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Science & Technology PT365 (Till 15 April)

VisionIAS has established a Student Wellness Cell to support UPSC CSE students facing psychological challenges such as anxiety and loneliness. The cell offers professional mental health support, stress management strategies, and a safe environment for discussing personal issues. Counseling services are now available to all UPSC aspirants, regardless of their coaching affiliation.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

59 views159 pages

Science & Technology PT365 (Till 15 April)

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ankitjat190942013

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Building Mental Resilience for UPSC CSE

with VisionIAS Student Wellness Cell

The UPSC Civil Services Examination is one of the most prestigious exams in the country, bringing immense
professional and personal satisfaction. However, the journey often involves overcoming loneliness, intense
competition pressure, anxiety, and other psychological challenges. These issues can impact both your
preparation and overall well-being.
At VisionIAS, we recognize the multifaceted nature of this journey. To support our students comprehensively, we
have established a dedicated Student Wellness Cell. Since April 2024, our highly professional psychologists and
experienced professionals have provided confidential and mindful support as per student needs.

From Stress Management to Academic Excellence

Enhancing Academic Professional Mental Well-Supported

Performance: Health Support: Mind for Excellence:
Effective stress Seeking professional help Mental well-being is
management contributes is crucial for success in essential for achieving
to better academic UPSC preparation. success in UPSC exams.
outcomes.

Comprehensive Safe and Non-Judgmental Confidential and

Wellness Cell: Environment: Structured Support:
Addressing various issues A space for students to Multiple, structured
impacting mental health discuss issues and receive sessions based on the
and academic personalized support. severity of the issues.
performance.

Common Issues and Our Approach

Our counseling services have addressed a variety of issues, including:

Anxiety and Hopelessness: Using Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) to promote positive thinking.

Lack of Motivation and Focus: Introducing time management strategies and SMART goal-setting.

Emotional Struggles: Providing a safe space for expression and techniques

such as journaling and progressive muscle relaxation.

Social Isolation and Loneliness: Encouraging healthy social interactions

and setting personal boundaries.

Family and Personal Issues: Offering advice on coping with family dynamics, Scan the QR code
personal loss, and significant life stressors. for more details

To support the larger student community, VisionIAS is now extending our counseling and wellness support to all
students preparing for UPSC CSE, regardless of their coaching institute affiliation. Schedule a session by visiting
our office at Apsara Arcade near Karol Bagh Metro Station or emailing student.wellness@visionias.in.

Remember, seeking help is a sign of strength, not weakness.

AHMEDABAD BENGALURU BHOPAL CHANDIGARH DELHI GUWAHATI HYDERABAD JAIPUR JODHPUR LUCKNOW PRAYAGRAJ PUNE RANCHI
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Table of Contents
3.1.4. Other Developments _________________ 24
1. BIOTECHNOLOGY _____________________5 3.1.4.1. Deepfakes ______________________ 24
1.1. Genes and Related Concepts ___________ 5 3.1.4.2. S.A.R.A.H. _______________________ 24
1.1.1. Nobel Prize in Medicine 2024 (Gene 3.2. Extended Reality (XR) ________________ 25
Regulation) _______________________________ 6 3.2.1. Digital Twins ________________________ 25
1.1.2. Genetically Modified (GM) Crops _________ 7
1.1.3. Heritable Human Genome Editing (HHGE) __ 8 3.3. Blockchain technology _______________ 26
1.1.4. RNA Editing __________________________ 8 3.3.1. Vishvasya: National Blockchain Technology
1.1.5. Bridge Recombinase Mechanism (BRM) ___ 9 Stack ___________________________________ 27
1.1.6. One Day One Genome _________________ 9 3.3.2. Other Developments _________________ 27
1.1.7. Other Developments __________________ 10 3.3.2.1. Web3 __________________________ 27
1.1.7.1. Recombinant Proteins _____________ 10 3.3.2.2. Bitcoin Halving ___________________ 27
1.1.7.2. Tmesipteris Oblanceolate (Fern with
3.4. 3D Printing Technology ______________ 28
largest Genome) ________________________ 11
3.4.1. 4D printing _________________________ 28
1.1.7.3. DNA Repair ______________________ 11
1.1.7.4. Plant Genome Editing Tool ISDra2TnpB’ 3.5. Brain Computer Interfaces (BCIs)_______ 29
______________________________________ 11
1.1.7.5. Exosomes _______________________ 11 3.6. Supercomputers ____________________ 30

1.2. Gene Therapy __ 12 3.7. Li-Fi Technology 31

1.2.1. Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-Cell 3.8. Other Important News _______________ 32
Therapy _________________________________ 12 3.8.1. Semiconductor ______________________ 32
1.3. Stem Cell __________________________ 13 3.8.2. Network-as-a-Service (NaaS) ___________ 33
3.8.3. Neuromorphic Computing _____________ 33
1.4. Organ-on-chip (OoC) Technology _______ 13
4. DEVELOPMENTS RELATED TO PHYSICS __ 34
1.5. Mitochondria _______________________ 15
4.1. Higgs Boson________________________ 34
1.6. Unified Genomic Chip ________________ 15
4.2. Neutrinos _________________________ 36
1.7. BioE3 Policy (Biotechnology for Economy,
Environment and Employment)____________ 16 4.3. Gravitational Waves (GW) ____________ 37

1.8. Other Important News _______________ 17 4.4. Other Important Developments _______ 38
1.8.1. Endosymbiotic Theory ________________ 17 4.4.1. Antimatter _________________________ 38
1.8.2. Wolbachia Bacteria ___________________ 17 4.4.2. High Energy Photon Source (HEPS) ______ 38
1.8.3. Hayflick limit ________________________ 18 4.4.3. Giant Radio Sources __________________ 38
4.4.4. Daksha Project ______________________ 38
2. NANOTECHNOLOGY _________________19 4.4.5. Hydrogen Line (21 cm line) ____________ 39
2.1. Nano Fertilisers _____________________ 19 5. SPACE TECHNOLOGY ________________ 40
2.2. Other Developments _________________ 20 5.1. ISRO and Related Developments _______ 40
2.2.1. Goldene ____________________________ 20 5.1.1. Space Docking Experiment (SPADEX) _____ 40
2.2.2. Fluorescent Nanodiamond (FND) ________ 20 5.1.2. Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) _______ 41
2.2.3. Piezoelectric Polymer _________________ 20 5.1.3. Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM) __________ 42
5.1.4. Aditya-L1 ___________________________ 43
3. IT AND COMPUTER __________________21 5.1.5. Chandrayaan-3 ______________________ 44
3.1. Artificial Intelligence _________________ 21 5.1.5.1. Other Lunar Mission in News _______ 45
3.1.1. Nobel Prize in Physics 2024 (Artificial Neural 5.1.6. Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) Technology 45
Networks (ANNs)) _________________________ 22 5.1.7. Other Developments _________________ 45
3.1.2. BharatGen Programme ________________ 23 5.1.7.1. Earth Observation Satellite EOS-08 __ 45
3.1.3. Facial Recognition Technology __________ 24 5.1.7.2. Air Breathing Propulsion System ____ 46
5.1.7.3. Aryabhata ______________________ 46
1 AHMEDABAD | BENGALURU | BHOPAL | CHANDIGARH | DELHI | GUWAHATI | HYDERABAD | JAIPUR | JODHPUR | LUCKNOW | PRAYAGRAJ | PUNE | RANCHI ©Vision IAS
5.1.7.4. Astrosat ________________________ 46 6.9. Vaccines in News ___________________ 66
5.1.7.5. TRISHNA: Indo-French Thermal Imaging 6.9.1. mRNA vaccine _______________________ 67
Mission________________________________ 47 6.9.2. Related Developments ________________ 67
5.1.7.6. National Information System for Climate 6.9.2.1. New Dengue Vaccine TAK-003 ______ 67
and Environment Studies (NICES) Programme 47 6.9.2.2. R21/Matrix-M ___________________ 67
6.9.2.3. Hepatitis A vaccine _______________ 68
5.2. Space-related Phenomenon ___________ 47
6.9.2.4. Codon De-optimisation Technology (CDT)
5.2.1. Expansion of Universe _________________ 47
______________________________________ 68
5.2.2. Solar Storm (Geomagnetic Storm) _______ 48
5.2.3. Space Debris ________________________ 49 6.10. Key Organizations/Bodies in News ____ 69
5.2.4. Planetary Defense ____________________ 50 6.10.1. World Health Organization (WHO) _____ 69
6.10.2. Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) __ 69
5.3. Key Space Missions in News ___________ 51
6.11. Other Important News ______________ 70
5.4. Telescope in News ___________________ 52
6.11.1. Ferroptosis ________________________ 70
5.4.1. Major Atmospheric Cherenkov Experiment
6.11.2. Probiotic __________________________ 70
(MACE) __________________________________ 52
6.11.3. Xylitol ____________________________ 70
5.4.2. Square Kilometer Array ________________ 52
6.11.4. Thrombocytopenia Syndrome (TTS) ____ 70
5.4.3. University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory
6.11.5. Weight Loss Drugs __________________ 71
(TAO) Project _____________________________ 53
6.11.6. Ultrasound Technology ______________ 71
5.5. Key Concepts/Terms in News __________ 53 6.11.7. Methanol _________________________ 71
5.5.1. Brown Dwarf ________________________ 53 6.11.8. Ethylene Oxide _____________________ 71
5.5.2. White Dwarf Star _____________________ 53 6.11.9. Calcium Carbide ____________________ 72
5.5.3. Plunging region ______________________ 53 6.11.10. Coalition of Epidemic Preparedness
5.5.4. Trojan asteroid ______________________ 54 Innovations (CEPI) _________________________ 72
5.5.5. Super Blue Moon_____________________ 54 6.11.11. Global Alliance for Vaccines and
Immunization (GAVI) ______________________ 72
5.6. Other Important News _______________ 54
5.6.1. RHUMI-1 ___________________________ 54 7. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY _______________ 73
5.6.2. Space-based Surveillance ______________ 54
5.6.3. Van Allen Radiation Belt _______________ 55
7.1. Nuclear Energy _____________________ 73
5.6.4. Spy or Reconnaissance Satellite _________ 55 7.1.1. Fast Breeder Reactor _________________ 74
5.6.5. Space Tourism _______________________ 56 7.1.2. Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) _________ 76
7.1.3. Tokamak ___________________________ 76
6. HEALTH____________________________57 7.1.4. Related Developments ________________ 77
7.1.4.1. Thorium Molten Salt Nuclear Plant __ 77
6.1. Diseases and Related Development _____ 57 7.1.4.2. Nuclear Energy Summit ____________ 77
6.1.1. Tuberculosis ________________________ 57
6.1.2. Monkeypox (mpox) ___________________ 58 7.2. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) __ 77
6.1.3. Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) ______ 58
7.3. Other Important News _______________ 78
6.1.4. Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR) ________ 59
7.3.1. Sodium Ion Battery ___________________ 78
6.1.5. Other Diseases in News _______________ 60
7.3.2. Hydrogen-Fuel Cells __________________ 79
6.1.5.1. Avian Influenza ___________________ 60
7.3.3. Zinc Air Batteries ____________________ 79
6.1.5.2. Zika Virus _______________________ 60
7.3.4. Tribo-Electric Nanogenerator (TENG)
6.1.5.3. Chandipura virus _________________ 60
technology ______________________________ 79
6.2. Fixed Dose Combination Drugs _________ 61
8. DEFENCE __________________________ 80
6.3. Xenotransplantation _________________ 62
8.1. Cruise and Ballistic Missile ____________ 80
6.4. Trans-fat Elimination_________________ 62 8.1.1. Agni Prime __________________________ 81
8.1.2. Other Missiles in News ________________ 82
6.5. Glycemic Index _____________________ 63
8.2. India’s Ballistic Missile Defence Program 82
6.6. A1 and A2 Milk _____________________ 64 8.2.1. Other Air Defence Systems in News _____ 83
6.7. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 8.3. Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) ______ 83
Technology ____________________________ 65
8.4. Aircraft/Helicopter __________________ 84
6.8. Radiation Therapy Facility ____________ 65
2
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8.5. Submarines/Ships ___________________ 85 9.2. Graphene _________________________ 89
8.6. Drones ____________________________ 86 9.3. Electric Vehicles ____________________ 90
9.3.1. PM E-DRIVE Scheme __________________ 90
8.7. Other Important News _______________ 86
8.7.1. SEBEX 2 ____________________________ 86 9.4. Critical Minerals ____________________ 91
8.7.2. Zorawar tanks _______________________ 87 9.4.1. Lithium ____________________________ 92
8.7.3. GAURAV ____________________________ 87
8.7.4. ABHED (Advanced Ballistics for High Energy
9.5. Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) ________ 92
Defeat) __________________________________ 87 9.6. Atoms4Food _______________________ 93
8.7.5. Supersonic Missile-Assisted Release of
Torpedo (SMART) system ___________________ 87 9.7. Other Important News/Developments __ 94
9.7.1. KAVACH ____________________________ 94
9. MISCELLANEOUS ____________________88 9.7.2. 3D Hologram Technology ______________ 94
9.7.3. Liquid Nitrogen ______________________ 94
9.1. Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2024 (Protein) _ 88
9.7.4. Thermite ___________________________ 95

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1. BIOTECHNOLOGY
1.1. GENES AND RELATED CONCEPTS

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1.1.1. NOBEL PRIZE IN MEDICINE 2024 (GENE REGULATION)
Why in the News?
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine has been awarded to Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun for the discovery of
microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional Gene Regulation.
Discovery of Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun
• In 1993, they discovered microRNA and its role in gene regulation after transcription.
o Till 1993, it was believed that gene regulation is limited to specialized proteins called transcription
factors, which bind to specific regions in DNA and determine which messenger Ribonucleic acid
(RNA) (mRNA) is produced.
• They discovered the role of microRNA by investigating mutant Caenorhabditis Elegans nematodes.
About microRNA (miRNA)
• A small non-coding RNA that helps cells regulate gene expression.
• Controls gene expression by binding with mRNA and preventing them from being translated into proteins or
by degrading or destroying mRNA altogether.
o Proteins in the nucleus regulate RNA transcription and splicing while microRNAs control the
translation and degradation of mRNA in the cytoplasm.
About Gene Regulation

• Refers to the process that controls the timing, location, and amount in which genes (out of many genes in a
genome) are expressed.
• Gene Expression:
o Human organs and tissues consist of different cell types, the chromosomes in the cell contain the
same set of genes with the same set of instructions.
o However, due to gene regulation, these different cells (like muscle cells, nerve cells, etc.) express
unique sets of proteins, enabling them to perform their specialized function.

Significance/Application of the Discovery

• Understanding Cellular Development: E.g. Self-renewal and differentiation of stem cells

6
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• Immune Response: Regulate innate and adaptive immune responses.
• Oncogenesis: To avoid healthy cells conversion to cancer cells.
• Disease diagnostics: E.g. Cancer
Related Concept
Reverse Transcriptase (RTs)
• Researchers found that when infected by viruses, bacteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae) use RNA to bind
Reverse transcriptase.
• About RT
o They are RNA-dependent DNA polymerases, a group of enzymes that play a unique role in the flow of
genetic information.
o These enzymes enable the reverse transcription reaction.
 Reverse transcription is the synthesis of DNA from an RNA template.

