uncertainties (Moghadam and Nejad 2022; Chen et al. 2021; Adedipe et al. 2020;
Hirvoas et al. 2021). In the event of network failures or sensor malfunctions, imple-
mented failover mechanisms ensure continuous data availability (Hung et al. 2022).

Model complexity and model order reduction

In predictive digital twin platforms for wind energy systems, sophisticated models
introduce significant computational challenges. High-fidelity models can capture com-
plex interactions and nonlinear behavior within and between wind turbines, but they
demand substantial computational resources for large scale simulations. To address this
issue, model order reduction techniques can achieve reliable predictive capabilities while
reducing the need for extensive computational resources. However, these techniques
also require validation with high-fidelity models (Taira et al. 2020).
Modelling types are discussed in "IoT sensors for data acquisition" Section. In physics-
based modelling, computational fluid models are used to simulate the airflow around
turbine blades, aiming to capture several effects such as fluid flow or wake forma-
tion (Siddiqui et al. 2019; Andersen and Murcia Leon 2022). For detailed analysis, these
high-resolution models are required with intensive processing power. Similarly, in the
structural dynamics of the components, finite element analysis is used to comprehend
deformation or failure points under different loading conditions (Liang et al. 2023; Zhao
et al. 2023; Gözcü and Dou 2020). Moreover, these two models may require coupled
simulation to understand the interaction between aerodynamic forces and structural
responses (fluid structure interaction), which becomes more computationally inten-
sive (Sayed et al. 2019; Grinderslev et al. 2021; Liu et al. 2019). On the other hand, sto-
chastic elements are necessary to achieve a realistic environmental simulation. Methods
mentioned in "Data quality assurance" Section may address this issue with an additional
computational cost. To address these temporal and spatial resolution challenges, some
possible solutions are utilizing high-performance computing resources, using efficient
data handling systems, or adapting model order reduction techniques (Michalakes 2020;
Veers et al. 2023).
There are several model order reduction techniques that can be adapted depending
on the application (Kumar and Ezhilarasi 2023). Proper orthogonal decomposition is a
technique, which identifies significant modes by decomposing the system into orthogo-
nal modes. This method can be utilized for analyzing wake dynamics, velocity fields or
structure dynamics (Siddiqui et al. 2020; Premaratne et al. 2022; Zhao et al. 2021). Simi-
larly, the balanced truncation approach, used in linear time-invariant systems, seeks to
achieve a balance between controllability and observability while reducing the states (Lin
et al. 2020). This method is useful in the modeling and control design of systems (Bui
2023; Morovati et al. 2021; Al-Iedani and Gajic 2020). Data-driven reduced order models
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 23 of 36

include techniques inherited from deep learning algorithms, which can model nonlinear
turbine aerodynamics, wind turbine interactions, and unsteady fluid–structure interac-
tions with reliable predictive capability and less demanding computational resources.
Some commonly used algorithms in these models are CNN, LSTM, and ANN. These
data-driven reduced order models can be combined with different methods, enabling
hybrid models for enhanced performance and accuracy (Wu et al. 2021; Zhang et al.
2022; Ali and Cal 2020; Siddiqui et al. 2020; Tabib et al. 2022).

Validation and calibration

Continuous calibration and validation of models and sensors on a predictive digital twin
platform are crucial to ensure accurate and reliable platforms under real environmental
conditions (Pimenta et al. 2020; Jonscher et al. 2022; Lee and Fields 2021; Bergua et al.
2023). However, several challenges need to be considered in this context. Addressing
limited historical data, ensuring sensor reliability, and dynamically adapting to varying
conditions pose significant challenges.
In newly deployed digital twin platforms, historical data might be scarce, limiting the
ability to validate model performance. Collecting data from the system and operating
environment takes time. However, to overcome such challenges, physics-based models
explained in "Physics based modeling" Section can be useful for simulating the dynam-
ics in question (Vahidi and Porté-Agel 2022; Wang et al. 2022). The generated synthetic
data can then be used for calibration in the initial phase. Bayesian inference techniques
can be coupled with data assimilation methods to integrate synthetic data generated
from physics-based models. This approach enhances the predictive capabilities of the
model with new, unforeseen data (Valikhani et al. 2024; Hirvoas et al. 2022; Sousa and
Gorlé 2019; Poterjoy 2022).
The data collected from sensors plays a key role in the predictive capabilities of digi-
tal twin platforms. However, these sensors may experience calibration drift over time
due to environmental factors and mechanical wear. Therefore, it is necessary to employ
advanced calibration techniques, such as periodic sensor recalibration, to ensure data
accuracy (Han et al. 2020; Schwegmann et al. 2023). Additionally, model-based fault
detection and isolation algorithms, such as observer-based approaches, can be utilized
to detect sensor anomalies and correct measurements (Habibi et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2021;
Rajpoot et al. 2021). Kalman filters with different variations or deep learning algorithms
can further enhance data reliability based on the system dynamics (Hur 2019; Cho et al.
2021).
Dynamic system adaptation methods can be integrated into digital twin platforms
to address validation and calibration issues. Implementing advanced control-oriented
techniques such as model predictive control or adaptive robust control can calibrate the
platform to replicate the dynamic behavior of adaptive control systems (Petrović et al.
2021; Collet et al. 2021; Mahmoud and Oyedeji 2019). Additionally, parameter estima-
tion techniques such as least squares, extended Kalman filter, or sparse identification of
nonlinear dynamics (SINDy) can be used to update the model parameters based on real-
time sensor feedback under dynamic operating conditions (Ghareveran and Yazdizadeh
2019; Wang et al. 2022; Barhate et al. 2024). In this regard, data-driven approaches like
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 24 of 36

reinforcement learning or neural networks can adaptively calibrate the system based on
observed behaviors (Saenz-Aguirre et al. 2020; Xie et al. 2023; Saenz-Aguirre et al. 2019).

Discussion
This section provides a deeper analysis of the most recent trends, methods, and chal-
lenges in predictive digital twin platforms for wind energy systems. The current state of
this field is examined through four main discussion points, which target common meth-
odologies, integration and analysis of various data sources, key features and technolo-
gies, and encountered challenges.
Commonly employed methodologies are handled in three main groups: physics-based
modeling, data-driven approaches, and hybrid models. In physics-based modeling, the
primary research areas include the mechanical behavior of turbine components, aer-
oelastic effects, and material properties. This research can extend to offshore wind tur-
bine structures, investigating materials under such conditions and the effects of surface
waves and ocean currents on structural dynamics. In aerodynamic models, numerical
analysis in fluid flow problems has a solid foundation. Similarly, the aeroelastic effect on
aerodynamic characteristics and dynamic inflow can be investigated further for better
energy efficiency in wind farms. In terms of electrical models, grid integration is attract-
ing attention due to the implementation of new renewable resources. Control models
mainly focus on three aspects: pitch control, yaw control, and predictive maintenance.
Predictive maintenance with fault detection algorithms is popular in different fields, and
there is potential to adapt these technologies for wind energy systems.
In data-driven approaches, regression models, machine learning algorithms, and
statistical methods are implemented in studies. Regression models are used to relate
dependent variables with independent variables. Among data-driven approaches,
machine learning algorithms represent the most popular research area, offering a vari-
ety of algorithm types. These models can capture nonlinear temporal and spatial fea-
tures quite well; however, many of them lack interpretability. To enhance the capabilities
of machine learning algorithms, statistical models are incorporated to obtain reliable
patterns.
Hybrid models are among the most popular algorithms in predictive digital twin plat-
forms for wind energy systems. For hybrid forecasting models, most research focuses
on varying time intervals for wind speed forecasting, essential for operational planning,
grid stability, and maintenance scheduling. In terms of fluid dynamics, hybrid models
find popular applications in optimizing blade shapes using high-fidelity models, inves-
tigating, and mitigating real-time wake effects, as well as adapting control for pitch
and yaw angles. Regarding structural models, common research areas include predic-
tive maintenance based on structural health monitoring data, in cooperation with early
warning systems for structural failures. Additionally, fatigue and load-bearing capac-
ity during the design phase are two popular areas for structural optimization. One of
the most significant developments in both structural and aerodynamics hybrid mod-
els is physics-informed neural networks, enabling the embedding of partial differential
equations governing the physics laws into neural networks. This enables the investiga-
tion of complex flow patterns or structural responses with different material properties
and conservation laws. Hybrid predictive maintenance models are another common
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 25 of 36

implementation in predictive digital twin platforms. Estimating the remaining useful