1.1.2. GENETICALLY MODIFIED (GM) CROPS

Why in the News?
The Supreme Court pronounced a split verdict on the validity of the Union government's decision to grant
approval for the environmental release of Genetically Modified (GM) mustard crops in 2022.
About GM Mustard Crop (DMH-11)
• Developed by: Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants (Delhi University)
o GM mustard has not been released for commercial cultivation yet.
o It is India's first indigenously developed GM food crop.
• DMH-11 is a result of a crossing between two mustard varieties (‘Varuna' and East European 'Early Heera-
2').
• This cross has been done after introducing the barnase and barstar gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus
amyloliquefaciense.
Other Genetically Modified (GM) Crops in India
• Bt-Cotton: First non-food and only approved GM crop in 2002 for commercial cultivation.
o It was introduced to protect against the widespread infestation of bollworms such as Pink Bollworm
(PBW).
• Bt-Brinjal: In 2009, Bt-brinjal was cleared by GEAC for commercial cultivation, but it was put on a
moratorium

Regulatory Framework of GM Crops in India

• Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006: Prohibits import, manufacture, use, or sale of GM food without
FSSAI’s approval.
• Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM): Under the Department of Biotechnology (DBT),
this committee monitors various aspects of R & D projects involving GM organisms.
• State Biotechnology Coordination Committee (SBCC): Reviews the safety and control measures in
various institutions handling Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).

1.1.3. HERITABLE HUMAN GENOME EDITING (HHGE)

Why is the News?
South Africa becomes the first country to allow Heritable Human Genome Editing (HHGE).
About HHGE
• Unlike somatic cell editing, which affects only individuals, HHGE introduces changes in germline cells
(sperm, eggs, or embryos), enabling these alterations to be inherited by offspring.
• Potential Applications:
o Disease Prevention: These include Heritable diseases, Huntington’s disease, and sickle cell anemia.
o Assisted reproductive technology: Can improve technologies, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF).
• Concerns:
o Unforeseen consequences: Germline genome edits would be heritable, and their effects could be
multigenerational.
o Societal Impact: Creation of “designer babies,” where traits like intelligence, etc. might be engineered.

1.1.4. RNA EDITING

Why in the News?
The first successful clinical demonstration of RNA editing in humans was conducted.
More on the News
• Wave Life Sciences has successfully performed RNA editing to treat alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD,
an inherited disorder).
• In AATD, levels of protein α-1 antitrypsin build up and affect the liver and lungs.
About RNA (Ribonucleic acid) Editing
• A process that modifies genetic information on RNA sequences through insertion, deletion or
substitution.
• Scientists used a technique called ‘Adenosine Deaminase Acting on RNA (ADAR)’ with guide RNA (gRNA).
(refer image)
o gRNA are small RNA molecules that direct editing machinery by base-pairing with mRNA in specific
regions for modification.

8
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Comparison between RNA and DNA editing
• Form of change: DNA editing makes permanent changes while RNA editing makes temporary
changes.
o Thus, RNA editing is safer and flexible compared to DNA editing which may result in irreversible
errors.
• Allergic and immune reactions: DNA editing has a higher risk of undesirable reactions compared to
RNA editing.
o DNA editing tools use proteins from certain bacteria to perform cutting functions while RNA editing
relies on ADAR enzymes, already occurring in the human body.

1.1.5. BRIDGE RECOMBINASE MECHANISM (BRM)

Why in the News?
Scientists discovered a naturally existing DNA editing tool - Bridge Recombinase Mechanism (BRM) which
utilizes mobile genetic elements or “jumping genes”.
About BRM
• Extra DNA at the ends of jumping genes gets joined together and converts the DNA double helix structure
into a single-stranded RNA molecule.
• This bridge RNA molecule can bind to two DNA
segments (donor and target), allowing for flexible
DNA modifications.
About Jumping Genes
• Jumping genes are DNA sequences that move
from one location on the genome to another.
• These are also known as transposable elements.
• These small DNA segments contain recombinase
enzyme along with extra DNA segments at the
ends of the genes that bind and manipulate DNA.
o They can replicate themselves and insert copies at new locations.
o Their movement can cause genetic mutations and contribute to genome evolution.

1.1.6. ONE DAY ONE GENOME

Why in the News?
The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and Biotechnology Research and Innovation Council (BRIC)
launched the ‘One Day One Genome’ initiative on 1st foundation day of BRIC.
About One Day One Genome
• Aim: An annotated microbial genome will be publicly released every day to make microbial genomics
data more accessible to researchers.
• It will highlight the unique bacterial species found in our country.
About Microbial Genomics
• It is the scientific field that studies the complete genetic material of microorganisms to understand their
structure, function, evolution, and interactions with other organisms.
• Microbes (or microorganisms) are too small to see with the naked eye. E.g., bacteria, algae, etc.

1.1.7.1. RECOMBINANT PROTEINS

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have developed a new process for production of
recombinant proteins.
What are Recombinant Proteins (RPs)?
• Recombinant proteins are proteins that are artificially produced using genetic engineering techniques.
• These are modified or manipulated proteins encoded by recombinant DNA (rDNA).
o rDNA is an artificially made DNA strand that is formed by the combination of two or more DNA
molecules.
o rDNA technology can be used to combine (or splice) or transfer DNA from different species or to
create genes with new functions.
• Production:
o RPs such as monoclonal antibodies (moAbs or mAbs), are mass-produced by growing modified
bacterial, viral, or mammalian cells in large bioreactors.
 mAbs are lab-made proteins mimicking natural antibodies.

• Contains 160 billion base pairs (the units that make up a strand of DNA) outstripping the human genome
by more than 50 times.
• Belongs to a primordial group of plants that evolved long before dinosaurs set foot on the earth.

1.1.7.3. DNA REPAIR

Recently, scientists have discovered a new target for cancer treatment which is used by cancer cells to regulate
DNA repair during Cell division.
• Cancer cells use the enzyme TDP1 (Tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 1) to repair DNA damage caused by
chemotherapy drugs like camptothecin, leading to treatment resistance.
o TDP1 is an important enzyme in humans that plays a crucial role in DNA repair by removing damaged
DNA bases.
About DNA Repair
• DNA repair is a mechanism of a cell to maintain the integrity of its genetic code.
• Exists in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.

1.1.7.4. PLANT GENOME EDITING TOOL ISDRA2TNPB’

ICAR recently developed a miniature plant genome editing tool ISDra2TnpB.

• TnpB proteins are considered the evolutionary ancestors of Cas12 nucleases.

About Genome editing tool ISDra2TnpB

• Derived from bacteria called Deinococcus radiodurans (it can survive extreme environmental conditions).
• Belongs to a family of jumping genes.
• Significance
o TnpB can target unique regions in the genome that Cas9 and Cas12 cannot.
o Facilitates the creation of fusion proteins (chimeric protein), created by joining two or more genes that
originally coded for separate proteins.

1.1.7.5. EXOSOMES
An exosome-based gene editing platform SafeEXO-Cas, has been developed by Scientists at Columbia
University.
About Exosomes

• Exosomes are naturally occurring vesicles that have the potential to be manipulated to become promising
drug delivery vehicles.
• Exosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles actively released into the extracellular space.

1.2.1. CHIMERIC ANTIGEN RECEPTOR (CAR) T -CELL THERAPY

Why in the News?
India's first homegrown gene therapy NexCAR19 CAR-T cell Therapy for cancer has been launched by the
President of India.
More on the News
• NexCAR19 CAR-T cell Therapy has been
developed by the Indian Institute of
Technology (Bombay), and others.
About Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-
cell therapy
• Modifies immune cells, specifically T-
cells, by turning them into potent cancer
fighters known as CAR-T cells.
o T-cells are special cells (types of white
blood cells) whose primary function is
cytotoxic, meaning killing other cells.
• T-cells are taken from patient blood and
are changed in the lab by adding a gene for
a man-made receptor (called CAR).
o CARs are proteins that assist the T-
cells to recognise and attach to a specific protein present in cancer cells.

1.3. STEM CELL

Why in the News?
For the first time, a Type 1 diabetic woman was treated by using cells derived from her own body after a
reprogrammed stem cell transplant.
More on the News
• Allogeneic stem cell transplantation was performed, it uses stem cells from someone other than the
patient.
o Allogeneic stem cell transplantation is a kind of Stem cell therapy (SCT).
• In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas does not make insulin, because the body's immune system attacks the
islet cells in the pancreas that make insulin.
o In diabetes type 2, the pancreas makes less insulin than used to.
About Stem Cells
• A cell with the unique ability to develop into specialised cell types in the body.
• Two unique properties:
o Can divide over and over again to produce new cells andand replace specialised cells that are damaged
or lost.
o As they divide, they can change into the other types of cells that make up the body.
• Major sources: Embryos and adult tissues (adult stem cells).

1.4. ORGAN-ON-CHIP (OOC) TECHNOLOGY

Why in the News?
Organ-on-chip technology could boost BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment, and Employment)
Policy goal to personalize medicine.

How does organ-on-a-chip technology work?

• Cells are placed on a chip and allowed to grow into 3D structures with the help of a polymer that
resembles real tissue in the human body.
• Uses tiny fluid channels that simulate blood flow, oxygen delivery, nutrient transport, etc. to
create miniature models of biological organs (lung, heart, etc.) on a chip-sized device.

Steps Facilitating the development Organ on chip technology in India

• Amendment of New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules 2019: Permits the use of human organs-on-chips.
• Genome India Project (GIP): 10,000-genome Database will be available to researchers across the globe
under it.
o Launched in 2020 by the Department of Biotechnology.
o Indian Biological Data Centre (IBDC), the first national repository for life science data, will facilitate
a database to researchers.
• Phenome India Project: By CSIR, for generating a comprehensive phenome database
o The phenome is the entire set of phenotypes (set of observable characteristics or traits) in a cell, tissue,
organ, organism, or species.

1.5. MITOCHONDRIA
Why in the News?
Researchers studied Mitochondrial dynamics to treat Parkinson’s Disease.
More on the News
• Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the death of brain cells.
• Researchers have found that inhibiting Dynamin-related protein (Drp1) activity could restore
mitochondrial function and serve as a potential treatment.
o Drp1 protein travels to mitochondria when they divide into smaller sizes for higher mobility and
quality control.
About Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles that generate most of the cell's energy in the form of
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).
• Functions
o Energy Production: Sites of aerobic respiration, producing ATP, hence termed the powerhouses of
the cell.
o Genetic Material: Contains its own circular DNA (Mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA), RNA, ribosomes,
and components for protein synthesis.
 mtDNA is useful for tracing genetic lines.
 mtDNA is inherited exclusively from the mother, making these diseases maternally inherited.
Related Concept
Mitogenome
• The latest study on the South African Leopard's mitogenome revealed their possible origin.
• About Mitogenome
o A small circular chromosome found inside the mitochondria.
o Built of double-stranded DNA similar to the nuclear genome and entirely maternal.
o Nuclear genomes are inherited equally from both parents.

1.6. UNIFIED GENOMIC CHIP

Why in the News?
Prime Minister launched Unified Genomic Chip and indigenous sex-sorted semen technology for the benefit
of livestock in India.
About Unified Genomic Chip
• A Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) chip.
• Objective: Designed for genomic profiling and evaluation of Indian cattle breeds.
o Enables the direct application of DNA technologies to enhance the genetic potential (genetic
improvement) of diverse dairy animal.
• Variants of the chip:
o Gau chip for cattle

About Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)

• Refers to a variation in a DNA sequence where a single
nucleotide is different from the reference sequence.
o An SNP may replace the nucleotide Guanine (G)
with the nucleotide thymine (T) in a certain stretch
of DNA.
• These are the most common type of genetic variation
among people.
• They can act as biological markers (or biomarkers),
helping scientists locate genes that are associated with
disease.

About Sex-sorted Semen Technology

• Sex Sorted Semen is the 'gender selected' semen used in Artificial Insemination (AI) for cattle and
buffaloes.
• Ensures the birth of only female calves with more than 90% accuracy whereas conventional semen
produces equal proportion of male and female (50:50) calves.
• National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) has developed the indigenous technology of sex sorted
semen.

1.7. BIOE3 POLICY (BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR ECONOMY, ENVIRONMENT

AND EMPLOYMENT)
Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet has approved the BioE3 (Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment) Policy
for “Fostering High-Performance Biomanufacturing.”
About BioE3 Policy
• Aim: Establish a framework to adopt advanced technologies and align research to revolutionize
biomanufacturing processes.
o Biomanufacturing refers to using engineered microbial, plant, and animal (including human) cells with
increasing precision and control to produce commercially important products on scale.
• Implementation Agency: Department of Biotechnology (DBT)
• Key Target: Policy aims to achieve a US $300 billion bioeconomy by 2030.
o Bioeconomy is "the production, use and conservation of biological resources, including related
knowledge, science, technology, and innovation to provide information, products, processes and
services to all economic sectors.
• Salient Features:
o It includes innovation-driven support to R&D and entrepreneurship across six thematic sectors.
o The research and translational activities under thematic sectors will be catalyzed by Bio-Artificial
Intelligence (AI) Hubs: Integrating AI, and Biomanufacturing Hubs.

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Related News
Biotechnology Research Innovation and Entrepreneurship Development (Bio-RIDE) Scheme
• Union Cabinet recently approved the Bio-RIDE Scheme.
• About Bio-RIDE Scheme
o Nodal Department: DBT, Ministry of Science & Technology
o Three Components: It combines two existing schemes with a new third component:
 Biotechnology Research and Development (R&D)
 Industrial and Entrepreneurship Development (I&ED)
 Biomanufacturing and Biofoundry (B&B), this new component aims at furthering India’s goal of
creating a Circular Bioeconomy in alignment with the Lifestyle for the Environment (LiFE)
mission.

1.8. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

1.8.1. ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
Researchers have discovered a type of organelle, called nitroplast, in a marine algae Braarudosphaera
bigelowii, that can fix nitrogen.
Key Findings
• It is generally believed that nitrogen fixation only occurs in bacteria and archaea but Braarudosphaera
bigelowii marks the first known nitrogen-fixing eukaryote.
o Nitrogen fixation is a biological process in which nitrogen gas is converted into a usable form for cell
growth.
• This generated interest in Endosymbiotic theory
About Endosymbiotic theory
• Posits that some eukaryotic cell organelles, such as mitochondria and plastids, evolved from free-living
prokaryotes.
o Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus which stores the genetic information.
o In prokaryotes, DNA is bundled together in the nucleoid region, but it is not stored within a membrane-
bound nucleus.
• Some of these organisms ingested prokaryotic cells that then survived within the organism and developed a
symbiotic relationship.

1.8.2. WOLBACHIA BACTERIA

Recently, a study has highlighted that Wolbachia bacteria had manipulated the wasp Encarsia Formosa to get
rid of its males entirely.

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About Wolbachia Bacteria
• Commonly found in nematodes and arthropods, especially insects.
• In insects, these are present in eggs but absent in the sperm. Due to this, females can transmit them to
their offspring whereas males can’t.
o As a result, Wolbachia have evolved ways to manipulate their insect hosts to produce more female than
male progeny.
o Tra gene of Wolbachia plays a key role in showing this feature.
• Potential Application: Mosquitoes with Wolbachia can be used to reduce the numbers of target mosquito
species, such as Aegypti mosquitoes.
o Also, the population of mosquitoes can be controlled by genetically modifying them with the help of
Laboratory Methods (introduces self-limiting genes) and Gene Drive Technology (GDT).
 GDT is a type of genetic engineering technique that modifies genes so that they don’t follow the
typical rules of heredity.

1.8.3. HAYFLICK LIMIT

Leonard Hayflick passed away recently, who introduced the ‘Hayflick limit’ that changed the understanding of
aging.
About Hayflick limit
• Refers to the number of times a cell population can divide until it attains a cell cycle arrest.
• Depends on the length of chromosomal telomeres, which decreases in standard cells with every cell
division.
o The telomere is the region of repetitive DNA sequences at the end of a chromosome.
• The “Hayflick limit” is around 125 years for humans.