life with hybrid models is popular in various fields, with ongoing research, especially in
wind turbines, through vibration and thermal analysis. With the increasing popularity
of renewable energy systems, grid integration becomes an important field of research
to enhance grid stability by aligning wind power generation with real-time demand
forecasts.
Integrating data from diverse sources for analysis and improving predictive capabili-
ties requires significant attention. Current studies show that integrating data from differ-
ent sources and structuring these data in a comprehensible way is a trending area. Data
preprocessing techniques are well established; however, there is still a need for research
in unsupervised algorithms for processing data. Due to the intensity of multiple sensors,
reliable frameworks and protocols with alignment methods are necessary. Continuous
real-time monitoring is crucial for reliable predictive models, as it enables continuous
learning to iteratively increase model accuracy. However, real-time monitoring requires
models that maintain essential information. Therefore, feature selection methods are
used to capture the necessary input, while dimensionality reduction can reduce the
number of input dimensions.
Communication protocols such as MQTT and OPC UA are commonly employed for
efficient and secure data transmission. Many studies focus on reducing latency in com-
munication networks due to the need for time-sensitive networking in predictive digital
twin platforms. These technologies enable cloud computing with large amounts of data.
Transferring confidential data through these technologies requires secure encryption
protocols to ensure secure operation. Relying on these data, human–machine interface
modules can be developed. As part of a digital twin platform, interaction with systems
through different means is essential for awareness and adapting to optimal conditions.
Data quality assurance is one of the challenges in digital twin platforms due to sev-
eral heterogeneous data from different sensors and databases, which are associated with
uncertainties. There is attention on continuous sensor calibration to eliminate errors.
Also, with probabilistic simulations and ensemble methods, the inherited uncertainties
within the models can be quantified. Another challenge is model complexity due to high-
fidelity modeling, which is in disfavor in real-time operation. In recent studies, the focus
is on model order reduction techniques to overcome the model complexity problems.
Utilizing hybrid models in reduced-order models is a trending approach. Another chal-
lenge is model validation and calibration. To overcome this issue, a combination of his-
torical data and the collected sensor data is mainly used with different type algorithms.
Despite the analysis provided in this study, several limitations need to be addressed
to ensure an objective approach to predictive digital twin platforms for wind energy
systems.
Physics-based, data-driven, and hybrid models introduce inherent biases associated
with each methodology. For instance, physics-based models may provide robust and
repeatable results in simulating mechanical behaviors and aerodynamic characteris-
tics; however, they often rely on idealized assumptions, lacking real-world complexities.
Data-driven approaches, particularly deep learning algorithms, can identify complex
patterns, but as mentioned earlier in the text, they suffer from a lack of interpretabil-
ity. Moreover, data-driven approaches are highly sensitive to the quality of training data.
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 26 of 36

Hybrid models attempt to combine the strengths of these two methods, but they often
inherit the limitations of both methodologies, leading to potential overfitting and com-
putational inefficiencies.
The integration of heterogeneous data sources is a critical challenge that impacts
the reliability of predictive models. Despite advances in data processing and alignment
methods, the quality of data from diverse sources remains a significant concern. Sen-
sor calibration errors, data transmission latency, and inconsistencies in data formats can
introduce significant issues such as noise or biases. Furthermore, this study emphasizes
the need for real-time monitoring and continuous learning, which necessitates robust
data quality assurance mechanisms. However, the implementation of such mechanisms
brings several challenges, such as handling missing or corrupted data points. High-fidel-
ity models often result in high computational demands, making real-time application
challenging. Model order reduction techniques may lead to the loss of critical details
necessary for precise predictions. In the context of offshore wind turbines, these limita-
tions introduce additional layers of complexity.
Quantifying uncertainties within predictive models remains a critical challenge.
Probabilistic simulations and ensemble methods offer potential solutions, but they also
introduce computational complexity and demand high-quality data. The scalability of
the different models in wind energy systems and varying geographic locations is another
limitation. Most studies focus on specific case studies under controlled environments,
which may not be generalizable to other settings. For example, the performance of pre-
dictive maintenance algorithms developed for onshore turbines may differ when applied
to offshore turbines due to different operational conditions. This study falls short of pro-
viding comprehensive strategies for managing uncertainties and dealing with the scal-
ability of the methods.
In this study’s meta-analysis, it is observed that the current trend in predictive digi-
tal twin platforms for wind energy systems involves the attempt to overcome inherited
challenges with hybrid models. Additionally, the trend in model development primar-
ily consists of combining various models, incorporating both physics-based models and
machine learning algorithms for better accuracy and interpretability.

Conclusions and future work

In conclusion, the literature review on predictive digital twins for wind energy systems
highlights the significant potential in the renewable energy sector. Key findings from
the literature indicate that predictive digital twins can be leveraged by various modeling
types, including inherited methods from physics and machine learning algorithms. This
capability allows for identification of potential failures, enhanced predictive capabilities,
and informed decision-making processes. However, the successful implementation of
predictive digital twins in wind energy systems requires overcoming several challenges.
These include the need for:

• High-fidelity data acquisition to ensure that data are collected precisely and accu-
rately for comprehensive analysis. These data enable the training of models to sup-
port reliable decision making.
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 27 of 36

• Standardized, reliable communication networks to align with industry standards, facili-

tating secure data exchange and interoperability.
• Integration of diverse data sources, such as sensors, IoTs, historical databases, and exter-
nal APIs, into a unified system to create a comprehensive view. This process requires
methods such as data normalization and synchronization.
• Addressing cybersecurity concerns to protect the integrity and confidentiality of the
data involved.
• Improving human–machine interface issues to ensure that the insights generated by
predictive digital twins are effectively perceived by operators and decision-makers.

Future research should focus on enhancing the precision and reliability of predictive mod-
els by exploring hybrid approaches that combine physical and data-driven techniques. For
instance, integrating finite element analysis with deep learning neural networks could sig-
nificantly strengthen model capabilities. Developing methodologies to quantify and reduce
uncertainties is essential for reliable operations. Leveraging techniques such as Bayesian
inference and Monte Carlo simulations can facilitate robust predictive analysis. Incorpo-
rating diverse data sources, including historical trends and real-time environmental inputs,
alongside pure sensor data, will improve model capabilities. Additionally, scalability and
adaptability of predictive digital twin models across various systems and industries are
crucial. This involves reviewing data compatibility, modularity, and interoperability. Com-
mon Data Models (CDM) and data lakes can help address compatibility and integration
challenges. Moreover, focusing on APIs and middleware software will enable better data
exchange.
Overall, predictive digital twins stand as a promising technology in the wind energy sec-
tor, which facilitates a shift towards greater sustainability. Continued innovation in this area
will support the goal of achieving global renewable energy targets aligned with the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Author contributions
E.K. Prepared the document, including research, writing, and drafts. A.H. Revised the document and suggested additional
references T.K. Revised the document and suggested additional references S.A. Revised the document and suggested
additional references.

Funding
Open access funding provided by NTNU Norwegian University of Science and Technology (incl St. Olavs Hospital - Trond‑
heim University Hospital). No external funding.

Availability of data and materials

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable

Consent for publication

Not applicable

Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Received: 8 June 2024 Accepted: 31 July 2024

Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 28 of 36

References
Adedipe T, Shafiee M, Zio E (2020) Bayesian network modelling for the wind energy industry: an overview. Reliab Eng
Syst Safety 202:107053
Akbari R, Izadian A, Weissbach R (2019) An approach in torque control of hydraulic wind turbine powertrains. In: 2019
IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE). 979–982
Al-Iedani I, Gajic Z (2020) Order reduction of a wind turbine energy system via the methods of system balancing and
singular perturbations. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 117:105642
Alasadi SA, Bhaya WS (2017) Review of data preprocessing techniques in data mining. J Eng Appl Sci 12(16):4102–4107
Alhussein M, Aurangzeb K, Haider SI (2020) Hybrid CNN-LSTM model for short-term individual household load forecast‑
ing. IEEE Access 8:180544–180557
Ali N, Cal RB (2020) Data-driven modeling of the wake behind a wind turbine array. J Renew Sustain Energy 12(3):033304
Aly HHH (2020) An intelligent hybrid model of neuro wavelet, time series and recurrent Kalman filter for wind speed
forecasting. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 41:100802
Aly HHH (2020) A proposed intelligent short-term load forecasting hybrid models of ANN, WNN and KF based on cluster‑
ing techniques for smart grid. Electric Power Syst Res 182:106191
Andersen SJ, Murcia Leon JP (2022) Predictive and stochastic reduced-order modeling of wind turbine wake dynamics.
Wind Energy Sci 7(5):2117–2133
Avanzini GB, Eriksson KE (2021) Quality Assurance Framework of Digital Twins for the Oil and Gas Industry. Offshore
Mediterranean Conf Exhibit. 2021–157
Banik A, Behera C, Sarathkumar TV, Goswami AK (2020) Uncertain wind power forecasting using LSTM-based prediction
interval. IET Renew Power Generat 14(14):2657–2667
Barhate SC, Siram O, Sahoo N (2024) Wake modelling of horizontal-axis wind turbines using sparse identification of non-
linear dynamics (SINDY). In: Ray RK, Bora SN, Maiti DK (eds) Adv Theoret Appl Mech. Springer, Singapore, pp 69–82
Barhmi S, Elfatni O, Belhaj I (2020) Forecasting of wind speed using multiple linear regression and artificial neural net‑
works. Energy Syst 11(4):935–946
Barhmi S, Fatni OE (2019) Hourly wind speed forecasting based on support vector machine and artificial neural networks.
IAES Int J Artif Intell 8(3):286–291
Bashetty S, Guillamon JI, Mutnuri SS, Ozcelik S (2020) Design of a robust adaptive controller for the pitch and torque
control of wind turbines. Energies 13(5):1195
Basit MA, Dilshad S, Badar R, Rehman SM (2020) Limitations, challenges, and solution approaches in grid-connected
renewable energy systems. Int J Energy Res 44(6):4132–4162
Bazilevs Y, Korobenko A, Deng X, Yan J (2015) Novel structural modeling and mesh moving techniques for advanced
fluid-structure interaction simulation of wind turbines. Int J Numerical Methods Eng 102(3–4):766–783
Benzon H-H, Chen X, Belcher L, Castro O, Branner K, Smit J (2022) An operational image-based digital twin for large-scale
structures. Appl Sci 12(7):3216
Beretta M, Julian A, Sepulveda J, Cusidó J, Porro O (2021) An ensemble learning solution for predictive maintenance of
wind turbines main bearing. Sensors 21(4):1512
Bergua R, Robertson A, Jonkman J, Branlard E, Fontanella A, Belloli M, Schito P, Zasso A, Persico G, Sanvito A, Amet E, Brun
C, Campaña-Alonso G, Martín-San-Román R, Cai R, Cai J, Qian Q, Maoshi W, Beardsell A, Pirrung G, Ramos-García N,
Shi W, Fu J, Corniglion R, Lovera A, Galván J, Nygaard TA, Santos CR, Gilbert P, Joulin P-A, Blondel F, Frickel E, Chen P,
Hu Z, Boisard R, Yilmazlar K, Croce A, Harnois V, Zhang L, Li Y, Aristondo A, Mendikoa Alonso I, Mancini S, Boorsma
K, Savenije F, Marten D, Soto-Valle R, Schulz CW, Netzband S, Bianchini A, Papi F, Cioni S, Trubat P, Alarcon D, Molins
C, Cormier M, Brüker K, Lutz T, Xiao Q, Deng Z, Haudin F, Goveas A (2023) Oc6 project phase iii: validation of the
aerodynamic loading on a wind turbine rotor undergoing large motion caused by a floating support structure.
Wind Energy Sci 8(4):465–485
Bonney MS, Angelis M, Dal Borgo M, Andrade L, Beregi S, Jamia N, Wagg DJ (2022) Development of a digital twin opera‑
tional platform using python flask. Data-Centric Eng 3:1
Booshehri M, Emele L, Flügel S, Förster H, Frey J, Frey U, Glauer M, Hastings J, Hofmann C, Hoyer-Klick C, Hülk L, Kleinau
A, Knosala K, Kotzur L, Kuckertz P, Mossakowski T, Muschner C, Neuhaus F, Pehl M, Robinius M, Sehn V, Stappel M
(2021) Introducing the open energy ontology: enhancing data interpretation and interfacing in energy systems
analysis. Energy AI 5:100074
Branlard E, Jonkman B, Pirrung GR, Dixon K, Jonkman J (2022) Dynamic inflow and unsteady aerodynamics models for
modal and stability analyses in openfast. J Phys Conf Series 2265(3):032044
Buabeng A, Simons A, Frempong NK, Ziggah YY (2021) A novel hybrid predictive maintenance model based on cluster‑
ing, smote and multi-layer perceptron neural network optimised with grey wolf algorithm. SN Appl Sci 3(5):593
Bucchiarone A (2022) Gamification and virtual reality for digital twin learning and training: architecture and challenges.
Virtual Real Intell Hardware 4(6):471–486
Bui HH (2023) Control design for the ward-Leonard system in wind turbines. Eng Technol Appl Sci Res 13(1):9968–9972
Cai S, Mao Z, Wang Z, Yin M, Karniadakis GE (2021) Physics-informed neural networks (PINNs) for fluid mechanics: a
review. Acta Mechanica Sinica 37(12):1727–1738
Carneiro TC, Rocha PAC, Carvalho PCM, Fernández-Ramírez LM (2022) Ridge regression ensemble of machine learning
models applied to solar and wind forecasting in Brazil and Spain. Appl Energy 314:118936
Chakraborty A, Dey D, Das P, Ray S (2023) Real-time monitoring of wind turbine performance using IoT technology to
prevent potential disruptions. In: 2023 14th International Conference on Computing Communication and Net‑
working Technologies (ICCCNT). 1–6
Chen B, Hua X, Zhang Z, Nielsen SRK, Chen Z (2021) Active flutter control of the wind turbines using double-pitched
blades. Renew Energy 163:2081–2097
Chen D, Wang D, Zhu Y, Han Z (2021) Digital twin for federated analytics using a Bayesian approach. IEEE Internet Things
J 8(22):16301–16312
Chen L, Yang Y, Gao Y, Gao Z, Guo Y, Sun L (2019) A novel real-time feedback pitch angle control system for vertical-axis
wind turbines. J Wind Eng Indust Aerodynam 195:104023
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 29 of 36

Cheng B, Yao Y (2022) Design and optimization of a novel u-type vertical axis wind turbine with response surface and
machine learning methodology. Energy Convers Manag 273:116409
Cho S, Choi M, Gao Z, Moan T (2021) Fault detection and diagnosis of a blade pitch system in a floating wind turbine
based on Kalman filters and artificial neural networks. Renew Energy 169:1–13
Choi S, Jung I, Kim H, Na J, Lee JM (2022) Physics-informed deep learning for data-driven solutions of computational fluid
dynamics. Korean J Chem Eng 39(3):515–528
Collet D, Alamir M, Di Domenico D, Sabiron G (2021) Data-driven fatigue-oriented MPC applied to wind turbines indi‑
vidual pitch control. Renew Energy 170:1008–1019
Correia JB, Abel M, Becker K (2023) Data management in digital twins: a systematic literature review. Knowl Inform Syst
65(8):3165–3196
da Silva RG, Ribeiro MHDM, Moreno SR, Mariani VC, Santos Coelho L (2021) A novel decomposition-ensemble learning
framework for multi-step ahead wind energy forecasting. Energy 216:119174
Deng Y-C, Tang X-H, Zhou Z-Y, Yang Y, Niu F. Application of machine learning algorithms in wind power: a review. Energy
Sour Part A Recovery Utilizat Environ Eff. 1–22
Dimitrov N, Borraccino A, Peña A, Natarajan A, Mann J (2019) Wind turbine load validation using lidar-based wind retriev‑
als. Wind Energy 22(11):1512–1533
Dong H, Xie J, Zhao X (2022) Wind farm control technologies: from classical control to reinforcement learning. Progress
Energy 4(3):032006
Dong H, Zhang J, Zhao X (2021) Intelligent wind farm control via deep reinforcement learning and high-fidelity simula‑
tions. Appl Energy 292:116928
Du P, Wang J, Yang W, Niu T (2019) A novel hybrid model for short-term wind power forecasting. Appl Soft Comput
80:93–106
Dupré A, Drobinski P, Alonzo B, Badosa J, Briard C, Plougonven R (2020) Sub-hourly forecasting of wind speed and wind
energy. Renew Energy 145:2373–2379
Elsaraiti M, Merabet A (2021) A comparative analysis of the ARIMA and LSTM predictive models and their effectiveness for
predicting wind speed. Energies 14(20):6782
Elyasichamazkoti F, Khajehpoor A (2021) Application of machine learning for wind energy from design to energy-water
nexus: a survey. Energy Nexus 2:100011
Erdei TI, Krakó R, Husi G (2022) Design of a digital twin training centre for an industrial robot arm. Appl Sci 12(17):8862
Eriksson K, Markussen C (2023) Quality assurance of digital twins. Int Conf Offshore Mech Arctic Eng 86830:1
Evergreen SDH (2020) Effective data visualization: the right chart for the right data. SAGE, Los Angeles
Fahim M, Sharma V, Cao T-V, Canberk B, Duong TQ (2022) Machine learning-based digital twin for predictive modeling in
wind turbines. IEEE Access 10:14184–14194
Fahrmeir L, Kneib T, Lang S, Marx BD (2021) Regression Models. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 23–84
Falekas G, Karlis A (2021) Digital twin in electrical machine control and predictive maintenance: State-of-the-art and
future prospects. Energies 14(18):5933
Farkas J, Bello LL, Gunther C (2018) Time-sensitive networking standards. IEEE Commun Standards Mag 2(2):20–21
Fernandez-Gauna B, Graña M, Osa-Amilibia J-L, Larrucea X (2022) Actor-critic continuous state reinforcement learning for
wind-turbine control robust optimization. Inform Sci 591:365–380
Ferreira C, Yu W, Sala A, Viré A (2022) Dynamic inflow model for a floating horizontal axis wind turbine in surge motion.
Wind Energy Sci 7(2):469–485
Fowdur TP, Beeharry Y, Hurbungs V, Bassoo V, Ramnarain-Seetohul V (2018) Big data analytics with machine learning tools.
Springer, Cham, pp 49–97
Fu B, Zhao J, Li B, Yao J, Mouafo Teifouet AR, Sun L, Wang Z (2020) Fatigue reliability analysis of wind turbine tower under
random wind load. Struct Safety 87:101982
Gambier A (2021) Pitch control of three bladed large wind energy converters-a review. Energies 14(23):8083
García S, Ramírez-Gallego S, Luengo J, Benítez JM, Herrera F (2016) Big data preprocessing: methods and prospects. Big
Data Anal 1(1):9
Ghareveran MH, Yazdizadeh A (2019) Estimation of v47/660kw wind turbine state and fault detection with extended
kalman filter. In: 2019 6th International Conference on Control, Instrumentation and Automation (ICCIA). 1–7
Gonzalez E, Stephen B, Infield D, Melero JJ (2019) Using high-frequency SCADA data for wind turbine performance moni‑
toring: a sensitivity study. Renew Energy 131:841–853
Grieves M (2016) Origins of the digital twin concept
Grinderslev C, Sørensen NN, Horcas SG, Troldborg N, Zahle F (2021) Wind turbines in atmospheric flow: fluid-structure
interaction simulations with hybrid turbulence modeling. Wind Energy Sci 6(3):627–643
Gu J, Wang Y, Xie D, Zhang Y (2019) Wind farm NWP data preprocessing method based on t-SNE. Energies 12(19):3622
Gualtieri G (2019) A comprehensive review on wind resource extrapolation models applied in wind energy. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 102:215–233
Guo F, Mann J, Peña A, Schlipf D, Cheng PW (2022) The space-time structure of turbulence for lidar-assisted wind turbine
control. Renew Energy 195:293–310
Guo R, Wang Y (2021) Remaining useful life prognostics for the rolling bearing based on a hybrid data-driven method.
Proc Instit Mech Eng Part I J Syst Control Eng 235(4):517–531
Gözcü O, Dou S (2020) Reduced order models for wind turbine blades with large deflections. J Phys Conf Series
1618(5):052046
Habibi H, Howard I, Simani S (2019) Reliability improvement of wind turbine power generation using model-based fault
detection and fault tolerant control: A review. Renew Energy 135:877–896
Haghshenas A, Hasan A, Osen O, Mikalsen ET (2023) Predictive digital twin for offshore wind farms. Energy Inform 6(1):1
Han X, Jiang J, Xu A, Bari A, Pei C, Sun Y (2020) Sensor drift detection based on discrete wavelet transform and grey
models. IEEE Access 8:204389–204399
Hanifi S, Liu X, Lin Z, Lotfian S (2020) A critical review of wind power forecasting methods-past, present and future. Ener‑
gies 13(15):3764
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 30 of 36