2.1. NANO FERTILISERS

Why in the News?
Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) got the Fertiliser (Control) Order, 1985 (FCO) approval for
Nano Zinc and Nano Copper liquids.
Nano Fertilisers

• Nano fertilizers are nutrients encapsulated within a nanomaterial to enable controlled release and
subsequent slow diffusion into the soil.
• Nano Zinc and Nano Copper liquids would help effectively address the deficiency of micronutrients.
o Zinc: Enzyme functioning in plants, plant growth and development, etc.
o Copper: Enzymatic activities in plants and chlorophyll and seed production
• Earlier, IFFCO’s nano-liquid urea and nano-liquid Di-Ammonia Phosphate (DAP) were also approved.
Other Government Initiatives on Nanotechnology in Agriculture

• Mission on Nano Science and Technology (Nano Mission), 2007, under the Department of Science &
Technology (DST).

2.2. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

2.2.1. GOLDENE
Scientists have developed a sheet of Gold, called Goldene, which is just one atom thick.
About Goldene

• Created by sandwiching silicon between titanium carbide layers, depositing gold, allowing gold atoms to
replace silicon, forming a monolayer.
• 400 times thinner than the thinnest commercially available gold leaf.
• Potential applications: Catalyst in the electronics industry, carbon dioxide conversion, hydrogen
generation, etc.

2.2.2. FLUORESCENT NANODIAMOND (FND)

Recently, Scientists, levitated and spun fluorescent nanodiamonds at incredibly high speeds to observe how
the rotation affected the spin qubits in a unique way known as the Berry phase.

About Fluorescent Nanodiamond (FND)

• FNDs are nanometre-sized diamonds made of carbon nanoparticles.

o Fluorescence is the property of some materials to emit light of lower frequency when irradiated with
light of a higher frequency.
• They are produced in a high-temperature and high-pressure process
• Key Property: Remains stable under light and isn’t toxic to living things
• Key Applications: High-resolution imaging, microscale temperature sensing, and correlative microscopy,
and to track cells and their progeny over long periods.

2.2.3. PIEZOELECTRIC POLYMER

Researchers from the Centre for Nano and Soft Matter Sciences (CeNS) have developed a security alert
system based on Piezoelectric Polymer nanocomposite.
About Piezoelectric Polymer
• Piezoelectric polymers can generate electric charges on the surface under pressure or strain, thus
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• Advantages: They are widely used due to their flexibility, lightweight, and processability.
• Applications: Sensors, wearables, medical implants, consumer electronics, etc.

• John Hopfield invented the Hopfield network, a type of recurrent neural network that can store and
reconstruct information.
o This network works like a memory system, where they can store patterns (like images) and retrieve
them.
o The network relies on Donald Hebb’s hypothesis—when neurons act together, they can enhance the
network’s capability to process and store information.
• Geoffrey Hinton invented a method (Boltzmann machine) that can independently discover properties in
data.
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)

• Definition: ML program or model that makes decisions like the human brain, by using processes that
mimic the way biological neurons work together to identify phenomena, weigh options, and arrive at
conclusions.
• Working: Human brain is the inspiration behind neural network architecture.
• ANN that closely mimic natural neural networks are known as Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs).
• Major types of ANN:
o Deep Neural Networks: Network with many layers, each building on the previous layer.
o Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): Detect features and patterns in images and videos
o Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): Used to create new data resembling the original training
data.

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3.1.2. BHARATGEN PROGRAMME
Why in the News?
Ministry of Science and Technology launched BharatGen, a pioneering initiative in Generative Artificial
Intelligence (AI).
About BharatGen Programme
• A Multimodal LLM project focused on
creating Generative AI systems that can
generate high-quality text and
multimodal content (audio and
imagery) in various Indian languages.
• Aim and Purpose:
o To revolutionize public service
delivery and boost citizen
engagement.
o Crafting a path tailored to India’s diverse linguistic, cultural, & societal fabric.
• Implementing Agency: TIH Foundation for IoT & IoE (TIH-IoT) under the National Mission on
Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS).
• Timeline: Project is expected to be completed in two years (July 2026).
• Bharat Data Sagar: Aims at establishing a vast repository of India-centric data that ensures the AI models
are deeply rooted in the country’s unique context.
National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber Physical Systems (NM-ICPS)
• About: A comprehensive mission approved in 2018.
• Aim: To promote translational research in Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) and associated technologies
• Implementing Agency: Department of Science & Technology (DST)
Other initiatives taken to promote AI Ecosystem in India
• IndiaAI Mission: implemented by ‘IndiaAI’ Independent Business Division (IBD) under Digital India
Corporation (DIC) under the ministry of Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.
• National AI Portal (INDIAai): Joint venture by MeitY, National e-Governance Division (NeGD) and
NASSCOM.
• AI Research Analytics and Knowledge Dissemination Platform (AIRAWAT): For providing a common
compute platform for AI research and knowledge assimilation.

3.1.3. FACIAL RECOGNITION TECHNOLOGY

Why in the News?
NITI Aayog released ‘White Paper: Responsible AI for All (RAI) on Facial Recognition Technology (FRT)’.
About Facial Recognition Technology (FRT)
• An AI system that allows the identification or verification of a person based on certain images or video
data using complex algorithms.
• FRT can be used for two purposes:
o 1: 1 verification of identity: Facial map is obtained for matching it against the person’s photograph on
a database. E.g. 1.1 is used to unlock phones.
o 1: n identification of identity: Verification against the entire database to identify the person in the
photograph or video. E.g. 1: n is used for mass monitoring and surveillance.
Key applications of FRT
• Security Related Uses
o Law and order enforcement: E.g. Identification of Persons of Interest or Missing Persons.
o Crowd Control (E.g. Divya Drishti)
• Non-Security Related Uses
o Verification and authentication of individual identity for access to products, services, etc. E.g., Using
Aadhar Card for Authentication based on Facial Recognition.
o Airports: E.g., contactless onboarding at airports through Digi Yatra.
o Banking: Facial recognition is safer as there are no passwords for hackers to compromise.

3.1.4. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

3.1.4.1. DEEPFAKES
The Election Commission of India has warned parties against using AI-based tools to create deep fakes that
distort information or propagate misinformation.
About Deepfakes
• Refer to synthetic media, usually images and videos created using AI and deep learning techniques.
o It differs from Shallowfake which uses conventional technologies to create altered media (videos etc.)
• Working: Uses Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) to analyze and synthesize audio and visual
content.
• Applications of Deepfakes: Natural and accurate dubbing in movies and TV shows, training simulations in
fields, such as medicine, aviation, etc., etc.
Measures to counter Deepfakes
• Section 66D of the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000 provides for punishment for cheating by
impersonation using any communication device.
• Rules 3(1)(b) and Rule 3(2)(b) of Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media
Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 mandate social media intermediaries to observe due diligence to not host
obscene content, deceives or misleads the addresses, etc.

3.1.4.2. S.A.R.A.H.
WHO unveiled a digital health promoter prototype S.A.R.A.H harnessing Generative AI for public health.

3.2. EXTENDED REALITY (XR)

3.2.1. DIGITAL TWINS

Why in the News?
The use of digital twins is growing across the industry.
What are Digital Twins?
• Digital twins are virtual replicas of physical objects, systems, or processes that simulate their real-world
counterparts in real-time.
• By integrating data from various sources, digital twins enable real-time monitoring, analysis, and
optimization of physical entities.
• It uses four key technologies to create a digital representation, collect real-time data, and provide
valuable insights: the Internet of Things (IoT), Extended Reality (XR), Cloud computing, and Artificial
Intelligence.

Related Concept
Internet of Things (IoT)
• Refers to a network of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other physical objects that are
embedded with sensors, software, and network connectivity, allowing them to collect and share data.
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• IoT devices are also known as smart objects.
• An IoT system has three components: Smart devices (e.g. television), IoT application and A graphical
user interface.
• Key Applications: Agriculture (monitor soil conditions, weather patterns and crop growth), Healthcare
(monitor patients remotely), etc.

3.3. BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

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3.3.1. VISHVASYA: NATIONAL BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY STACK
Why in the News?
Union Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has launched the ‘Vishvasya: National
Blockchain Technology Stack’.
More on the News
• MeitY also unveiled
o NBFLite-Lightweight Blockchain Platform: A Blockchain sandbox platform for startups/academia .
o Praamaanik: A blockchain-enabled solution for verifying the origin of mobile apps.
About Vishvasya: National Blockchain Technology Stack
• Offers Blockchain-as-a-Service (BaaS) with a geographically distributed infrastructure designed to support
various permissioned Blockchain-based applications.
o BaaS is a third-party cloud-based infrastructure and management that organizations and businesses
use for developing and managing blockchain applications.
• Part of the National Blockchain Framework (NBF) provided under the National Strategy on Blockchain.
• Key Features:
o Rapid end-to-end Permissioned Blockchain Application Development & Deployment.
o Ready to use Security Audited Blockchain Containers for Production setup.

3.3.2. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

3.3.2.1. WEB3
India’s share of a global pool of Web3 developers has increased from 3% in 2018 to 12% in 2023.
About Web 3
• Third generation of the World Wide Web.
• Enables peer-to-peer transactions and interactions without intermediaries.
• Provides a version of the web where users have a financial stake and more control over web.
• Enables people to control their own data.
• Includes cryptocurrencies, Non-Fungible Tokens etc.
• In the web3 world, there can be blockchain-based social networks.
• Operated by users collectively rather than a corporation.

3.3.2.2. BITCOIN HALVING

Bitcoin, the world's largest cryptocurrency, has recently undergone halving.
About Bitcoin Halving
• Refers to the 50% reduction in the reward paid to Bitcoin miners.
o Bitcoin miners successfully process other people’s cryptocurrency transactions so that they can be
added to the public digital ledger known as the blockchain.
• Takes place every four years.
• The halving policy was written into Bitcoin’s mining algorithm to counteract inflation by maintaining scarcity.
• In theory, the reduction in the pace of Bitcoin issuance means that the price will increase if demand remains
the same.

3.4.1. 4D PRINTING
Why in the News?
Indian Researchers developed 4d-printed artificial blood vessels for Advanced Medical Grafts.
About 4D Printing
• Evolved from 3D printing by adding the dimension of time.
• In it, objects can change shape or function over time in response to environmental stimuli such as heat,
light, or moisture, etc.
Advantages
• Dynamic Functionality: By creating adaptive structures beyond the capabilities of traditional 3D printing.
• Material Efficiency: By reducing wastages.
• Complex Design fabrication: Stereo lithography 4D technique fabricates complex designs efficiently.

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Related News
Agnibaan SOrTeD
• IIT Madras-incubated space startup Agnikul Cosmos has successfully launched the world’s first rocket
(Agnibaan SOrTeD) with a single piece 3D printed engine.
• About Agnibaan SOrTeD
o Rocket Agnibaan SOrTeD (SubOrbital Technological Demonstrator) is India’s first semi-cryogenic
engine-powered rocket launch flight.
o Launched from: India’s first privately developed launchpad called ‘Dhanush’ established by
Agnikul at Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh.

3.5. BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACES (BCIS)

Why in the News?
Neuralink’s 'BLINDSIGHT', a Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) implant, received “breakthrough device” status
by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
More on the News
• BLINDSIGHT Chip aimed at
helping blind patients (who
have lost their both eyes and
optic nerves) or those who have
been blind from birth to regain
their sight.
About Brain-Computer Interface
(BCI)

• A computer-based system
that acquires, analyzes, and
translates brain signals into
commands for an output
device to carry out a desired
action (refer to the
infographic).
• BCI has three main parts:
o A headset device with
specialized sensors.
o A computer to process
and analyze the recorded
brain activity.
o Application/device to
carry out command.
• Another important part of BCI
is feedback.
• BCI do not read minds to extract information from unsuspecting or unwilling users but enables users to
act on the world by using brain signals rather than muscles.
Types of BCIs
• Invasive BCI (Brain Implants): Implanted directly into grey matter of brain. E.g., Neuralink’s Implant.
• Non-invasive BCI (Surface Detectors): E.g. Electroencephalograph (EEG), Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) etc.

Key Concepts
• Neuron, Control and co-ordination:
o Brain is made up of millions of cells called neurons.
 These neurons work together in large networks to
coordinate processes in body (Hearing, taste, heart
rate etc.) and execute movements.
o Neurons communicate via electrochemical signals.
• Brain Activity and Its Measurement:
o Brain activity refers to the electrical signals and
chemical processes that occur in the brain, which are
responsible for various cognitive functions, emotions,
sensations, and behaviors.
o This electrical brain activity can be measured by placing
special sensors onto/into the head.

3.6. SUPERCOMPUTERS
Why in the News?
Prime Minister virtually launched three Param Rudra Super Computing Systems and a High-Performance
Computing (HPC) system for weather and climate research.
More on the News
• These supercomputers have been developed indigenously under the National Supercomputing Mission
(NSM).

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• New HPC systems named 'Arka' and 'Arunika’ will enhance accuracy and predictions related to tropical
cyclones, heavy precipitation, thunderstorms, etc.
What is a Supercomputer?
• A high-performance computing system that delivers exceptional processing power and computational
capacity compared to a general-purpose computer.
o Performance is measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS).
• India’s supercomputers:
o India’s first supercomputer was PARAM 8000.
o India's largest and fastest AI supercomputer AIRAWAT was ranked 75th in the Top 500 Global
Supercomputing List of 2023.
• World’s fastest Supercomputer is Frontier (USA), capable of more than a quintillion operation per second
(Exaflop)
About National Supercomputing Mission (NSM), 2015
• Objective: To make India one of the world leaders in Supercomputing
• Jointly steered by: Department of Science and Technology (DST) and MeitY.
• Implemented by: Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) and Indian Institute of Science
(IISc), Bengaluru.
• NSM envisages:
o Installing a network of supercomputers with a cumulative capacity of 45 PetaFlops
o Connecting these supercomputers on the National Supercomputing grid over the National Knowledge
Network.

3.7. LI-FI TECHNOLOGY

Why in the News?
The Ministry of Defence funded a start-up under the Innovations for Defence Excellence (iDEX) will secure Li-
Fi technology for the Indian Defence sector, particularly focusing on the Navy.
More on the News
• iDEX fosters innovation and technology development in the Defence and Aerospace sector.
o iDEX is managed by the Defence Innovation Organization under MoD.
About Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) Technology
• A bidirectional wireless system that uses visible light communication or infra-red and near ultraviolet
(instead of radio frequency waves) spectrum
o It transmits data with the help of a Light light-emitting diode (LED).
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• Working: On/off activity of the LED transmitter
enables data transmission by the incoming binary
codes.
• Applications: Aircrafts, hospitals (operation
theatres), power plants, etc. where
electromagnetic (Radio) interference creates
security issues.
• Advantage of Li-Fi over Wi-Fi
o Faster: Combination of low interference, and
high bandwidths provides a high data rate.
o Cheaper and sustainable: It is up to 10 times
cheaper than Wi-Fi, requires fewer
components, and uses less energy.
o Secure: Since light does not pass through walls
like radio waves do, it prevents interception.
• Disadvantages: Much shorter range than Wi-Fi, can’t be accessed beyond the illumination range of light,
etc.