Hartmann D, Herz M, Wever U (2018). In: Keiper W, Milde A, Volkwein S (eds) Model Order Reduct Key Technol Digital
Twins. Springer, Cham, pp 167–179
He L, Hao L, Qiao W (2021) Remote monitoring and diagnostics of pitch-bearing defects in an mw-scale wind turbine
using pitch symmetrical-component analysis. IEEE Trans Indust Appl 57(4):3252–3261
He L, Zhang C, Zhang B, Yang O, Yuan W, Zhou L, Zhao Z, Wu Z, Wang J, Wang ZL (2022) A dual-mode triboelectric nano‑
generator for wind energy harvesting and self-powered wind speed monitoring. ACS Nano 16(4):6244–6254
Hernandez-Estrada E, Lastres-Danguillecourt O, Robles-Ocampo JB, Lopez-Lopez A, Sevilla-Camacho PY, Perez-Sariñana
BY, Dorrego-Portela JR (2021) Considerations for the structural analysis and design of wind turbine towers: a
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 137:110447
Heydari A, Garcia DA, Fekih A, Keynia F, Tjernberg LB, De Santoli L (2021) A hybrid intelligent model for the condition
monitoring and diagnostics of wind turbines gearbox. IEEE Access 9:89878–89890
Hirvoas A, Prieur C, Arnaud E, Caleyron F, Munoz Zuniga M (2021) Quantification and reduction of uncertainties in a wind
turbine numerical model based on a global sensitivity analysis and a recursive Bayesian inference approach. Int J
Numer Method Eng 122(10):2528–2544
Hirvoas A, Prieur C, Arnaud E, Caleyron F, Zuniga MM (2022) Wind turbine quantification and reduction of uncertainties
based on a data-driven data assimilation approach. J Renew Sustain Energy 14(5):053303
Hornshøj-Møller SD, Nielsen PD, Forooghi P, Abkar M (2021) Quantifying structural uncertainties in Reynolds-averaged
Navier-stokes simulations of wind turbine wakes. Renew Energy 164:1550–1558
Hsu J-Y, Wang Y-F, Lin K-C, Chen M-Y, Hsu JH-Y (2020) Wind turbine fault diagnosis and predictive maintenance through
statistical process control and machine learning. IEEE Access 8:23427–23439
Huang B, Liang Y, Qiu X (2021) Wind power forecasting using attention-based recurrent neural networks: a comparative
study. IEEE Access 9:40432–40444
Huang Y, Zhang Z, Huang W, Chen S (2019) Dc-link voltage regulation for wind power system by complementary sliding
mode control. IEEE Access 7:22773–22780
Hung M-H, Lin Y-C, Hsiao H-C, Chen C-C, Lai K-C, Hsieh Y-M, Tieng H, Tsai T-H, Huang H-C, Yang H-C, Cheng F-T (2022) A
novel implementation framework of digital twins for intelligent manufacturing based on container technology
and cloud manufacturing services. IEEE Trans Autom Sci Eng 19(3):1614–1630
Hungud V, Arunachalam SK (2020) Chapter five—digital twin: empowering edge devices to be intelligent. In: Raj P,
Evangeline P (eds) The digital twin paradigm for smarter systems and environments: the industry use cases, vol
117. Elsevier, United States, pp 107–127
Hur S-H (2019) Estimation of useful variables in wind turbines and farms using neural networks and extended kalman
filter. IEEE Access 7:24017–24028
Hur S-h (2021) Short-term wind speed prediction using extended Kalman filter and machine learning. Energy Reports
7:1046–1054
Igwemezie V, Mehmanparast A, Kolios A (2019) Current trend in offshore wind energy sector and material requirements
for fatigue resistance improvement in large wind turbine support structures—a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
101:181–196
Ilham Tyass, Abdelouahad Bellat, Abdelhadi Raihani, Khalifa Mansouri, Tajeddine Khalili (2022) Wind speed prediction
based on seasonal ARIMA model. E3S Web Conf 336:00034
Isto P, Heikkilä T, Mämmelä A, Uitto M, Seppälä T, Ahola JM (2020) 5G based machine remote operation development
utilizing digital twin. Open Eng 10(1):265–272
Jacoby M, Usländer T (2020) Digital twin and internet of things-current standards landscape. Appl Sci 10(18):6519
Jahani K, Langlois RG, Afagh FF (2022) Structural dynamics of offshore wind turbines: a review. Ocean Eng 251:111136
Jonscher C, Hofmeister B, Grießmann T, Rolfes R (2022) Very low frequency IEPE accelerometer calibration and application
to a wind energy structure. Wind Energy Sci 7(3):1053–1067
Jureczko M, Pawlak M, Mezyk A (2005) Optimisation of wind turbine blades. J Mater Proc Technol 167(2):463–471
Kaarlela T, Pieskä S, Pitkäaho T (2020) Digital twin and virtual reality for safety training. In: 2020 11th IEEE International
Conference on Cognitive Infocommunications (CogInfoCom), pp. 000115–000120
Kalapatapu A, Sarkar M (2012) Cloud computing: an overview. CRC Press, Florida, pp 3–29
Kandemir E, Liu J, Hasan A (2023) Digital twin-driven dynamic repositioning of floating offshore wind farms. Energy
Reports 9:208–214
Karad S, Thakur R (2021) Efficient monitoring and control of wind energy conversion systems using internet of things
(IoT): a comprehensive review. Environ Dev Sustain 23(10):14197–14214
Kareem A (2020) Emerging frontiers in wind engineering: Computing, stochastics, machine learning and beyond. J Wind
Eng Indust Aerodynam 206:104320
Kaur MJ, Mishra VP, Maheshwari P (2020). In: Farsi M, Daneshkhah A, Hosseinian-Far A, Jahankhani H (eds) The conver‑
gence of digital twin, IoT, and machine learning: transforming data into action. Springer, Cham, pp 3–17
Kaviani HR, Nejat A (2021) Investigating the aeroelasticity effects on aeroacoustics and aerodynamics of a mw-class
HAWT. J Wind Eng Indust Aerodynam 213:104617
Kaya M (2019) A CFD based application of support vector regression to determine the optimum smooth twist for wind
turbine blades. Sustainability 11(16):4502
Keyantuo P, Dunn LN, Haydon B, Vermillion C, Chow FK, Moura SJ (2021) A vector auto-regression based forecast of wind
speeds in airborne wind energy systems. IEEE Conference on Control Technology and Applications (CCTA). 69–75
Khan M, Liu T, Ullah F (2019) A new hybrid approach to forecast wind power for large scale wind turbine data using deep
learning with TensorFlow framework and principal component analysis. Energies 12(12):2229
Kilimann J-E, Heitkamp D, Lensing P (2019) An augmented reality application for mobile visualization of gis-referenced
landscape planning projects. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Virtual-Reality Continuum
and Its Applications in Industry. Association for Computing Machinery, New York
Kisvari A, Lin Z, Liu X (2021) Wind power forecasting—a data-driven method along with gated recurrent neural network.
RenewEnergy 163:1895–1909
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 31 of 36