3.8. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

3.8.1. SEMICONDUCTOR
Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the fifth semiconductor unit in India, to be set up in Sanand, Gujarat
under the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM).
• India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) is a specialized Business Division within Digital India Corporation
under MeitY.
o It has been working as the nodal agency for the Schemes approved under the Semicon India
Programme.
About Semiconductor
• Semiconductors, also referred to as integrated circuits (IC), are materials with characteristics
intermediate between a "conductor" and "insulator".
o It can be made of a single element or a combination of elements in the form of a compound.
 E.g., Silicon is an elemental semiconductor and Gallium nitride is a compound semiconductor.
• Applications: Essential in electronics, including diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and
telecommunications.
o Semiconductors are found in almost all electronic devices and play a pivotal role in emerging
technologies like AI, 5G, IoT, etc.

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3.8.2. NETWORK-AS-A-SERVICE (NAAS)
The market for NaaS in India is expected to expand from $1.18 billion in 2024 to $7.32 billion by 2029.
About NaasS
• A cloud service model in which customers rent networking services from cloud providers.
o It provides the flexibility to pay for services based on usage and to scale as business needs change.
• Allows customers to operate the networks without maintaining their networking infrastructure.

3.8.3. NEUROMORPHIC COMPUTING

Indian Institute of Science scientists reported a breakthrough in neuromorphic computing.
What is Neuromorphic Computing or Neuromorphic Engineering?
• Mimics the human brain's structure and function.
• Involves designing hardware and software that simulate neural networks and synapses to process
information.
• Working:
o Mimics biological brains using hardware like Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs).
o SNNs consist of nodes (spiking neurons) connected by artificial synapses, which use analog
circuitry to transfer signals.

4.1. HIGGS BOSON

Why in the News?
Nobel Laureate Physicist Peter Higgs passed away recently.

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About Peter Higgs
• Peter Higgs proposed the Higgs field in 1964 as a new field that fills the entire Universe and gives mass
to all elementary particles.
o Also, he proposed a new fundamental particle ‘Higgs Boson’.
• His idea was validated in 2012 through experiments at the European Organization for Nuclear Research
(CERN)'s Large Hadron Collider.
Relationship between Higgs Field and Mass of Elementary Particles
• Mass from interaction: Elementary Particles do not have a mass of their own, they get their mass by
interacting with the Higgs field.
o This mass-giving interaction with the Higgs field is known as the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism,
proposed by theorists Robert Brout, François Englert, and Peter Higgs.
• Quantity of mass: Intensity of interaction between the field and the particle decides the quantity of mass
of the particle.
o It means that the stronger the interaction of the particle with the Higgs field, the heavier the particle ends
up being.
About Higgs Boson
• An elementary particle, it is popularly known as the God particle.
• A type of boson, a force-carrying subatomic particle.
• Gets its mass just like other particles—from its interactions with the Higgs field.
• Properties of Higgs Boson:
o Mass: 125.35 GeV
o Spin: A scalar particle that has a ‘0’ spin.
 It is the only elementary particle with no spin.
o Lifetime: Very short and it rapidly decays into other particles after it is produced in high-energy
collisions.
o Detection: Detected indirectly by observing the particles it decays into.

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4.2. NEUTRINOS
Why in the News?
International NOvA collaboration reveals new findings on Neutrinos.
More on the News
• NovA (NuMI Off-axis 𝜈e Appearance) is in the United States.
• Key Finding
o New NOvA results suggest there are two lighter neutrinos and a heavier one (Normal Order Theoretical
Model).
 Neutrinos come in three varieties: muon, electron, and tau.
What are neutrinos/Ghost Particles?
• About: Subatomic particles with no electrical charge and negligible mass.
o High-energy neutrinos which are released from cosmic sources at the Milky Way's edge are known as
"astrophysical neutrinos".
o Referred as Ghost Particles because nearly 100 trillion neutrinos pass through the human body every
second without us noticing.
• Possible sources of high-energy neutrinos: Events like supernovas and objects like active galactic nuclei
and black holes.
o Sun’s nuclear reactions, particle decay in Earth, Beta decay, particle accelerators, and nuclear
power plants all release neutrinos.
• Due to their properties, they are excellent information messengers about the objects or events in which
they originate.
• Note: It is different from the ‘God Particle’ or Higgs boson.

Key Neutrino Observatories

• Indian Neutrino Observatory (INO)
o Jointly funded by the Department of Atomic Energy and the Department of Science and Technology.
o Location: Bodi West Hills of Theni District of Tamil Nadu.
• China’s TRIDENT (Tropical Deep-sea Neutrino Telescope) and Jiangmen Underground Neutrino
Observatory (JUNO)
• Ice Cube Observatory (World’s largest neutrino Observatory)
Other Messengers of Celestial Events
• Cosmic rays: They are charged particles and are deflected by magnetic fields.
• Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs): Short-lived bursts of gamma-ray light.
o Gamma rays have the smallest wavelengths and the most energy of any wave in the electromagnetic
spectrum.

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o Sources:
 In the universe, such as neutron stars and pulsars, supernova explosions, and regions around black
holes.
 On Earth, generated by nuclear explosions, lightning, and the activity of radioactive decay.
o It is an extragalactic transient (phenomena that change their brightness over a relatively short time).
• Other: Gravitational waves, supernova remnant (SNR), Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) (E.g. Quasar) etc.
Related Concept
Quasar
• The word quasar is short for "Quasi-stellar Radio Source”.
• Quasars are powered by supermassive black holes.
• They are among the most luminous objects in the known Universe.
• Despite their brightness, due to their great distance from Earth, no quasars can be seen with an unaided
eye.
• They emit radio waves, visible light, UV rays, infrared waves, X-rays, and gamma-rays.

4.3. GRAVITATIONAL WAVES (GW)

Why in the News?
Gravitational waves (GW) reveal a 1st-of-its-kind merger between a neutron star and a mystery object.
More on the News
• Merger is officially known as GW230529, detected by the LIGO-Virgo-Kagra collaboration in 2023.
• The GW came from a merger of two objects:
o Neutron Star (formed when a massive star runs out of fuel and collapses)
o Mystery object whose mass lies in the ‘mass gap’.
 Mass gap is the range of mass between the heaviest known neutron star and the lightest known
black hole.
About Gravitational waves (GW)
• GWs are 'ripples' in space-time caused by some of the most violent and energetic processes in the
Universe that propagate in all directions away from the source.
• Predicted in Einstein's General Theory of Relativity (1916).
• Travel at the speed of light.
• GWs’ first detection: Detected at the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) in 2015.
o 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded"for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the
observation of gravitational waves".
• Importance of Studying GW:
o Helps scientists expand their knowledge about the nature and evolution of the universe.
o To answer mysteries about the nature of merging supermassive black holes, etc.

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About LIGO
• Consists of two interferometers, each with two 4 km long arms arranged in the shape of an “L”. These
instruments act as 'antennae' to detect GWs.
• Comprises stable high-power lasers, precisely figured mirrors, ultraquiet vibration isolation systems,
and sophisticated hierarchical feedback systems.
• LIGO-India: It will be built by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and the Department of Science
and Technology (DST), in Maharashtra.

4.4. OTHER IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS

4.4.1. ANTIMATTER
Recently Scientists spotted the heaviest antimatter nucleus in a particle accelerator Relativistic Heavy Ion
Collider.
• It is called anti-hyperhydrogen-4 (Made up of an antiproton, two antineutrons, and antihyperon)
About Antimatter
• Antimatter particles share the same mass as their matter counterparts, but qualities such as electric
charge are opposite.
o E.g. A positively charged positron is an antiparticle to a negatively charged electron.
• Antimatter particles corresponding to electrons, protons, and neutrons are called positrons,
antiprotons, and antineutrons.
• Matter and antimatter particles are always produced as a pair and if come in contact annihilate one
another (leaving pure energy).

4.4.2. HIGH ENERGY PHOTON SOURCE (HEPS)

China is planning to construct a High Energy Photon Source (HEPS).
About HEPS
• First Brightest Synchrotron X-Rays in Asia.
o Synchrotrons (a type of circular particle accelerator) use electricity to produce intense beams of light
more than a million times brighter than the sun.
• Benefits: understand matter in the dimensions of space, time, and energy, as well as at the level of
molecules, atoms, electrons, and spin.
• Indus-1 was India’s first synchrotron.

4.4.3. GIANT RADIO SOURCES

Indian astronomers discovered 34 new Giant Radio Sources using the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope
(GMRT).
• Located near Pune, GMRT is operated by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA).
Giant Radio Sources (GRSs)
• GRSs are among the largest objects in the universe and at the heart of GRSs lies a supermassive black
hole.
• Serving as a central engine, a black hole pulls in surrounding matter, creating jets of hot plasma, and
producing massive lobes of radio emissions.

4.4.4. DAKSHA PROJECT

IIT Bombay is leading the Daksha project.
• It is leading in close collaboration with the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research (TIFR), Raman Research Institute (RRI), etc.
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About the Daksha project
• An ambitious proposal to build two high-energy space telescopes to study explosive astrophysical
sources.
• Objectives
o Detect, localize, and characterize high-energy counterparts to gravitational wave sources.
o High sensitivity detection and studies of Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRB)

4.4.5. HYDROGEN LINE (21 CM LINE)

Recently, the hydrogen line was in the news.
About the Hydrogen Line or 21 cm Line
• A spectral line emitted by atomic hydrogen.
• This phenomenon occurs when an electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from a higher energy level to a lower
one.
o This jump releases energy in the form of light, specifically with a wavelength of about 21
centimeters.
• Applications in Radio Astrophysics: Studying composition and evolution of the solar system &
Universe, etc.

5.1.1. SPACE DOCKING EXPERIMENT (SPADEX)

Why in the News?
India becomes 4th country to successfully conduct space docking after the US, Russia, and China.
More on the News
• ISRO launched the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) satellites by PSLV-C60.
About Space Docking
• Involves precise connection of two spacecraft, whether manned or unmanned, allowing those to operate
as a single unit for critical tasks such as refueling, repair, and crew exchange.
o Enables the construction of cutting-edge facilities (like the International Space Station (ISS)) in orbit and
advancing space exploration.
• Some spacecraft dock with the ISS and others berths with the station.
o In Docking, the spacecraft can manoeuvre and attach to the station by itself.

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o In Berthing, an astronaut uses the station’s robotic arm to capture the spacecraft. Then Mission Control
takes control from the ground and directs the arm to manoeuvre the spacecraft to the attachment site.
About Space Docking experiment (SPADEX)
• ISRO's SPADEX is a technology demonstration experiment aimed at mastering autonomous docking, a
critical capability that only a select few countries (the US, Russia, and China) have.
• Consists of two satellites named ‘Chaser’ and ‘Target’ which will dock at an altitude of about 700 km.
• This technology is essential for space ambitions such as sample return from the Moon, the building and
operation of BAS, etc.
• These satellites will perform complex maneuvers, including:
o Autonomous Rendezvous and Docking
o Formation Flying (Demonstrating precise orbital control to maintain relative positions)
o Remote Operations: The mission will experiment with controlling one spacecraft using the Attitude
Control System of the other.
 Additionally, it will explore the use of robotic arm technologies for in-space manipulation and
servicing.
Related News
PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM)
• POEM-4 has been also launched with the PSLV-C60.
• About POEM
o Purpose: To provide a cost-effective platform for on-orbit experiments. So far. Launching
proprietary systems into space has traditionally been prohibitively expensive for smaller entities.
o Strategic importance: Reduces entry barriers for startups, and promotes space technology
innovation in India.

5.1.2. BHARATIYA ANTARIKSH STATION (BAS)

Why in the News?
The union cabinet has approved the building of the first unit of the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) by
extending the scope of the Gaganyaan programme.
More on the News
• Revised Gaganyaan Programme include:
o Development of the first module of BAS and four missions for demonstration & validation of various
technologies for BAS by December 2028.
o Four missions under the ongoing Gaganyaan Programme by 2026.
• Union Cabinet also approved the development of Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV), a significant
step towards establishing & operating BAS.
o It will have 3 times the payload capability of Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3), with ability to carry up to
30 tonnes to Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

About Gaganyaan Programme

• India’s first Human Space Flight mission
• Objective: Transport a team of astronauts to an orbit 400 km above Earth for a three-day expedition
before safely returning them in the short term.
o It will also carry the female half-humanoid Vyomitra (space friend).
• Technological development under it:
o Human-rated LVM3 (HLVM3) for carrying crew safely to space.
 HLVM3 is a re-configured version of LVM3 (consists of solid stage, liquid stage, and cryogenic
stage) to meet human rating requirements.
• The successful launch of Gaganyaan will make India only the 4th country (after the US, Russia, and
China) that has launched crewed spacecraft.

Other Space stations

• Inoperative
o Salyut 1: World's first space station launched by the Soviet Union
o Skylab: USA’s first space station, launched by NASA
• Operative
o International Space Station (ISS): Assembled in 1998 and operational since 2000.
 It is maintained in low Earth orbit (LEO) by a collaboration of five space agencies and their
contractors: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), European Space Agency (ESA) ,
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) , and CSA (Canada).
o China: Tiangong space station was launched in 2021 (fully operational since late 2022).
• Upcoming:
o Gateway Space Station: NASA-led Gateway Program to establish humanity's first space station
around the Moon as a vital component of the Artemis campaign.
o Axiom Station: Commercial space station being developed by Axiom Space to operate in LEO.
 It will be the first commercial space station in the world.

5.1.3. VENUS ORBITER MISSION (VOM)

Why in the News?
Union Cabinet has approved the Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM) as India's maiden mission to Venus.
About VOM
• Objectives of VOM: Examine dust in the Venusian atmosphere and its airglow, map its surface
topography, study solar X-ray spectrum, and investigate sub-surface characteristics.
o VOM will also demonstrate technologies: e.g., testing aerobraking and thermal management
techniques.
• Target date for launch: March 2028
• Launch Vehicle: Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM-3).
• Key Payloads: Venus Advanced Radar for Topside Ionosphere and Subsurface Sounding (VARTISS), Venus
Orbit Dust Experiment (VODEX), etc.
About Venus
• Earth’s nearest planetary neighbour and is considered as ‘Earth’s-twin’ due to similar size and shape.
o It has an orbital period of 224.7 Earth days and is located 108.2 million km (0.72 AU) from the Sun.

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• Thick atmosphere of this planet traps heat creating a runaway greenhouse effect – making it the hottest
planet in our solar system.
• Permanently shrouded in thick, toxic clouds of sulfuric acid.
o Phosphine, a possible indicator of microbial life, has been observed in the clouds.
• Venus, along with Uranus, rotates from east to west, while all other planets rotate west to east.
Missions to Venus
Past Missions Mariner 2 (1962, USA): First spacecraft at Venus. Detected no magnetic field.
Venera 7 (1970, Soviet Union): First successful soft landing on another planet (Venus).
Magellan (1990, USA): First near-global radar mapping of Venus' surface.
Other: Akatsuki (Japan), etc.
Future NASA’s DAVINCI - Venus Flyby and Probe and VERITAS - Orbiter, EnVision - ESA’s Venus
Missions Orbiter.

5.1.4. ADITYA-L1
Why in the News?
Aditya-L1 was inserted in its halo orbit in early 2024 and takes 178 days to complete a revolution around the
Lagrange L1 point.
About Aditya-L1 Mission (2023)
• First Indian space mission to study the Sun.
• Objectives
o Study of Solar upper atmospheric (chromosphere and corona) dynamics.
o Study of chromospheric and coronal heating, initiation of the coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and solar
flares.
o Observe the in-situ particle and plasma environment.
o Study drivers for space weather
• Payload: Carries 7 payloads (Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC), Solar Ultraviolet Imaging
Telescope (SUIT), etc.)
What are Halo orbits?
• These are periodic and three-dimensional orbits resulting from an interaction between the gravitational
pull of the two planetary bodies and the centrifugal force on a spacecraft.
o Halo orbits exist in any 3-body system. E.g., Earth-Moon orbiting satellite system.
o Mainly linked to L1, L2 or L3.