Kitchenham BA, Charters S (2007) Guidelines for performing systematic literature reviews in software engineering. Tech‑
nical Report EBSE-2007-01, School of Computer Science and Mathematics, Keele University
Kong X, Liu X, Shi R, Lee KY (2015) Wind speed prediction using reduced support vector machines with feature selection.
Neurocomputing 169:449–456
Koo J, Yoon S (2024) Simultaneous in-situ calibration for physical and virtual sensors towards digital twin-enabled build‑
ing operations. Adv Eng Inform 59:102239
Korprasertsak N, Leephakpreeda T (2019) Robust short-term prediction of wind power generation under uncertainty via
statistical interpretation of multiple forecasting models. Energy 180:387–397
Kosovic B, Haupt SE, Adriaansen D, Alessandrini S, Wiener G, Delle Monache L, Liu Y, Linden S, Jensen T, Cheng W,
Politovich M, Prestopnik P (2020) A comprehensive wind power forecasting system integrating artificial intel‑
ligence and numerical weather prediction. Energies 13(6):1372
Kouadri A, Hajji M, Harkat M-F, Abodayeh K, Mansouri M, Nounou H, Nounou M (2020) Hidden Markov model based
principal component analysis for intelligent fault diagnosis of wind energy converter systems. Renew Energy
150:598–606
Kumar R, Ezhilarasi D (2023) A state-of-the-art survey of model order reduction techniques for large-scale coupled
dynamical systems. Int J Dynam Control 11(2):900–916
Kumar N, Lee SC (2022) Human-machine interface in smart factory: a systematic literature review. Technol Forecast Soc
Change 174:121284
Lalik K, Watorek F (2021) Predictive maintenance neural control algorithm for defect detection of the power plants rotat‑
ing machines using augmented reality goggles. Energies 14(22):7632
Ledoux J, Riffo S, Salomon J (2021) Analysis of the blade element momentum theory. SIAM J Appl Math 81(6):2596–2621
Lee JCY, Fields MJ (2021) An overview of wind-energy-production prediction bias, losses, and uncertainties. Wind Energy
Sci 6(2):311–365
Li Y, Fan L, Miao Z (2020) Wind in weak grids: low-frequency oscillations, subsynchronous oscillations, and torsional inter‑
actions. IEEE Trans Power Syst 35(1):109–118
Li F, Li L, Peng Y (2021) Research on digital twin and collaborative cloud and edge computing applied in operations and
maintenance in wind turbines of wind power farm. Environ Sustain Dev (GEESD2021) 17:80–92
Li S, Patnaik S, Li J (2023) IoT-based technologies for wind energy microgrids management and control. Electronics
12(7):1540
Li Z, Wen B, Dong X, Peng Z, Qu Y, Zhang W (2020) Aerodynamic and aeroelastic characteristics of flexible wind turbine
blades under periodic unsteady inflows. J Wind Eng Indust Aerodynam 197:104057
Li Y, Wu Z (2020) A condition monitoring approach of multi-turbine based on var model at farm level. Renew Energy
166:66–80
Li L-L, Zhao X, Tseng M-L, Tan RR (2020) Short-term wind power forecasting based on support vector machine with
improved dragonfly algorithm. Journal of Cleaner Production 242:118447
Li W, Ren J, Shi K, Lu Y, Zhou J, Zheng H (2024) Flexibility prediction of thin-walled parts based on finite element method
and k-k-cnn hybrid model. Int J Adv Manufact Technol
Liang J, Kato B, Wang Y (2023) Constructing simplified models for dynamic analysis of monopile-supported offshore wind
turbines. Ocean Eng 271:113785
Liang Y, Liu L, Huang J (2020) Modeling of wind power service with CFD and Kalman filtering. Springer, Singapore, pp
61–81
Liew HF, Rosemizi AR, Aihsan MZ, Muzamir I, Baharuddin I (2020) Wind characterization by three blade savonius wind
turbine using IoT. IOP Conf Series Mater Sci Eng 932(1):012080
Lin Z, Cevasco D, Collu M (2020) A methodology to develop reduced-order models to support the operation and main‑
tenance of offshore wind turbines. Appl Energy 259:114228
Lio WH, Li A, Meng F (2021) Real-time rotor effective wind speed estimation using gaussian process regression and
Kalman filtering. Renew Energy 169:670–686
Liu H, Chen C (2019) Data processing strategies in wind energy forecasting models and applications: a comprehensive
review. Appl Energy 249:392–408
Liu M, Fang S, Dong H, Xu C (2021) Review of digital twin about concepts, technologies, and industrial applications. J
Manufact Syst 58:346–361
Liu Y, Ferrari R, Wu P, Jiang X, Li S, Wingerden J-W (2021) Fault diagnosis of the 10mw floating offshore wind turbine
benchmark: a mixed model and signal-based approach. Renew Energy 164:391–406
Liu L, Liang Y (2021) Wind power forecast optimization by integration of CFD and Kalman filtering. Energy Sour Part A
Recovery Utilizat Environ Effect 43(15):1880–1896
Liu X, Lin Z, Feng Z (2021) Short-term offshore wind speed forecast by seasonal ARIMA—a comparison against GRU and
LSTM. Energy 227:120492
Liu Y, Liu S, Zhang L, Cao F, Wang L (2021) Optimization of the yaw control error of wind turbine. Front Energy Res
9:626681
Liu X, Ospina J, Konstantinou C (2020) Deep reinforcement learning for cybersecurity assessment of wind integrated
power systems. IEEE Access 8:208378–208394
Liu H, Song W, Niu Y, Zio E (2021) A generalized Cauchy method for remaining useful life prediction of wind turbine
gearboxes. Mech Syst Signal Proc 153:107471
Liu K, Yu M, Zhu W (2019) Enhancing wind energy harvesting performance of vertical axis wind turbines with a new
hybrid design: a fluid-structure interaction study. Renew Energy 140:912–927
Liu X, Zhang L, Wang J, Zhou Y, Gan W (2023) A unified multi-step wind speed forecasting framework based on numerical
weather prediction grids and wind farm monitoring data. Renew Energy 211:948–963
Liu P, Zhao L, Fang G, Ge Y (2021) Explicit polynomial regression models of wind characteristics and structural effects on a
long-span bridge utilizing onsite monitoring data. Struct Control Health Monitor 28(5):2705
Lu P, Ye L, Zhong W, Qu Y, Zhai B, Tang Y, Zhao Y (2020) A novel spatio-temporal wind power forecasting framework based
on multi-output support vector machine and optimization strategy. J Cleaner Product 254:119993
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 32 of 36