About Lagrange point

At the Lagrange point, the gravitational pull of the
two large bodies equals the necessary centripetal
force required for a small object to move with them.
• For two-body gravitational systems, there are a
total of five Lagrange points denoted as L1, L2,
L3, L4, and L5.
o Out of five L4 and L5 are stable.
• Significance: Spacecraft remain at these
positions with reduced fuel consumption.
o L1 has the advantage of continuously viewing
the Sun without any occultation/ eclipses.
• Other key information:
o NASA-ESA’s joint Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Satellite (SOHO) mission is placed near L1
point
o NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope is placed around L2 point.

• Parker Solar Probe (NASA): First human-made object to fly close to the Sun.
o Also, it travelled at a speed of approximately 700,000 kilometers per hour, making it the fastest human-
made object in history.
• Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (NASA): Aims to understand how the Sun's atmosphere is
energized, leading to solar eruptions.

5.1.5. CHANDRAYAAN-3
Why in the News?
India celebrated its maiden National Space Day (NSD) on 23rd August 2024 to commemorate the historic
landing of Chandrayaan-3 on the Moon.
About National Space Day

• Chandrayaan-3 mission accomplished the safe and soft landing of Vikram Lander on the lunar surface on
August 23, 2023.
About Chandrayaan-3

• A follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 (2019).

• Became the world’s first mission to soft-land near the lunar South Pole.
o The landing site was named as 'Shiv Shakti' point (Statio Shiv Shakti).
o Soft-landing was followed by the successful deployment of Pragyan Rover.
• India became the fourth country to soft land on the moon, after the US, Russia, and China.
o Recently, Japan became the fifth country to land its Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) on the
Moon.
• Launch vehicle: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III
• Key Payload: Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE), Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer
(APXS), etc.

Related Concept
Far Side of Moon
• Chang'e-6 probe from China has successfully brought back the first samples ever collected from the
Moon's far side.
o In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe (Yutu-2) on the far side of the moon.
• About the far side of the Moon
o Refers to the hemisphere of the Moon that always faces away from Earth (hence also referred to
as the dark side of the Moon).
 This happens because the Moon is tidally locked with Earth due to gravitational pull.
o It has a thicker crust, more craters, and fewer lava plains than near side.
o Reaching the Moon's far side is challenging due to its remoteness and rugged landscape, featuring
massive craters and limited flat areas.

5.1.6. REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE (RLV) TECHNOLOGY

Why in the News?
ISRO completes its Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) technology demonstrations.
More on the News
• ISRO has achieved a third consecutive success in the final test of the RLV Landing Experiment (LEX),
following the success of RLV LEX-01 and LEX-02 missions.
• RLV LEX is part of the RLV-Technology Demonstration Programme, which aims to develop essential
technologies for a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low-cost access to space.
About RLV LEX-03
• This mission simulated high-speed landing conditions for a vehicle returning from space.
• Test was conducted with a winged vehicle, named ‘Pushpak’.
o Unlike SpaceX’s Falcon 9 which lands back vertically, Pushpak has wings to help it glide horizontally.
ISRO’s RLV-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) Vehicle
• RLV-TD has been configured to act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies, namely, hypersonic
flight, autonomous landing, and powered cruise flight.
• Consists of a fuselage (body), a nose cap, double delta wings, and twin vertical tails and looks similar to
an aircraft.
• RLV-TD will be scaled up to become the first stage of India’s reusable two-stage orbital launch vehicle.

5.1.7. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

5.1.7.1. EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITE EOS-08

ISRO launched Earth Observation Satellite EOS-08.
• Satellite has been launched under SSLV-D3/EOS-08 mission by the Small Satellite Launch Vehicle
(SSLV)-D3 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
• Mission configuration is set to operate in circular Low Earth Orbit.

5.1.7.2. AIR BREATHING PROPULSION SYSTEM

ISRO successfully carried out the second experimental flight for the demonstration of Air Breathing
Propulsion Technology.
• The Propulsion systems were symmetrically mounted on either side of a RH-560 Sounding rocket.
o RH-560 is a two-stage, solid motor-based sub-orbital rocket.
o It is the heaviest sounding rocket in the ISRO’s family of sounding rockets.
About Air Breathing Propulsion Technology
• Utilizes atmospheric oxygen for combustion, eliminating the need to carry oxidizer.
• Provides a technological key for low-cost space transportation systems and improves the payload
fraction.
• 3-main types:
o Ramjet: Work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3.
o Scramjet: Efficiently operates at hypersonic speeds.
o Dual mode Ramjet (DMRJ): Can be operated in both subsonic and supersonic combustion modes.

5.1.7.3. ARYABHATA
ISRO celebrated Satellite Technology Day (STD) commemorating the 50th year of the Aryabhata launch in
1975.
About Aryabhata
• India’s first satellite, named after the famous Indian astronomer in the 5th century.
• Built by: ISRO and launched by a Soviet Kosmos-3M rocket from Kapustin Yar (Russia).
• Aimed to conduct experiments in X-ray astronomy, aeronomics, and solar physics.

5.1.7.4. ASTROSAT
AstroSat observations have helped discover irregular emission of high energy X-ray photons from a Black Hole
X-ray binary system (BH-XRB).
About AstroSat
• Launched by ISRO in 2015 using PSLV-C30 in Low Earth Orbit.
• Objectives: Understand high energy processes in binary star systems, detect new transient X-ray sources, study
star birth regions, etc.
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• India’s first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory.
o It aims to study celestial sources in X-ray, optical, and UV spectral bands simultaneously.
• It has five payloads for multi-wavelength observations.

5.1.7.5. TRISHNA: INDO-FRENCH THERMAL IMAGING MISSION

TRISHNA (Thermal Infra-Red Imaging Satellite for High-resolution Natural Resource Assessment) mission is a
collaborative endeavour between ISRO and CNES (French Space Agency).
About TRISHNA Mission
• Objective: Detailed monitoring of energy and water budgets of the continental biosphere for quantifying
terrestrial water stress and water use and high-resolution observation of water quality and dynamics.
• It will operate in a Sun-synchronous (SSO) orbit.
o SSO is a particular kind of polar orbit in which satellites are synchronized to always be in the same
position relative to the Sun.

5.1.7.6. NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT STUDIES

(NICES) PROGRAMME
The NICES programme has invited Indian researchers to join in combating climate change.
About NICES Programme (2012)
• Operated by the ISRO and Department of Space along with other ministries under the National Action
Plan on Climate Change.
• Objective: Generating and disseminating long-term Essential Climate Variables, derived from Indian
and other Earth Observation satellites

5.2. SPACE-RELATED PHENOMENON

5.2.1. EXPANSION OF UNIVERSE
Why in the News?
Research revealed the most precise measurement of the universe's expansion with the help of data collected
by the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI).
More on the News
• Researchers found that the universe is expanding at a rate of 68.5 (±0.6) kilometers per second per
megaparsec.
• They have created the largest 3D map of the universe.
• DESI, located in the USA, measures the effect of dark energy on the expansion of the universe.
Key Theories Related to the Expansion of the Universe
• Big Bang Model
o The universe originated from an extremely hot and dense singularity approximately 13.8 billion years
ago and has been expanding ever since.
o It is the only model that can explain the existence of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).
 The CMB is the cooled remnant of the first light that could ever travel freely throughout the Universe.
• Lambda CDM (Cold Dark Matter) Model
o Both matter and dark energy shape how the universe expands – but in opposing ways.
o Matter and dark matter slow the expansion down, while dark energy speeds it up.
• Expansion of the Universe is measured by the Hubble Constant.

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The Universe’s Building Blocks
• Dark Energy: It makes up about 68% of the universe.
• Dark Matter: It is a hypothetical form of matter that cannot be directly observed, but its existence is
inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter and background radiation in the universe.
o It makes up about 27% of the universe.
• Normal Matter: The rest of 5% of the Universe is made up of normal matter. It includes Earth, the sun,
other stars, and galaxies.

About Hubble Constant

• In 1929, Edwin Hubble provided the first mathematical description of the universe’s expansion.
• Hubble constant is calculated by:
o Analysing changes to Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).
o Cosmic Distance Ladder uses techniques to measure distance to objects that are close, further away,
and very far away from the Earth. E.g. Redshift and blueshift
 When an object is moving away from us, the light from the object is known as redshift, and when an
object is moving towards us, the light from the object is known as blueshift.
• Hubble Tension refers to the discrepancy that two equally valid methods to measure “how fast the
universe is expanding” have yielded different estimates.

5.2.2. SOLAR STORM (GEOMAGNETIC STORM)

Why in the News?
Earth witnessed a G5-level solar storm, the strongest in two decades and possibly one of the strongest displays
of auroras in the past 500 years.
What are Solar Storms?
• Solar storms are like massive
bursts of energy from the Sun.
o They happen when a large
eruption on the Sun's
surface, often accompanied
by solar flares and coronal
mass ejections (CMEs),
accelerates charged
particles to incredibly high
speeds.
• Depending on the intensity, they
are classified from G1 (Minor) to
G5 (extreme).
• High-speed solar winds bring
geomagnetic storms.
• These are a result of the Sun
entering a period of peak
activity called Solar Maximum.
About Solar Flare and CME
• Solar Flare is an intense burst of
radiation, while CMEs are huge
clouds of plasma (hot, ionized
gas) and magnetic fields ejected
from the Sun near Sunspots.

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o These ejected particles can travel over a million miles per hour, and they interact with our planet's
magnetic field, causing disturbances.
• Sympathetic Solar Flares are caused by multiple eruptions across the Sun’s magnetic field.
The Sun's Activity Cycle
• The Sun goes through cycles of activity, with periods of high and low activity.
• These cycles last about 11 years, and during the peak of the cycle, called the solar maximum, there are
frequent solar storms and increased instances of sunspots (cooler regions on the Sun's surface)
o This is because the Sun's magnetic fields are more complex and twisted during this phase, leading to
more eruptions and ejections of charged particles.
Related Concepts
Granules and Super Granules
• Energy generated in the Sun’s core is transported by convective fluid flows through the convection
zone (Sun’s outermost 30%).
• These convection motions are visible at the surface as granules (about 1000 km across) and
supergranules (about 35,000 km across) cellular features.
o These features are the tops of convection cells where hot fluid rises up from the interior, spreads
out across the surface, cools, and then sinks inward.
Aurora
• Multi-coloured lights appear in the upper atmosphere (ionosphere) over the Polar Regions and are
visible from locations in the middle and high latitudes.
• Aurora in the Northern Hemisphere is called aurora borealis and aurora australis in Southern
Hemisphere.
• Caused by the interaction of solar wind with oxygen and nitrogen gas in the atmosphere.

5.2.3. SPACE DEBRIS

Why in the News?
ISRO released the Indian Space Situational Assessment Report (ISSAR) for 2023 compiled by ISRO System
for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM).
More on the News
• Report highlighted five major on-orbit break-up events in 2023, resulting in a net addition of fragmented
objects to the space debris population.
• IS4OM (2022) safeguards ISRO’s space assets and improves compliance with internationally recognized
guidelines on the Long-Term Sustainability (LTS) of outer space activities.
About Space Debris
• Definition: Includes all non-functional, artificial objects, including fragments and elements thereof, in
Earth orbit or re-entering into Earth’s atmosphere.
• Debris concentration: Maximum debris concentrations can be noted at altitudes of 800-1000 km, and
near 1400 km (mainly in LEO).
• Origins: Majority of debris objects originate from on-orbit break-ups as well as on-orbit collisions.
o Space debris also originates from defunct satellites, missing equipment, spent rocket stages, and
the use of space-based weapons.
• Kessler Syndrome: A phenomenon in which the density of objects in the Low Earth Orbit grows and leads
to collision, triggering a chain reaction that generates more space debris and further collisions.
Initiatives for mitigating Space Debris
• Global initiatives and international partnerships
o Inter-Agency Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), an international governmental forum for the
worldwide coordination of activities related to man-made and natural debris in space.
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o UN Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines
o Zero Debris Charter: Signed by 12 countries such as Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, etc.
• India’s initiatives
o Debris Free Space Missions (DFSM) 2030
o Space Situational Awareness Control Centre (SSACC)
o Project Network for Space Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA)

5.2.4. PLANETARY DEFENSE

Why in the News?
At an international workshop on Asteroid Day 2024, ISRO Chairperson said that ISRO is looking to study asteroid
Apophis when it is 32,000 km away from Earth in 2029 to prepare for planetary defense efforts.
About Asteroid Apophis

• Discovered in 2004, it is a near-Earth object (NEO) and was identified as one of the most hazardous
asteroids that could impact Earth.
o There are billions of comets and asteroids in our solar system. The vast majority never approach Earth.
When a comet or asteroid’s orbit brings it close to Earth, it is classified as NEO.
• However, a radar observation campaign in March 2021, combined with precise orbit analysis, allowed
astronomers to conclude that there is no risk of Apophis impacting our planet for at least a century.
Planetary Defense

• Refers to efforts and strategies aimed at protecting Earth from potential impacts by NEOs such as
asteroids and comets.
o It involves multiple strategies including detection, tracking, impact assessment, deflection, etc.
• Need for Planetary Defense: If the NEO path intersects with that of Earth’s orbit, then depending on their
size, speed, angle, and impact region, could threaten billions of lives on impact and in the ensuing tsunamis,
earthquakes and fires.

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5.4. TELESCOPE IN NEWS
5.4.1. MAJOR ATMOSPHERIC CHERENKOV EXPERIMENT (MACE)
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) inaugurated the Major Atmospheric Cherenkov Experiment (MACE)
Observatory at Hanle, Ladakh.
About MACE Observatory
• Largest imaging Cherenkov telescope in Asia and 2nd largest in the world.
o Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA), consisting of two arrays located in Spain and Chile, respectively, will
be the largest Cherenkov telescope in the world. It is currently under construction.
• Location: Altitude of ~4,300 m, the highest of its kind in the world.
• Objective: Observe high-energy gamma rays to understand the most energetic phenomena in the universe
(such as supernovae).
o Named after scientist Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov, who discovered that charged particles glow
when they pass through a non-conducting medium under certain conditions (referred to as Cherenkov
radiation).
• Indigenously built by Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) with support from other partners.

5.4.2. SQUARE KILOMETER ARRAY

Square Kilometer Array (SKA) has carried out its first observations and became partially functional.
About SKA
• Aims at building the world’s largest radio telescope, with eventually over a square kilometer of collecting
area.
• Consists of one global observatory, operating two large telescopes (South Africa and Australia).
• Objectives of SKA Telescopes:
o Understand the birth of the Universe.
o Detect Gravitational Waves.
o Understand the evolution of Galaxies, Dark matter, and Cosmic Magnetism.
• India joined the SKA Organization in 2012 as an Associate Member and has actively participated in the
pre-construction phase of the SKA telescopes.

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5.4.3. UNIVERSITY OF TOKYO ATACAMA OBSERVATORY (TAO) PROJECT
TAO telescope site completion ceremony held in Santiago, Chile.
About TAO Project
• The project aims to construct the optical-infrared telescope at the summit of Cerro Chajnantor, in the
Atacama Desert of Chile.
o It is the world's highest astronomical site
o Region’s high altitude, thin atmosphere, and perennially arid climate make it possible to observe
almost entire range of near-infrared wavelengths.