Lv L, Wu Z, Zhang J, Zhang L, Tan Z, Tian Z (2022) A VMD and LSTM based hybrid model of load forecasting for power grid
security. IEEE Trans Indust Inform 18(9):6474–6482
Lv M, Duan B, Jiang H, Dong D (2020) Application of knowledge graph technology in unified management platform
for wind power data. In: IECON 2020 The 46th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society.
1762–1766
López G, Arboleya P (2022) Short-term wind speed forecasting over complex terrain using linear regression models and
multivariable LSTM and NARX networks in the ANDES mountains, ECUADOR. Renew Energy 183:351–368
Ma P, Macdonald M, Rouse S, Ren J (2024) Automatic geolocation and measuring of offshore energy infrastructure with
multimodal satellite data. IEEE J Oceanic Eng 49(1):66–79
Ma X, Tao F, Zhang M, Wang T, Zuo Y (2019) Digital twin enhanced human-machine interaction in product lifecycle.
Procedia CIRP 83:789–793
Ma Z, Zeng P, Lei L (2019) Analysis of the coupled aeroelastic wake behavior of wind turbine. J Fluids Struct 84:466–484
Mahmoud MS, Oyedeji MO (2019) Adaptive and predictive control strategies for wind turbine systems: a survey. IEEE/
CAA J Automat Sinica 6(2):364–378
Majidi Nezhad M, Groppi D, Marzialetti P, Fusilli L, Laneve G, Cumo F, Garcia DA (2019) Wind energy potential analy‑
sis using sentinel-1 satellite: a review and a case study on Mediterranean islands. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
109:499–513
Maldonado-Correa J, Martín-Martínez S, Artigao E, Gómez-Lázaro E (2020) Using SCADA data for wind turbine condition
monitoring: a systematic literature review. Energies 13(12):3132
Maldonado-Correa J, Torres-Cabrera J, Martín-Martínez S, Artigao E, Gómez-Lázaro E (2024) Wind turbine fault detection
based on the transformer model using SCADA data. Eng Fail Anal 162:108354
Mamun AA, Sohel M, Mohammad N, Haque Sunny MS, Dipta DR, Hossain E (2020) A comprehensive review of the load
forecasting techniques using single and hybrid predictive models. IEEE Access 8:134911–134939
Marti-Puig P, Blanco-M A, Cárdenas JJ, Cusidó J, Solé-Casals J (2019) Feature selection algorithms for wind turbine failure
prediction. Energies 12(3):453
Mashaly M (2021) Connecting the twins: a review on digital twin technology and its networking requirements. Procedia
Comput Sci 184:299–305
Mbuli N, Mathonsi M, Seitshiro M, Pretorius J-HC (2020) Decomposition forecasting methods: a review of applications in
power systems. Energy Reports 6:298–306
Mccarty M, Johnson J, Richardson B, Rieger C, Cooley R, Gentle J, Rothwell B, Phillips T, Novak B, Culler M, Wright B
(2023) Cybersecurity resilience demonstration for wind energy sites in co-simulation environment. IEEE Access
11:15297–15313
Mei Y, Song S, Lee Y, Park J, Kim S-H, Yi S (2020) Representing temporal attributes for schema matching. In: Proceedings of
the 26th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining. KDD ’20. Association for
Computing Machinery, New York. 709–719
Merizalde Y, Hernández-Callejo L, Duque-Perez O, Alonso-Gómez V (2019) Maintenance models applied to wind turbines.
A comprehensive overview. Energies 12(2):225
Messner JW, Pinson P (2019) Online adaptive lasso estimation in vector autoregressive models for high dimensional wind
power forecasting. Int J Forecast 35(4):1485–1498
Michalakes J (2020) HPC for weather forecasting. Springer, Cham, pp 297–323
Minerva R, Lee GM, Crespi N (2020) Digital twin in the IoT context: a survey on technical features, scenarios, and architec‑
tural models. Proc IEEE 108(10):1785–1824
Mir M, Shafieezadeh M, Heidari MA, Ghadimi N (2020) Application of hybrid forecast engine based intelligent algorithm
and feature selection for wind signal prediction. Evolv Syst 11(4):559–573
Miyanawala TP, Jaiman RK (2019) A hybrid data-driven deep learning technique for fluid-structure interaction. Int Conf
Offshore Mech Arctic Eng 2:002–08004
Moghadam FK, Nejad AR (2022) Online condition monitoring of floating wind turbines drivetrain by means of digital
twin. Mech Syst Signal Proc 162:108087
Moghadam FK, Rebouças GFdS, Nejad AR (2021) Digital twin modeling for predictive maintenance of gearboxes in float‑
ing offshore wind turbine drivetrains. Forschung Im Ingenieurwesen 85(2):273–286
Mohamed E, Gerami Seresht N, AbouRizk S (2023) Context-driven ontology-based risk identification for onshore wind
farm projects: a domain-specific approach. Adv Eng Inform 56:101962
Moness M, Moustafa AM (2020) Real-time switched model predictive control for a cyber-physical wind turbine emulator.
IEEE Trans Indust Inform 16(6):3807–3817
Morita Y, Rezaeiravesh S, Tabatabaei N, Vinuesa R, Fukagata K, Schlatter P (2022) Applying Bayesian optimization with
gaussian process regression to computational fluid dynamics problems. J Comput Phys 449:110788
Morovati S, Zhang Y, Djouadi SM, Tomsovic K, Wintenberg A, Olama M (2021) Robust output feedback control design for
inertia emulation by wind turbine generators. IEEE Trans Power Syst 36(6):5056–5067
Morrison R, Liu X, Lin Z (2022) Anomaly detection in wind turbine SCADA data for power curve cleaning. Renew Energy
184:473–486
Mouha RA (2021) Internet of things (Iot). J Data Anal Inform Proc 9(2):77
Mu Z, Guo W, Li Y, Tagawa K (2023) Wind tunnel test of ice accretion on blade airfoil for wind turbine under offshore
atmospheric condition. Renew Energy 209:42–52
Naik J, Dash PK, Dhar S (2019) A multi-objective wind speed and wind power prediction interval forecasting using vari‑
ational modes decomposition based multi-kernel robust ridge regression. Renew Energy 136:701–731
Navarrete EC, Trejo Perea M, Jáuregui Correa JC, Carrillo Serrano RV, Moreno GJR (2019) Expert control systems imple‑
mented in a pitch control of wind turbine: a review. IEEE Access 7:13241–13259
Nguyen TH, Prinz A, Friisø T, Nossum R, Tyapin I (2013) A framework for data integration of offshore wind farms. Renew
Energy 60:150–161
Nguyen HX, Trestian R, To D, Tatipamula M (2021) Digital twin for 5g and beyond. IEEE Commun Maga 59(2):10–15
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 33 of 36