5.5. KEY CONCEPTS/TERMS IN NEWS

5.5.1. BROWN DWARF
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) observations were used to map the weather on a pair of brown dwarf
stars.

• JWST is a large infrared telescope, the result of an international collaboration among NASA, the European
Space Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency.
About Brown Dwarf
• Objects that have a size between that of a giant planet like Jupiter and that of a small star.
• They do not have enough mass to fuse normal hydrogen like a regular star and thus are not able to sustain
nuclear fusion. So, they are often called ‘Failed Stars’.

5.5.2. WHITE DWARF STAR

The first rocky planet has been spotted orbiting a burned-out star called a white dwarf.
About White Dwarf Star

• It is a stellar core left behind after a dying star has exhausted its nuclear fuel and expelled its outer layers
to form a planetary nebula.
o Compared to dwarf stars, giant stars have a greater rate of nuclear reactions.
o Therefore, the latter have shorter lifespans compared to dwarf stars.
• Chandrasekhar limit (1.44 times the mass of the Sun) is the maximum mass theoretically possible for a
stable white dwarf star.
o A star that ends its nuclear-burning lifetime with a mass greater than Chandrasekhar's limit must
become either a neutron star or a black hole.

5.5.3. PLUNGING REGION

A study at Oxford University Physics provided the first observational proof of ‘plunging regions’ as per
Einstein’s theory.
About Plunging region
• An area around the Black Hole where matter stops circling the black hole and instead falls straight in.
o It was predicted by Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity which states that it is impossible for
particles to safely follow circular orbits sufficiently close to a black hole.
• Plunging regions exert some of the strongest gravitational forces in the galaxy.

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5.5.4. TROJAN ASTEROID
Discovery of a Trojan asteroid (2019 UO14) for Saturn establishes the presence of celestial bodies alongside all
giant planets (Jupiter, Neptune & Uranus).
About Trojan asteroids
• They occupy a stable Lagrange Point (Usually L4 and L5) in a planet’s orbit around the sun.
• Significance: As they remain gravitationally stable for a long period, studying them can provide useful
insights into the evolution of the solar system.
• Mission Lucy (2021) was the first mission to explore the Jupiter Trojan asteroids.

5.5.5. SUPER BLUE MOON

Recently, a super blue moon, an occurrence that happens on average every 10 years, was observed.
About Super Blue Moons
• A Super Blue Moon is the convergence of a Supermoon and a Blue Moon.
• When the Moon is at or near its closest point to Earth (perigee) at the same time as it is full, it is called a
Supermoon.
• There are two types of Blue Moon.
o A monthly blue moon occurs when a full moon is seen twice in a single month.
o A seasonal blue moon occurs when there are four full moons in a single season instead of the usual
three.

5.6. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

5.6.1. RHUMI-1
India’s first Reusable Hybrid Rocket named RHUMI-1 launched.
About RHUMI-1
• Developed by Tamil Nadu-based startup Space Zone India in collaboration with Martin Group.
• Carried 3 Cube Satellites and 50 PICO Satellites, which will collect data on climate change.
o Cube satellites are a class of nanosatellites, weighing between 1-10 kg.
o Pico satellites typically weigh between 0.1 and 1 kg.
• Features:
o Hybrid Rocket Engine: Uses a combination of solid and liquid propellants to improve efficiency and
reduce operational costs.
o Environment Friendly: RHUMI is 100% pyrotechnic-free and 0% TNT.
Reusable Rockets
• Reusable rockets release the payload, land back on Earth, and can again be launched with a new payload.
• Benefits: Cost Savings (Up to 65% cheaper than building a new rocket), reduces Space Debris, and
increased launch frequency.

5.6.2. SPACE-BASED SURVEILLANCE

Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) has approved the third phase of the Space-based Surveillance (SBS-
3) project for better land and maritime domain awareness for civilian and military applications.
About SBS-3 Project
• Successor of SBS-1 (2001) and SBS-2 (2013).
o Cartosat-2A, RISAT-2, Eros-B, RISAT-2A etc. satellites were launched during SBS-1 and SBS-2.
• SBS-3 includes 52 satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and Geostationary Orbit (GEO) for surveillance.
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• The new fleet of satellites will be at different orbits based on artificial intelligence (AI) and will be able to
“interact with each other in space to gather geo-intelligence” on the Earth.
o When a satellite in GEO (36,000 km) detects something, it can request a closer look from a satellite in
LEO (400–600 km), providing more detailed information.
• Three services will have dedicated satellites for their land, sea, and air-based missions.
About Space-based Surveillance (SBS)

• Involves the use of satellites and other space assets to monitor and collect data on objects and
activities in space and on Earth.
• SBS systems are used primarily for national security, space situational awareness, etc.
• The U.S. has the most extensive network, including systems like the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS)
and the upcoming Next-Generation Overhead Persistent Infrared (Next-Gen OPIR) satellites.

5.6.3. VAN ALLEN RADIATION BELT

Polaris Dawn Mission completed the World's First Private Spacewalk.
• Polaris Dawn Spacecraft has traveled through Earth’s regions of high radiation, i.e., the South Atlantic
Anomaly and Van Allen Radiation Belt, to study space radiation's impact on human health.
About Van Allen Radiation Belt (Discovered in 1958 by astrophysicist James Van Allen)
• Earth’s magnetosphere traps the high energy radiation particles and shields the Earth from solar storms
and solar winds that can damage technology as well as people living on Earth.
o These trapped particles form two belts of radiation (inner and outer), known as Van Allen Belts, that
surround the Earth.
 Inner belt results from interactions of cosmic rays with Earth’s atmosphere and Outer belt is
made up of billions of high-energy particles that originate from Sun.
• Astronauts and spacecraft must fly through Van Allen Belts to reach outer space, so it is important to fly
through this region quickly to limit their radiation exposure.

South Atlantic Anomaly

• A geographical region over the South Atlantic Ocean where the inner Van Allen radiation belt extends
down particularly close to Earth.
• This leads to highly increased levels of ionizing radiation and related impacts on spacecraft in LEO.

5.6.4. SPY OR RECONNAISSANCE SATELLITE

South Korea puts a second military spy (reconnaissance) satellite successfully into orbit.
About Spy or Reconnaissance satellite
• Provides intelligence information on the military activities of foreign countries.
• Can be either a communications satellite or an Earth observation satellite.
• Major Types:
o Optical-imaging satellites: They have light sensors that detect missile launches and see enemy
weapons on the ground.
o Radar-imaging satellites: They can observe the Earth using radar technologies even during cloud cover.
o Signals-intelligence or ferret satellites: They capture the radio and microwave transmissions.

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5.6.5. SPACE TOURISM
Space startup Blue Origin has announced that Gopi Thotakura will be part of its New Shepard’s 25th Mission
(NS-25 mission).
What is Space Tourism?
• Space tourism is the commercial practice of sending private individuals to space for recreational,
adventure, or leisure purposes.
• Types:
o Suborbital: In it, passengers are taken between 50 and 70 miles above Earth (crossing the Kármán
line).
 The Karman line is a boundary 100 kilometers above mean sea level that borders Earth's
atmosphere and the beginning of space.
o Orbital: In it, passengers are taken significantly above the Karman line.

• India accounted for

26% of the global TB
burden in 2023.
• India ranks 1st
globally in the burden
of multidrug-
resistant/Rifampicin-
resistant TB.
About Tuberculosis
• An infectious disease
caused by bacillus
Mycobacterium
tuberculosis bacteria which most often affects lungs and is known as pulmonary TB.
o Extrapulmonary TB is the TB that affects other areas of the body. (e.g. gastrointestinal TB, liver TB)
• Transmission: By air when an infected person coughs, speaks, laughs, sings, or sneezes.
• Common symptoms: Prolonged cough (sometimes with blood), chest pain, weakness, etc.
• Tests for Identification: Xpert MTB, RIF Ultra, and Truenat assays.
• Drug-resistant TB that doesn’t respond to standard drugs.

Key Initiatives
India’s Initiatives
• National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme (NTEP)
• The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare approved a new BPaLM regimen consisting of four drugs-
Bedaquiline, Pretomanid, Linezolid, and Moxifloxacin.
o It brings down treatment time to 6 months (earlier 20 months).
• Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan, provides additional patient support, augments community
involvement, etc.
• Other: Nikshay Poshan Yojana, National TB Call Centre – Ni-kshay SAMPARK, TB Mukt Panchayat
Initiative, etc.
WHO Initiative
• End TB Strategy, aims to reduce TB incidence by 80%, TB deaths by 90%, and to eliminate
catastrophic costs for TB-affected households by 2030.
• TB Vaccine Accelerator Council, facilitates the development, testing, authorization, and use of new TB
vaccines

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6.1.2. MONKEYPOX (MPOX)
Why in the News?
World Health Organization (WHO) declared the Monkeypox outbreak a Public Health Emergency of
International Concern (PHEIC).
More on the News
• WHO also announced the inclusion of the Monkeypox (mpox) In Vitro Diagnostic (IVD) kid under its
Emergency Use Listing (EUL) procedure.
o EUL is a Risk-based procedure for assessing and listing unlicensed medical products.
o Includes three product streams: Vaccines, Therapeutics, and In Vitro Diagnostics.
About Mpox
• A Viral illness caused by the monkeypox virus, a species of the genus Orthopoxvirus.
o It is a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be spread between animals and people.
• Occurs mostly in central and western Africa.
• Two distinct clades: Clade I and Clade II
• Vaccines and therapeutics developed for smallpox and approved for use in some countries can be used
for mpox in some circumstances.
o Recently, WHO prequalified the MVA-BN Vaccine.
• A recent study shows that the mpox virus uses a ‘genomic accordion’ to evolve and infect humans.
o Genomic Accordions are used to describe the evolution of Poxviruses, which is a multi-step process
of gene amplification, mutation, and reduction.
• The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has conducted a Serosurvey for it.
o Serosurvey is the collection and testing of blood from a specimen of a defined population over a
specified period.
About PHEIC
• As per IHR (2005), an outbreak qualifies as a PHEIC if it is unusual or unexpected; it has the potential for
international spread; and may require immediate international action.
• PHEIC represents the highest level of alert issued by WHO under IHR.
Related News
Vishanu Yuddh Abhyas
• Vishanu Yuddh Abhyas, a mock drill on Pandemic Preparedness conducted under the National One
Health Mission (NOHM).
• NOHM emphasizes the "One Health" approach to achieve integrated disease control and pandemic
preparedness.

6.1.3. NEGLECTED TROPICAL DISEASES (NTDS)

Why in the News?
India has become the third country in the Southeast Asia Region after Nepal and Myanmar that eliminated
Trachoma, Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs).
About Trachoma
• Eye infecting disease caused by infection with the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis.
o It is a contagious (spreading through contact with eyes, nose, etc.) disease and if left untreated can
cause irreversible blindness.
• Status in India: In 1971, blindness due to Trachoma was 5% and now it has come down to less than 1%.

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About Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs)
• NTDs are a diverse group of conditions mainly prevalent in tropical areas.
• They are caused by a variety of pathogens including viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, and toxins.
• Referred Neglected because they are almost absent from the global health agenda, Low global funding, and
associated with stigma and social exclusion.
• India has the world’s largest absolute burden of at least 10 major NTDs such as hookworm, dengue,
lymphatic filariasis, etc.
o WHO certified India as free of Guinea Worm disease (2000) and Yaws (2016).

6.1.4. ANTI-MICROBIAL RESISTANCE (AMR)

Why in the News?
Jeddah Commitments adopted at Fourth Global High-Level Ministerial Conference on Antimicrobial
Resistance (AMR).
More on the News
• It is a comprehensive framework for global action to combat AMR through a One Health approach.
• Commitments aim to translate the Political Declarations of the United Nations General Assembly’s
(UNGA’s) High-Level Meeting on AMR into practical commitments for urgent actions.
What is Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR)?
• AMR is a condition when microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change in ways
that render the medications used to cure the infections they cause ineffective.
o Superbugs are strains of bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that are resistant to most of antibiotics
and other medications.

Key Initiatives Taken

• Global
o Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP) and Global Antimicrobial Resistance
Surveillance System (GLASS) by WHO.
o National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) Collaborations
o One Health Global Leaders Group on Antimicrobial Resistance - Tripartite collaboration of WHO,
FAO, and World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE).
• India
o National Action Plan on AMR (NAP-AMR), 2017
o National AMR surveillance network of state medical college labs (NARS-Net)

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o Regulation of Antibiotics under Schedule H and H1: Antibiotics are listed under Schedule H and H1
of the Drugs Rules, 1945
o Other:
 Operation AMRITH (AMR Intervention for Total Health) by Kerala
 India launched the first indigenous antibiotic “Nafithromycin” for resistant infections.
Related News
Dysbiosis
• Irrational use of antibiotics is associated with dysbiosis.
• About Dysbiosis
o Refers to an imbalance of microbial species and a reduction in microbial diversity within certain
bodily microbiomes.
o As a result, beneficial bacteria are usually minimized, whereas other bacteria that may be harmful
increase in number.

6.1.5. OTHER DISEASES IN NEWS

6.1.5.1. AVIAN INFLUENZA

Avian influenza has caused the deaths of more than 300 million birds worldwide.
About Avian Influenza
• Refers to the disease caused by infection with avian (bird) influenza (flu) Type A viruses.
• Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two proteins on the surface of the virus:
hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N).
o H and N of the influenza A virus possess antagonistic activities on interaction with sialic acid (SA),
which is the receptor for virus attachment.
o There are 18 different H subtypes and 11 different N subtypes Avian case.
 In birds, 16 H and 9 N subtypes have been identified. (Two additional subtypes, H17N10 and
H18N11, have been identified in bats.)
• Classification:
o Low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) A viruses: H4N6
o Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A viruses: E.g. H5N1

6.1.5.2. ZIKA VIRUS

Union Health Ministry has issued an advisory to state governments to stop the spread of the Zika Virus.
About Zika Virus
• Transmitted: Primarily transmitted by the bite of an infected mosquito Aedes aegypti.
• Health Concerns: Non-fatal but associated with microcephaly (reduced head size) of babies born to
aﬀected pregnant women.
• It can also trigger Guillain-Barré syndrome, neuropathy myelitis, etc.
• Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT–PCR) is used for its detection.
o RT-PCR is an inexpensive technique to determine the expression level of target genes.
• Vaccine: No vaccine available to prevent or medicine for it.

6.1.5.3. CHANDIPURA VIRUS

WHO has warned that the current Chandipura virus infection in India is the largest in 20 years.
About Chandipura Virus
• Also known as Chandipura vesiculovirus (CHPV), it is an RNA virus belonging to the Rhabdoviridae family.
o It is known to outbreaks of acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) in western, central, and southern
parts of India.
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• Transmission by: vectors such as sandflies, mosquitoes, and ticks.
• Symptoms: Fever, vomiting, loose motion and headache.
• Vaccine: No antiretroviral treatment or vaccine accessible for treatment.

6.2. FIXED DOSE COMBINATION DRUGS

Why in the News?
The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare prohibited the manufacture, sale, or distribution of 156 fixed-dose
combination (FDC) medicines.
What are Fixed Dose Combinations (FDCs) Drugs?
• Definition: Refer to products containing two or more active ingredients also referred to as cocktail drugs
used for a particular indication(s) (as per Drugs & Cosmetics Rule 1945).
o Active Ingredient is the biologically active component of a drug product (tablet, capsule, cream,
injectable) that produces the intended effects.
• As per the Drugs and Cosmetics Act of 1940, the FDCs are considered New Drugs, and the CDSCO issues
approval.
• Mostly FDCs are in combinations of cough, cold, and fever preparations; antimicrobials; vitamins and
minerals, etc.

About Regulation of Drugs in India

• Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO), under the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, is the primary regulatory body for the pharmaceutical sector.
o Regulates the quality, safety, and efficacy of Drugs, Medical Device, and Cosmetics in the country
under the provisions of the Drugs & Cosmetics Act, 1940 and Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945.
• State Drug Regulatory Authorities (SDRAs): Responsible for licensing of manufacturing establishments,
surveillance over sale of spurious drugs, etc.
• Statutory Bodies: DCA 1940 provides for the establishment of the Drugs Technical Advisory Board
(DTAB), Drugs Consultative Committee (DCC), etc.
National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)
• Genesis: It was constituted in 1997, as an independent Regulator for the pricing of drugs.
• Ministry: Attached office of Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers.
• Role: It fixes/ revises prices of controlled bulk drugs and formulations.
o Enforces the Drugs (Prices Control) Order, 2013, etc.

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6.3. XENOTRANSPLANTATION
Why in the News?
First Human recipient of a Genetically Modified Pig Kidney Transplant has died.
About Xenotransplantation
• Involves transplantation, implantation, or infusion of live non-human animal cells, tissues, or organs into
a human recipient.
• Process of Xenotransplantation
o Gene Editing Technology CRISPR-Cas9 was utilized to eliminate specific pig genes responsible for
producing sugars triggering immune responses.
o It introduces specific human genes to enhance organ (kidney, heart) compatibility with humans.
• Benefits of Xenotransplantation
o Alternative supply of organs to those with life-threatening diseases.
o Reduce the shortage of transplantable organs.
• Concerns: High Organ rejection rate; Risk of infection from an animal organ; Animal welfare, etc.
Why are Pigs often used for Xenotransplantation?
• Pig’s organ size, physiological metabolism, and immune system are similar to those of human beings.
• Varieties of pig breeds are farmed, providing an opportunity for harvested organs to be matched with
specific needs of human recipients.
About Framework for Organ Transplant in India
• Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act (THOTA), 1994 (amended in 2011) is the primary law
governing transplants in the country.
o Provides for a Three-tier regulatory structure: NOTTO at the National level and similar organizations
at regional and state levels.
• Eligibility for organ donation
o Most organ donation is determined by the donor's physical condition, not age.
o Both living (must be at least 18 years of age) and deceased can donate organs.
o Consent from the family is required for organ donation from the dead.

6.4. TRANS-FAT ELIMINATION

Why in the News?
World Health Organisation (WHO) has published the fifth milestone report on progress towards global
trans-fat elimination, covering the period from 2018–2023.
About Trans-fat (or Trans-fatty acids (TFA))
• Trans fats are unsaturated fatty acids that have been partially saturated with hydrogen.
o They are considered the worst type of fats (bad fat).
• Types: Based on sources, they can be Natural or Artificial.
o Natural: Also called ruminant trans fats, as they are present in small quantities in meat and dairy
products. These are not generally considered harmful.
o Artificial: Also called industrial-produced trans-fat as they are formed in an industrial process that
adds hydrogen to vegetable oil, converting the liquid into a solid and resulting in partially hydrogenated
oil (PHO).
 On average, trans fat concentrations in PHO are 25–45%.
 Mainly used in processed foods and has no nutritional benefits.

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Steps taken to regulate Trans fat
India
• Initiative taken by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)
o Trans-fat-free logo – Voluntary labelling to promote TFA-free products
o In 2021, the amount of TFA in oils and fats was capped at 3% for 2021 and 2% by 2022
o Other: Eat Right India Movement, Heart Attack Rewind (Mass media campaign) etc.
• Revised Dietary guidelines by the Indian Council of Medical Research (National Institute of Nutrition)
Global
• REPLACE action framework by WHO (2018)
• WHO Validation Programme for Trans Fat Elimination to further drive policy progress.

Related News
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
• In a study, it has been found that regular use of fish oil supplements might be a risk factor for atrial
fibrillation (an irregular and often very rapid heart rhythm) and stroke among the general population.
o Fish oil is rich in two important omega-3 fatty acids called eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
• About Omega-3 Fatty Acids
o These are polyunsaturated fats.
 Polyunsaturated fats are fat molecules that have more than one unsaturated carbon bond in the
molecule.
o Apart from EPA and DHA, ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), another Omega-3 Fatty Acid is obtained from
plants.
 These are essential fats (the human body is unable to make on its own).
o Key Sources: Nuts and seeds (such as flaxseed) Plant oils (such as flaxseed oil,), seafood etc.
o Benefits: Reduces inflammation in the body, lowers blood triglyceride (a type of fat (lipid)) levels,
etc.

6.5. GLYCEMIC INDEX

Why in the News?
A recent study has revealed the relationship between the Glycemic Index in food to the risk of Type II diabetes
and cardiovascular diseases.
About Glycemic Index (GI)
• Definition: Measures how quickly a carbohydrate-containing food raises blood sugar levels after it is
consumed.
o The index ranks the carbohydrate-rich foods on a scale of 0 to 100 based on their ability to raise blood
sugar levels as compared to pure glucose (which has a GI of 100).

6.6. A1 AND A2 MILK

Why in the News?
Recently, the FSSAI withdrew its direction to Food Business Operators (FBOs) to not market their milk and milk
products in the name of A1 and A2.
Basis of the Classification
• A1 and A2 are genetic variants of Beta (β)-casein protein.
o Casein (make 80 % of milk protein) is one of the two types of protein found in milk. The other one is Whey
protein.
• Differentiation in both is linked to the difference in the structure of the amino acid sequence.
o Also, A1 evolved from A2 through natural mutation.
 Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism.
• Regular milk contains both A1 and A2 beta-casein, while A2 milk is unique in that it contains only the A2
variant.
o Studies by the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) have confirmed that
indigenous cows and buffaloes produce A2 milk.
Comparison between A1 and A2 Milk
Parameters A1 Milk A2 Milk
Nutrition • Higher fat content and calorie count. • Higher protein content.
Health • Contains histidine (essential amino acids). • Contains proline (a non-essential
benefits o Histidine is used by the body to amino acid).
produce histamine. o It is an essential component of
• As per studies, A1 milk cannot be digested collagen and important for proper
well by some people and A2 is a better functioning of joints and tendons.
alternative for them.
Source • Found predominantly in cow breeds that • Present in milk from breeds native to
originated in northern Europe e.g. Channel Islands and southern
Holstein, Friesian, Ayrshire, and British France, including Guernsey, Jersey,
Shorthorn. Charolais, and Limousin cows.
Related Concept
Histamine
• Plays a key role in the inflammatory response of the body and is also responsible for autoimmune
conditions, gastric acid secretion, and hematopoiesis.

6.7. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) TECHNOLOGY

Why in the News?
‘Iseult’ the World's most powerful Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans the first images of the human
brain.
More on the News
• Iseult’ can help refine our understanding of the anatomy of the brain.
o It could also shed light on diseases like Alzheimer's or psychological conditions like depression or
schizophrenia.

Applications
• Images produced by an MRI scan can show organs, bones, muscles, and blood vessels.
• MRI is widely used in medical diagnosis and treatment planning for brain disorders, cardiovascular
diseases, cancer, etc.

6.8. RADIATION THERAPY FACILITY

Why in the News?
Delhi’s Lady Hardinge Medical College opens a Radiation Therapy facility.
About Radiation therapy
• Radiation therapy, or radiotherapy, is a type of cancer treatment in which cancerous cells are killed by
exposing them to ionizing radiations, such as X-rays, gamma rays, high-energy electrons, or heavy
particles.
• Significance: Highly effective and well-established treatment for brain, breast, head and neck, cervical
cancers, etc., while minimizing damage to healthy tissues from high doses of radiation.
• Potential side-effects of Radiotherapy: Fatigue, Nausea, Hair loss, Loss of appetite, etc.
About Proton therapy
• Proton therapy is an advanced and highly precise radiation treatment for cancerous cells.

• Vaccine BNT116 is designed to treat

non-small cell lung cancer.
About mRNA Vaccine Technology
• Working Mechanism:
o Works by introducing a piece of
mRNA that corresponds to a viral
protein, usually a small piece of a
protein found on the virus’s outer
membrane.
o This mRNA prompts cells to create
viral proteins, triggering the immune
system to produce antibodies and
boost the immune system.
 E.g., the mRNA vaccine for COVID-19 directed cells to produce copies of a protein on the outside of
the coronavirus known as the spike protein.
• Benefits
o Safer as it does not contain any live or weakened viruses.
o Also, can be developed quickly, unlike other traditional vaccines.

6.9.2. RELATED DEVELOPMENTS

6.9.2.1. NEW DENGUE VACCINE TAK-003
WHO Prequalifies New Dengue Vaccine TAK-003, a live-attenuated vaccine.
• It is the second dengue vaccine to receive WHO prequalification, following the CYD-TDV vaccine.
About WHO Vaccine prequalification
• Assure the quality of vaccines distributed by UN purchasing agencies.
• However, inclusion in the list does not imply approval of vaccines and manufacturing sites by the WHO.
o Such approval is a prerogative of the National Regulatory Authorities.
• Other vector-borne diseases for which vaccines are included in this list include malaria, yellow fever,
Japanese encephalitis, Rabies, etc.
About Dengue (Break-Bone Fever)
• Viral infection that transmits with a bite of an infected female Aedes mosquito (also responsible for
chikungunya and Zika).
• Escalate to severe conditions like dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome in adults.
• Transmitted from a pregnant mother to her baby, organ donation and transfusions.
• Currently, there is no antiviral treatment or licensed vaccine against dengue in India.
o Indigenous tetravalent dengue vaccine, DengiAll has proceeded toward its phase-3 clinical trials.

6.9.2.2. R21/MATRIX-M
Serum Institute of India (SII) has started exporting R21/Matrix-M malaria vaccine to Africa.

6.9.2.3. HEPATITIS A VACCINE

Indian Immunologicals Limited launched a pediatric (for children) dose of India’s first indigenous Hepatitis A
vaccine, Havisure.
About Hepatitis
• An inflammation of the liver.
• Caused by infectious viruses as well as non-infectious agents.
• Five main strains: Types A, B, C, D, and E.
o Types B and C together are the most common cause of liver cirrhosis, liver cancer, and viral hepatitis-
related deaths.
o Vaccine is not available for type C.
• National Viral Hepatitis Control Program 2019 seeks to eliminate Hepatitis C in India by 2030.
• Mission Indradhanush provides vaccination against Hepatitis B along with 7 other infections

6.9.2.4. CODON DE-OPTIMISATION TECHNOLOGY (CDT)

Indian Immunologicals Limited in collaboration with Griffith University has developed a needle-free intra-nasal
booster vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 using CDT.
About CDT
• A technology that involves decreasing the frequency of underrepresented codon pairs (genetic
determinants for amino acids) without changing the amino acid sequences.
• Benefits:
o Efficient virus attenuation strategy, where the degree of attenuation can be regulated as required.
o Extremely Safe and takes less time

6.10.2. CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION (CAC)

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6.11. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS
6.11.1. FERROPTOSIS
A new study by researchers at Columbia found that Ferroptosis is a major cell death mechanism that underlies
COVID-19 lung disease.
About Ferroptosis
• An intracellular iron-dependent form of cell
death which is usually accompanied by a large
amount of iron accumulation and lipid
peroxidation during the cell death process.
• Studies have shown that ferroptosis is closely
related to pathophysiological processes of
many diseases, such as tumors, nervous system
diseases, kidney injury, etc.

6.11.2. PROBIOTIC
Scientists have uncovered a new strain of lactic acid bacterium that could be a promising probiotic for the food
and pharmaceutical industry.
About Probiotic
• Probiotics are live microorganisms (bacteria and yeasts) that are intended to have health benefits when
consumed or applied to the body.
o Lactobacillus acidophilus (probiotic bacteria) naturally occurs in the human gut and other parts of
the body.
o It helps the digestive system to break down sugars like lactose into lactic acid.
• They can be found in yogurt and other fermented foods, dietary supplements, etc.
• On the other hand, prebiotics are foods (typically high-fiber foods) that act as food for human gut
microorganisms.

6.11.3. XYLITOL
Recent studies have found that the Artificial sweetener xylitol may pose health risks.
About Xylitol
• A sugar alcohol that is commonly used as a sweetener.
o Sugar alcohols combine traits of sugar molecules and alcohol molecules.
• Common ingredient in sugar-free chewing gums, diabetes-friendly foods, and oral-care products.

6.11.4. THROMBOCYTOPENIA SYNDROME (TTS)

AstraZeneca for the first time admitted that its COVID-19 vaccine (Covishield) had rare side effects including
TTS.
About TTS
• Also referred to as Vaccine-induced Immune Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia (VITT).
• Occurs when a person has blood clots (thrombosis) together with a low platelet count
(thrombocytopenia).
o It is a rare condition in which blood clots form in unusual places in the body.
o It can affect a person's brain, abdomen, lungs, arteries, etc.

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6.11.5. WEIGHT LOSS DRUGS
Research reveals that medications designed to combat obesity can also be beneficial in treating a variety of
other diseases.
How do Weight loss drugs work?
• Weight loss drugs mimic the action of a gut hormone called glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1).
• Glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) is secreted from three major tissues in humans’ i.e. enteroendocrine L-
cells in the distal intestine, α cells in the pancreas, and the central nervous system.
o GLP-1 increases the production of insulin (a hormone that lowers blood sugar levels) and reduces the
production of glucagon (which increases blood sugar levels).
o They suppress appetite and slow digestion, making people feel full faster and longer, which reduces
food intake.
o GLP-1 is broken down by enzymes in the body very quickly, so it sticks around for only a few minutes.

6.11.6. ULTRASOUND TECHNOLOGY

Scientists have successfully mapped brain activity using Functional Ultrasound Imaging (fUSI).
• fUSI is an emerging technique that offers sensitive, large-scale, high-resolution neural imaging.
About Ultrasound technology
• Uses high-frequency (above 20 kHz) sound waves to view the body’s internal organs.
• Does not use any radiation, making it a safe and effective tool.
• Working: Based on Piezoelectric effect
• Applications: Ultrasound imaging in diagnostic medicine, Ultrasound in underwater acoustics (Sonar),
Non-destructive testing of various materials, Welding and Cleaning.

6.11.7. METHANOL
Deaths have been attributed to methanol (methyl alcohol) poisoning from illicitly produced Hooch /Spurious
liquor (poor quality alcohol).
About Methanol (CH3OH)
• Also known as wood Alcohol or spirit.
• Characteristic:
o A colourless and fairly volatile liquid with a faintly sweet pungent odor.
o Completely mixable with water and it is an antifreeze agent.
• Applications: Used as solvent in paints, varnishes and chiefly for making formaldehyde, can be used as a
biodegradable energy resource, etc.
• Impacts: Ingestion of even small quantities of methanol can cause blindness and large quantities causes’
even death.

6.11.8. ETHYLENE OXIDE

Singapore Food Agency (SFA) has ordered a recall of India’s Spice product due to the presence of ethylene oxide.
About Ethylene Oxide (C2H 4O)
• A colourless, flammable gas with a sweet odour.
• Used to make other chemicals, including antifreeze, textiles, plastics, detergents, and adhesives.
o It is also used as a pesticide and sterilizing agent for medical equipment.
• Health Impact: Long-term exposure can result in irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory passages
and affects the nervous system. Also, it is carcinogenic to humans.
• FSSAI directions to use Ethylene
o Permits Ethylene for artificial ripening provided concentration does not exceed 100 ppm (parts per
million).
o Any source of ethylene gas coming in direct contact with fruits is not permitted.