Nielson J, Bhaganagar K, Meka R, Alaeddini A (2020) Using atmospheric inputs for artificial neural networks to improve
wind turbine power prediction. Energy 190:116273
Niu W, Huang J, Yang H, Wang X (2022) Wind turbine power prediction based on wind energy utilization coefficient and
multivariate polynomial regression. J Renew Sustain Energy 14(1):013306
Njiri JG, Beganovic N, Do MH, Söffker D (2019) Consideration of lifetime and fatigue load in wind turbine control. Renew
Energy 131:818–828
Olatunji OO, Adedeji PA, Madushele N, Jen T-C (2021) Overview of digital twin technology in wind turbine fault diagnosis
and condition monitoring. In: 2021 IEEE 12th International Conference on Mechanical and Intelligent Manufactur‑
ing Technologies (ICMIMT). 201–207
O’Leary K, Pakrashi V, Kelliher D (2019) Optimization of composite material tower for offshore wind turbine structures.
Renew Energy 140:928–942
Page MJ, Moher D, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, Shamseer L, Tetzlaff JM, Akl EA, Brennan SE, Chou R,
Glanville J, Grimshaw JM, Hróbjartsson A, Lalu MM, Li T, Loder EW, Mayo-Wilson E, McDonald S, McGuinness LA,
Stewart LA, Thomas J, Tricco AC, Welch VA, Whiting P, McKenzie JE (2021) PRISMA 2020 explanation and elabora‑
tion: updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1136/​bmj.​n160
Pandit R, Astolfi D, Hong J, Infield D, Santos M (2023) Scada data for wind turbine data-driven condition/performance
monitoring: a review on state-of-art, challenges and future trends. Wind Eng 47(2):422–441
Papi F, Jonkman J, Robertson A, Bianchini A (2024) Going beyond BEM with BEM: an insight into dynamic inflow effects
on floating wind turbines. Wind Energy Sci 9(5):1069–1088
Petrović V, Jelavić M, Baotić M (2021) MPC framework for constrained wind turbine individual pitch control. Wind Energy
24(1):54–68
Pimenta F, Pacheco J, Branco CM, Teixeira CM, Magalhães F (2020) Development of a digital twin of an onshore wind
turbine using monitoring data. J Phys Conf Series 1618(2):022065
Platenius-Mohr M, Malakuti S, Grüner S, Schmitt J, Goldschmidt T (2020) File- and API-based interoperability of digital
twins by model transformation: An IIoT case study using asset administration shell. Future Generat Comput Syst
113:94–105
Porchetta S, Muñoz-Esparza D, Munters W, van Beeck J, van Lipzig N (2021) Impact of ocean waves on offshore wind farm
power production. Renew Energy 180:1179–1193
Poterjoy J (2022) Implications of multivariate non-gaussian data assimilation for multiscale weather prediction. Monthly
Weather Rev 150(6):1475–1493
Pradeep AV, Prasad SVS, Suryam LV, Kumari PP (2019) A comprehensive review on contemporary materials used for
blades of wind turbine. Mater Today Proc 19:556–559
Premaratne P, Tian W, Hu H (2022) A proper-orthogonal-decomposition (pod) study of the wake characteristics behind a
wind turbine model. Energies 15(10):3596
Qadir Z, Khan SI, Khalaji E, Munawar HS, Al-Turjman F, Mahmud MAP, Kouzani AZ, Le K (2021) Predicting the energy out‑
put of hybrid PV-wind renewable energy system using feature selection technique for smart grids. Energy Reports
7:8465–8475
Qi Q, Tao F, Hu T, Anwer N, Liu A, Wei Y, Wang L, Nee AYC (2021) Enabling technologies and tools for digital twin. J Manu‑
fact Syst 58:3–21
Qian Z, Pei Y, Zareipour H, Chen N (2019) A review and discussion of decomposition-based hybrid models for wind
energy forecasting applications. Appl Energy 235:939–953
Qian Y, Wang T, Yuan Y, Zhang Y (2020) Comparative study on wind turbine wakes using a modified partially-averaged
Navier-stokes method and large eddy simulation. Energy 206:118147
Qin X, Luo Y, Tang N, Li G (2020) Making data visualization more efficient and effective: a survey. VLDB J 29(1):93–117
Rafiee A, Van der Male P, Dias E, Scholten H (2018) Interactive 3d geodesign tool for multidisciplinary wind turbine plan‑
ning. J Environ Manag 205:107–124
Rajamohan S, Vinod A, Aditya Pragada Venkata Sesha, M, Gopalakrishnan Vadivudaiyanayaki H, Nhanh Nguyen V, Arıcı M,
Nižetić S, Thai Le T, Hidayat R, Tuyen Nguyen D, (2022) Approaches in performance and structural analysis of wind
turbines—a review. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 53:102570
Rajpoot SC, Pandey C, Rajpoot PS, Singhai SK, Sethy PK (2021) A dynamic-SUGPDS model for faults detection and isola‑
tion of underground power cable based on detection and isolation algorithm and smart sensors. J Electr Eng
Technol 16(4):1799–1819
Ravanji MH, Cañizares CA, Parniani M (2020) Modeling and control of variable speed wind turbine generators for fre‑
quency regulation. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 11(2):916–927
Reddy SB, Magee AR, Jaiman RK, Liu J, Xu W, Choudhary A, Hussain AA (2019) Reduced order model for unsteady fluid
flows via recurrent neural networks. Int Conf Offshore Mech Arctic Eng 2:002–08007
Ren Q, Xu Y, Zhang H, Lin X, Huang W, Yu J (2021) Shaking table test on seismic responses of a wind turbine tower sub‑
jected to pulse-type near-field ground motions. Soil Dynam Earthquake Eng 142:106557
Rodríguez F, Chicaiza WD, Sánchez A, Escaño JM (2023) Updating digital twins: Methodology for data accuracy quality
control using machine learning techniques. Comput Indust 151:103958
Saad A, Faddel S, Mohammed O (2020) IoT-based digital twin for energy cyber-physical systems: design and implementa‑
tion. Energies 13(18):4762
Saenz-Aguirre A, Zulueta E, Fernandez-Gamiz U, Lozano J, Lopez-Guede JM (2019) Artificial neural network based rein‑
forcement learning for wind turbine yaw control. Energies 12(3):436
Saenz-Aguirre A, Zulueta E, Fernandez-Gamiz U, Ulazia A, Teso-Fz-Betono D (2020) Performance enhancement of the
artificial neural network-based reinforcement learning for wind turbine yaw control. Wind Energy 23(3):676–690
Sasikala G, Chandra YPS, Siva N, Vinesh AS (2021) Wind turbine fault monitoring system using MQTT. J Phys Conf Series
2040(1):012002
Sayed M, Lutz T, Krämer E, Shayegan S, Wüchner R (2019) Aeroelastic analysis of 10 mw wind turbine using CFD-CSD
explicit FSI-coupling approach. J Fluids Struct 87:354–377
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 34 of 36

Schwegmann S, Faulhaber J, Pfaffel S, Yu Z, Dörenkämper M, Kersting K, Gottschall J (2023) Enabling virtual met masts for
wind energy applications through machine learning-methods. Energy AI 11:100209
Sedaghatizadeh N, Arjomandi M, Kelso R, Cazzolato B, Ghayesh MH (2019) The effect of the boundary layer on the wake
of a horizontal axis wind turbine. Energy 182:1202–1221
Selvaraj Y, Selvaraj C (2022) Proactive maintenance of small wind turbines using IoT and machine learning models. Int J
Green Energy 19(5):463–475
Shah N, Bhatt C, Patel D (2018) IoT gateway for smart devices. Springer, Cham, pp 179–198
Shahid F, Zameer A, Muneeb M (2021) A novel genetic LSTM model for wind power forecast. Energy 223:120069
Sharma T, Balachandra P (2019) Model based approach for planning dynamic integration of renewable energy in a transi‑
tioning electricity system. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 105:642–659
Shen Y, Abubakar M, Liu H, Hussain F (2019) Power quality disturbance monitoring and classification based on improved
PCA and convolution neural network for wind-grid distribution systems. Energies 12(7):1280
Sheoran S, Pasari S (2022) Efficacy and application of the window-sliding ARIMA for daily and weekly wind speed fore‑
casting. J Renew Sustain Energy 14(5):053305
Shin W, Han J, Rhee W (2021) AI-assistance for predictive maintenance of renewable energy systems. Energy 221:119775
Shivani Sandhu KS, Ramachandran Nair A (2019) A comparative study of arima and rnn for short term wind speed
forecasting. In: 2019 10th International Conference on Computing, Communication and Networking Technologies
(ICCCNT). 1–7
Siddiqui MS, Fonn E, Kvamsdal T, Rasheed A (2019) Finite-volume high-fidelity simulation combined with finite-element-
based reduced-order modeling of incompressible flow problems. Energies 12(7):1271
Siddiqui MS, Latif STM, Saeed M, Rahman M, Badar AW, Hasan SM (2020) Reduced order model of offshore wind turbine
wake by proper orthogonal decomposition. Int J Heat Fluid Flow 82:108554
Siddiqui MS, Rasheed A, Kvamsdal T (2020) Numerical assessment of rans turbulence models for the development of
data driven reduced order models. Ocean Eng 196:106799
Sierra-García JE, Santos M (2021) Improving wind turbine pitch control by effective wind neuro-estimators. IEEE Access
9:10413–10425
Silva RN, Fantini DG, Mendes RC, Guimarães M, Oliveira T, Junior AB (2023) Assessment of wind resource considering local
turbulence based on data acquisition with sodar. Wind Eng 47(4):747–765
Simon J, Moll J, Krozer V (2024) Trend decomposition for temperature compensation in a radar-based structural health
monitoring system of wind turbine blades. Sensors 24(3):800
Singh M, Fuenmayor E, Hinchy EP, Qiao Y, Murray N, Devine D (2021) Digital twin: origin to future. Appl Syst Innovat
4(2):36
Sousa J, Gorlé C (2019) Computational urban flow predictions with Bayesian inference: validation with field data. Build
Environ 154:13–22
Stadtmann F, Rasheed A, Kvamsdal T, Johannessen KA, San O, Kölle K, Tande JO, Barstad I, Benhamou A, Brathaug T, Chris‑
tiansen T, Firle A-L, Fjeldly A, Frøyd L, Gleim A, Høiberget A, Meissner C, Nygård G, Olsen J, Paulshus H, Rasmussen
T, Rishoff E, Scibilia F, Skogås JO (2023) Digital twins in wind energy: emerging technologies and industry-
informed future directions. IEEE Access 11:110762–110795
Sun H, Qiu C, Lu L, Gao X, Chen J, Yang H (2020) Wind turbine power modelling and optimization using artificial neural
network with wind field experimental data. Appl Energy 280:115880
Sá FPG, Brandão DN, Ogasawara E, Coutinho RdC, Toso RF (2020) Wind turbine fault detection: A semi-supervised learn‑
ing approach with automatic evolutionary feature selection. In: 2020 International Conference on Systems, Signals
and Image Processing (IWSSIP). 323–328
Tabib MV, Tsiolakis V, Pawar S, Ahmed SE, Rasheed A, Kvamsdal T, San O (2022) Hybrid deep-learning pod-based paramet‑
ric reduced order model for flow around wind-turbine blade. J Phys Conf Series 2362(1):012039
Tahir A, Elgabaili M, Rajab Z, Buaossa N, Khalil A, Mohamed F (2019) Optimization of small wind turbine blades using
improved blade element momentum theory. Wind Eng 43(3):299–310
Taira K, Hemati MS, Brunton SL, Sun Y, Duraisamy K, Bagheri S, Dawson STM, Yeh C-A (2020) Modal analysis of fluid flows:
applications and outlook. AIAA Journal 58(3):998–1022
Tian W, Ozbay A, Hu H (2019) A wind tunnel study of wind loads on a model wind turbine in atmospheric boundary layer
winds. J Fluids Struct 85:17–26
Tu G, Li Y, Xiang J (2022) Coordinated rotor speed and pitch angle control of wind turbines for accurate and efficient
frequency response. IEEE Trans Power Syst 37(5):3566–3576
Tuerxun W, Chang X, Hongyu G, Zhijie J, Huajian Z (2021) Fault diagnosis of wind turbines based on a support vector
machine optimized by the sparrow search algorithm. IEEE Access 9:69307–69315
Udo W, Muhammad Y (2021) Data-driven predictive maintenance of wind turbine based on SCADA data. IEEE Access
9:162370–162388
Vahidi D, Porté-Agel F (2022) A physics-based model for wind turbine wake expansion in the atmospheric boundary
layer. J Fluid Mech 943:49
Valikhani M, Jahangiri V, Ebrahimian H, Liberatore S, Moaveni B, Hines E (2024) Aerodynamic load estimation in wind
turbine drivetrains using a Bayesian data assimilation approach. In: Platz R, Flynn G, Neal K, Ouellette S (eds) Model
Validat Uncertainty Quantificat, vol 3. Springer, Cham, pp 67–71
Vargas SA, Esteves GRT, Maçaira PM, Bastos BQ, Cyrino Oliveira FL, Souza RC (2019) Wind power generation: a review and
a research agenda. J Cleaner Product 218:850–870
van Dinter R, Tekinerdogan B, Catal C (2022) Predictive maintenance using digital twins: a systematic literature review.
Inform Software Technol 151:107008
Veers P, Bottasso CL, Manuel L, Naughton J, Pao L, Paquette J, Robertson A, Robinson M, Ananthan S, Barlas T, Bianchini A,
Bredmose H, Horcas SG, Keller J, Madsen HA, Manwell J, Moriarty P, Nolet S, Rinker J (2023) Grand challenges in the
design, manufacture, and operation of future wind turbine systems. Wind Energy Sci 8(7):1071–1131
Vogel CR, Willden RHJ (2020) Investigation of wind turbine wake superposition models using Reynolds-averaged Navier-
stokes simulations. Wind Energy 23(3):593–607
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 35 of 36

Wang N, Chen Q, Zhu L, Sun H (2022) Integration of data-driven and physics-based modeling of wind waves in a shallow
estuary. Ocean Modell 172:101978
Wang J, Liang Y, Zheng Y, Gao RX, Zhang F (2020) An integrated fault diagnosis and prognosis approach for predictive
maintenance of wind turbine bearing with limited samples. Renewe Energy 145:642–650
Wang T, Liu Z (2022) Digital Twin and Its Application for the Maintenance of Aircraft. Springer, Cham, pp 1035–1052
Wang L, Liu J, Qian F (2021) Wind speed frequency distribution modeling and wind energy resource assessment based
on polynomial regression model. Int J Electrical Power Energy Syst 130:106964
Wang A, Qian Z, Pei Y, Jing B (2022) A de-ambiguous condition monitoring scheme for wind turbines using least squares
generative adversarial networks. Renew Energy 185:267–279
Wang J, Wang S, Zeng B, Lu H (2022) A novel ensemble probabilistic forecasting system for uncertainty in wind speed.
Appl Energy 313:118796
Wang H, Xiong B, Zhang Z, Zhang H, Azam A (2023) Small wind turbines and their potential for internet of things applica‑
tions. iScience 26(9):107674
Wang Z, Yao L, Ding J, Zhang J (2020) Wind turbine rolling bearing fault diagnosis using t-sne and gwo-svm. In: 2020 7th
International Conference on Information Science and Control Engineering (ICISCE). 2274–2279
Ward R, Choudhary R, Gregory A, Jans-Singh M, Girolami M (2021) Continuous calibration of a digital twin: comparison of
particle filter and Bayesian calibration approaches. Data-Centric Eng 2:15
Wu P, Gong S, Pan K, Qiu F, Feng W, Pain C (2021) Reduced order model using convolutional auto-encoder with self-
attention. Phys Fluids 33(7):077107
Wu Y, Ma X (2022) A hybrid LSTM-KLD approach to condition monitoring of operational wind turbines. Renew Energy
181:554–566
Wu Z, Wang H (2012) Research on active yaw mechanism of small wind turbines. Energy Procedia 16:53–57
Wu Y, Zhang K, Zhang Y (2021) Digital twin networks: a survey. IEEE Internet Things J 8(18):13789–13804
Xiang L, Yang X, Hu A, Su H, Wang P (2022) Condition monitoring and anomaly detection of wind turbine based on
cascaded and bidirectional deep learning networks. Appl Energy 305:117925
Xiaoyu Z, Chao L (2019) Accommodation capability assessment of high-voltage direct current with a large-scale wind
power integration system based on risk constraints of sub-synchronous oscillation. J Eng 2019(16):2131–2136
Xie J, Dong H, Zhao X (2023) Data-driven torque and pitch control of wind turbines via reinforcement learning. Renew
Energy 215:118893
Xu Y, Sun Y, Liu X, Zheng Y (2019) A digital-twin-assisted fault diagnosis using deep transfer learning. IEEE Access
7:19990–19999
Yan Y, Wang X, Ren F, Shao Z, Tian C (2022) Wind speed prediction using a hybrid model of EEMD and LSTM considering
seasonal features. Energy Reports 8:8965–8980
Yang J, Fang L, Song D, Su M, Yang X, Huang L, Joo YH (2021) Review of control strategy of large horizontal-axis wind
turbines yaw system. Wind Energy 24(2):97–115
Yang C, Liu J, Zeng Y, Xie G (2019) Real-time condition monitoring and fault detection of components based on
machine-learning reconstruction model. Renew Energy 133:433–441
Yang G, Xinlei S, Baoliang L, Wenzhong S, Mingjiang Z, Ziyan Z (2020) Research on wind power prediction based on dop‑
pler sodar. Chinese Automation Congress, Shanghai, pp 1345–1348
Yue R, Jiang G, Jin X, He Q, Xie P (2024) Spatio-temporal feature alignment transfer learning for cross-turbine blade icing
detection of wind turbines. IEEE Trans Instrument Measure 73:1–17
Zhang M, Amaitik N, Wang Z, Xu Y, Maisuradze A, Peschl M, Tzovaras D (2022) Predictive maintenance for remanufactur‑
ing based on hybrid-driven remaining useful life prediction. Appl Sci 12(7):3218
Zhang X, Ji T, Xie F, Zheng C, Zheng Y (2022) Data-driven nonlinear reduced-order modeling of unsteady fluid-structure
interactions. Phys Fluids 34(5):053608
Zhang L, Qu J (2021) Study on aerodynamic performance of a combined vertical axis wind turbine based on blade ele‑
ment momentum theorem. J Renew Sustain Energy 13(3):033304
Zhang J, Wei Y, Tan Z (2020) An adaptive hybrid model for short term wind speed forecasting. Energy 190:115615
Zhang J, Yan J, Infield D, Liu Y, Lien F-s (2019) Short-term forecasting and uncertainty analysis of wind turbine power
based on long short-term memory network and gaussian mixture model. Appl Energy 241:229–244
Zhang K, Yu X, Liu S, Dong X, Li D, Zang H, Xu R (2022) Wind power interval prediction based on hybrid semi-cloud
model and nonparametric kernel density estimation. Energy Reports 8:1068–1078
Zhao Z, Dai K, Camara A, Bitsuamlak G, Sheng C (2019) Wind turbine tower failure modes under seismic and wind loads. J
Perform Constr Facilit 33(2):04019015
Zhao X, Dao MH, Le QT (2023) Digital twining of an offshore wind turbine on a monopile using reduced-order modelling
approach. Renew Energy 206:531–551
Zhao N, Jiang Y, Peng L, Chen X (2021) Fast simulation of nonstationary wind velocity fields by proper orthogonal
decomposition interpolation. J Wind Eng Indust Aerodynam 219:104798
Zhao L, Zhou Y, Matsuo IBM, Korkua SK, Lee W-J (2020) The design of a remote online holistic monitoring system for a
wind turbine. IEEE Trans Indust Appl 56(1):14–21
Zheng Y, Ge Y, Muhsen S, Wang S, Elkamchouchi DH, Ali E, Ali HE (2023) New ridge regression, artificial neural networks
and support vector machine for wind speed prediction. Adv Eng Software 179:103426
Zheng Y, Yang S, Cheng H (2019) An application framework of digital twin and its case study. J Ambient Intell Humaniz
Comput 10(3):1141–1153
Zhilyaev I, Krushinsky D, Ranjbar M, Krushynska AO (2022) Hybrid machine-learning and finite-element design for flexible
metamaterial wings. Mater Design 218:110709
Zhong D, Xia Z, Zhu Y, Duan J (2023) Overview of predictive maintenance based on digital twin technology. Heliyon
9(4):14534
Zilong T, Xiao Wei D (2022) Layout optimization of offshore wind farm considering spatially inhomogeneous wave loads.
Appl Energy 306:117947
Kandemir et al. Energy Informatics (2024) 7:68 Page 36 of 36

Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.