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6.11.9. CALCIUM CARBIDE
FSSAI alerts fruit traders to ensure compliance with the prohibition of Calcium Carbide in fruit ripening.
About Calcium Carbide
• Prepared by heating quick lime with coke and releases acetylene gas which contains harmful traces of
arsenic and phosphorus.
• Use of calcium carbide for ripening fruits has been banned under Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition
and Restrictions on Sales) Regulations, 2011.

6.11.10. COALITION OF EPIDEMIC PREPAREDNESS INNOVATIONS (CEPI)

Asia’s first health research-related Pre-clinical Network Facility has been inaugurated in Faridabad (Haryana)
under the CEPI.
About CEPI
• Genesis: Launched in 2017 by Norway and India, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the World Economic
Forum (WEF), etc.
• Aim: To accelerate the development of vaccines against emerging infectious diseases and enable equitable
access to these vaccines.

6.11.11. GLOBAL ALLIANCE FOR VACCINES AND IMMUNIZATION (GAVI)

Recently, the role of GAVI was highlighted in a study, led by the WHO
About GAVI
• Genesis: Launched in 2000
• Objective: Expand the impact of the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI), launched by WHO, and
help the poorest countries in the world increase coverage.
• Members: Alliance includes WHO, UNICEF, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) as core
founding members.

• India’s first indigenous PFBR, located at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.

• Commissioned by Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI), a Government Company under
the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).

Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)

• Established: by the President in 1983 as per the Atomic Energy Act, 1962.
• Mission: To ensure use of ionizing radiation & nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to the
health of people and the environment.

About the First Approach to Criticality

• Criticality refers to the initial process of bringing a reactor to a self-sustaining chain reaction for the first
time.
• The completion of core loading will effectively mark the first approach to ‘criticality’.
o Core loading is the process of placing nuclear fuel assemblies inside the core of a nuclear reactor.

What is a Fast Breeder Reactor?

• A nuclear reactor that uses fast neutrons to generate more nuclear fuel than it consumes while generating
power.
o FBR will use Uranium-Plutonium Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel.
• Uranium-238 “blanket” surrounding the fuel core undergoes nuclear transmutation (conversion of one
element to another) to produce more fuel, which is why they are termed "breeders."
• Significance: The operationalization of PFBR will mark the start of stage II of India’s three-stage nuclear
power program.
o By transmutation, Thorium will create fissile U-233 which will be used as fuel in the third stage.
o World’s first thorium-based nuclear plant “Bhavni” using Uranium-233 is being set up at Kalpakkam.
India’s 3 stage Nuclear Power Program

• Dr. Homi J Bhabha, father of India’s nuclear program, devised a three-stage nuclear power program in
the 1950s to make the most of India's limited uranium reserves and abundant thorium reserves.
o India holds only about 2-3% of the world's uranium reserves, but it possesses one of the largest shares
of global thorium reserves.

Related News
Kakrapar Nuclear Power Plant
• Unit 4 of Indigenous 700 MWe
Kakrapar Nuclear Power Plant (KAPP
4) starts working at full capacity.
• About Plant
o KAPP-4 (in Gujarat) is a
Pressurised Heavy Water
Reactor (PHWR) that uses
natural uranium as fuel and heavy
water as a moderator.
o Unit 4 addresses the issue of
excess thermal margins.
> ‘Thermal margin’ refers to the
extent to which the reactor's
operating temperature is
below its maximum
operating temperature.

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7.1.2. SMALL MODULAR REACTORS (SMRS)
Why in the News?
Budget 2024-25 announced that the Union Government will partner with the private sector to develop Bharat
Small Reactors (BSRs).
More on the News
• The announcement marks a historic shift in India's
nuclear policy, as the Atomic Energy Act of 1962
did not permit private sector participation in
nuclear energy generation.
About Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs)
• BSR will be based on the Small Modular Reactors
(SMR).
• Unlike SMRs, which involve factory-made, easily
assembled reactors, BSRs are based on India's PHWR technology.
• They can enhance the contribution of nuclear energy to India’s energy basket (its current share is 1.6%).
About Small Modular Reactors
• Advanced nuclear reactors that have a power capacity of up to 300 MW(e) per unit.
• SMRs:
o Small- Physically a fraction of the size of a conventional nuclear power reactor.
o Modular- Systems and components to be factory-assembled and transported as a unit to a location.
o Reactors- Harness nuclear fission.

7.1.3. TOKAMAK
Why in the News?
Korea Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research (KSTAR) fusion reactor reached temperatures seven
times that of the Sun's core.
More on the News
• KSTAR created a new world record for a 48-second-long operation at 100 million degrees.
About Tokamak
• An experimental machine (donut-shaped reactor) designed to harness the energy of fusion.
• Inside a tokamak, a fusion plasma is created and confined by strong magnetic fields.
o Also called artificial Sun because it replicates the reaction of nuclear fusion taking place in the Sun.

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• Joint European Torus (JET) was the first device to achieve controlled fusion power.
• The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) will be the largest Tokamak device.
About ITER
• A global scientific partnership of 27 European Union countries plus China, Japan, India, the Republic of
Korea, Russia, and the US.
o ITER-India is a special project under the Institute for Plasma Research.
 It is responsible for the delivery of ITER packages such as Cryostat, In-wall Shielding, etc.
• Status: Currently under construction in France.
Other Major Tokamak-related Developments
• China has made the world’s first high-temperature superconducting Tokamak device - ‘HH70’.
• European Union and Japan inaugurated JT-60SA, the world's largest and most advanced Tokamak
fusion reactor.
• India has also constructed its indigenous tokamak ADITYA and semi-indigenous Steady State
Superconducting Tokamak (SST-1).

7.1.4. RELATED DEVELOPMENTS

7.1.4.1. THORIUM MOLTEN SALT NUCLEAR PLANT

World’s first thorium molten salt nuclear power plant will be launched in Gobi Desert by China in 2025.
About Thorium Molten Salt Nuclear Power Plant
• Instead of Uranium, this nuclear power station uses thorium as fuel.
• The reactor does not need water for cooling because it utilizes liquid salt or carbon dioxide to transfer
heat and make electricity.
• Unlike the water-cooling model, this design significantly reduces the chances of meltdowns.

7.1.4.2. NUCLEAR ENERGY SUMMIT

The first-ever Nuclear Energy Summit was held in Brussels (Belgium).
About Summit
• Objective: Promoting the development of nuclear energy
• Hosted by: the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Belgian government
• Participants: Representatives from 32 countries (including India).

7.2. BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM (BESS)

Why in the News?
India’s Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) ecosystem is estimated to receive funding of ₹3.5 lakh crore by
FY2032, according to a report by SBI Capital Markets.

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About Battery Energy Storage System
(BESS)
• Categorized under the
electrochemical storage system
(ESS) which uses different
electrochemical reactions to store
electricity.
• Key examples of BESS:
o Lead-Acid (PbA) battery
o Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery
o Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery
o Sodium-sulfur (Na-S) battery
Key Initiatives taken to promote BESS
• Viability Gap Funding (VGF) scheme
for the development of 4,000 MWh of
BESS projects by 2030-31.
• Production Linked Incentive Scheme for
National Programme on Advanced
Chemistry Cell Battery Storage.
• National Framework for Promoting
Energy Storage Systems by Ministry of Power.

7.3. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

7.3.1. SODIUM ION BATTERY
South Korean scientists developed a sodium-ion battery that can be charged in seconds.
• The technology is a high-power hybrid sodium-ion battery capable of rapid charging.
• It is being conceived as a cheaper and potentially more feasible source of energy than Lithium-Ion
batteries.
Comparison between Sodium Ion Battery and Lithium-Ion Battery

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7.3.2. HYDROGEN-FUEL CELLS
MV Sea Change, the world’s first commercial passenger ferry
powered by 100% zero-emission hydrogen fuel cells has been
launched.
About Hydrogen Fuel Cells (HFC)
• Produces electricity by combining oxygen and hydrogen in an
electrochemical reaction.
• HFC vehicles are completely free from tailpipe pollutant
emissions, including particulates, oxides of nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, and carbon dioxide.

7.3.3. ZINC AIR BATTERIES

CSIR develops durable batteries for energy solutions in remote sub-zero conditions.
About Zinc Air Batteries
• Type of metal-air battery that consists of a zinc negative electrode and an air (oxygen) positive
electrode.
o It has been developed by combining an efficient durable cathode catalyst and an anti-freezing
electrolyte fabricated for zinc-air batteries.
o It used CoFe/Fe3C alloy/carbide hybrid structure.
• Benefits: Portable, flexible, lightweight, and can be used in extreme cold conditions.

7.3.4. TRIBO-ELECTRIC NANOGENERATOR (TENG) TECHNOLOGY

IIT Indore has developed footwear for military personnel based on TENG technology.
About TENG Technology
• Converts the mechanical energy generated from walking and converts it into electrical energy using the
triboelectric effect, which is then stored in a device embedded in the system.
o Triboelectric effect refers to a charge of electricity generated by friction.
• Stored energy can power small electronic devices, wearable devices, IoT (Internet of Things) devices,
medical devices, etc.

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8.1.1. AGNI PRIME
Why in the News?
Agni-prime the new generation ballistic missile flight tested successfully.
More on the News
• The test was conducted by Strategic Forces Command (SFC), along with the DRDO from Dr. APJ Abdul
Kalam Island.
• SFC is responsible for the management and administration of the country's tactical and strategic nuclear
weapons stockpile.
About Agni Prime
• A nuclear-capable advanced variant of the Agni class of missiles.
o Agni Missiles are Surface-to-surface ballistic missiles and uses solid propellant. They have a medium-
to intercontinental range.
• Stage: Two-stage canisterised solid propellant ballistic missile.
• Range: 1,000 to 2,000 km
• Lighter than all the earlier Agni series of missiles and will be guided by Inertial Navigation Systems (INS).
o INS is an electronic system that can detect and measure changes in the motion of an object.
• First of the new generation of missiles after the end of the Integrated Guided Missile Development
Program (IGMDP).
About IGMDP
• Started in 1983 to enable India to attain self-sufficiency in the field of missile technology.
• The missiles developed under the program were
o Prithvi: Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile.
o Agni: Intermediate-range ballistic missile (Agni V has a range of over 5,000 km).
o Trishul: Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile.
o Akash: Medium-range surface-to-air missile.
o Nag: Third-generation anti-tank missile.

8.2. INDIA’S BALLISTIC MISSILE DEFENCE PROGRAM

Why in the News?
DRDO successfully conducted flight tests of the Phase-II Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) System.
More on the News
• Phase-II Air defence Endo-atmospheric missile is an indigenously developed 2-stage solid propelled
ground-launched missile system.
• It is meant to neutralize enemy ballistic missile threats in the altitude bracket of endo to low exo-
atmospheric regions.
About Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) Systems
• BMD systems seek to defend against aerial attacks like drones, fighter jets, and ballistic and cruise
missiles by launching interceptors.
• Other important missile defence systems in the world include THAAD (USA), Iron Dome (Israel), Patriot
(USA), S-400 Triumf (Russia), etc.
About India’s BMD Program
• Background: Sanctioned in 2000 in the backdrop of growing threats from China and Pakistan.
• Phases:

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o Phase I: Designed to intercept missiles with a range of up to 2000 km.
 It includes 3 things - Prithvi Air Defence (PAD), Ashwin Advanced Air Defence (AAD), and
Swordfish RADAR (long-range tracking radar developed for the BMD system).
 Phase 1 has been successfully deployed.
o Phase II: It can intercept missiles with a range of up to 5000 km. It consists of
 AD-1: A long-range interceptor missile designed for both low exo-atmospheric and endo-
atmospheric interception of long-range ballistic missiles as well as aircraft.
 AD-2: Meant to intercept intermediate-range ballistic missile targets with a range between 3000-
5500 km.

8.2.1. OTHER AIR DEFENCE SYSTEMS IN NEWS

8.3. DIRECTED ENERGY WEAPONS (DEWS)

Why in the News?
Recently, significant investments have been made by India in the field of Directed Energy Weapons.
About Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs)
• DEWs are ranged weapons that use concentrated energy from electromagnetic or particle technology,
rather than kinetic energy, to incapacitate, damage, disable, or destroy enemy equipment, and facilities.
o These weapons include high-energy lasers and other high-power electromagnetic (such as millimeter
wave and high-power microwave weapons).
• DEWs expand the range of Electronic Warfare.
o Electronic warfare includes any strategic use of the electromagnetic spectrum in a military conflict.

Steps taken by India for DEWs

• Directionally Unrestricted Ray-Gun Array (DURGA)-II Project and Project Tri-Netra by DRDO
• Kilo Ampere Linear Injector (KALI), a linear electron accelerator for targeting long-range missiles being
developed by DRDO and the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).

EW systems of India
• Shakti EW system: Provide an electronic layer of defence against modern radars and anti-ship missiles.
• Integrated Electronic Warfare System (IEWS): Designed for plains, semi-desert regions and
mountainous terrain.
• Other: Himshakti (IEWS), Samyukta (designed to perform multiple jamming), etc.

8.4. AIRCRAFT/HELICOPTER

8.7. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

8.7.1. SEBEX 2
Indian Navy certified a new explosive named ‘SEBEX 2’, along with SITBEX 1 and SIMEX 4, as per reports.
About SEBEX 2, SITBEX 1, and SIMEX 4
• SEBEX 2: A cutting-edge explosive formulation and is among the most potent non-nuclear explosives
globally.
o Based on high-melting explosives (HMX) and offers approximately 2.01 times the lethality of
standard Trinitrotoluene (TNT).
 TNT is an explosive used in military shells, bombs, and grenades, in industrial uses, etc.
• SITBEX 1 (Thermobaric explosive): Generates extended blast duration with intense heat, is suited to
target enemy bunkers, tunnels, and other fortified positions.

8.7.2. ZORAWAR TANKS

DRDO successfully conducts the first phase of field firing trials of 'Zorawar' tanks.
About Zorawar tanks
• A light tank designed to provide the Indian army with enhanced capabilities at high altitude.
• Developed by: DRDO and private sector firm L&T.
• Named after the legendary General Zorawar Singh who led multiple victories in Tibet.

8.7.3. GAURAV
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) carries out successful maiden flight test of Long-
Range Glide Bomb ‘GAURAV’ from Su-30 MK-I platform.
About GAURAV
• An air-launched 1,000 kg class glide bomb capable of hitting targets at long distance.
o Glide bomb after launch steer towards the target using highly accurate hybrid navigation scheme
with a combination of Indian Navigation System (INS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) data.
o Designed and developed indigenously by the Research Centre Imarat (RCI), Hyderabad.

8.7.4. ABHED (ADVANCED BALLISTICS FOR HIGH ENERGY DEFEAT)

DRDO, along with researchers of IIT Delhi has developed ABHED.
About ABHED
• These are lightweight Bullet Proof Jackets.
• These jackets have been created from polymers and indigenous boron carbide ceramic material.
o Features of Boron carbide: High specific stiffness, strength, and chemical inertness,
o Working: Armor plates made of boron carbide weaken bullets on impact, causing them to shatter into
small, hard particles.

8.7.5. SUPERSONIC MISSILE-ASSISTED RELEASE OF TORPEDO (SMART) SYSTEM

The SMART system was successfully flight-tested from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha.
About SMART
• A next-generation missile-based light-weight torpedo delivery system.
o A torpedo is a type of missile or bomb fired underwater.
• Developed by: DRDO
• It is a canister-based missile system.
• The system carries a parachute-based release system.

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9. MISCELLANEOUS
9.1. NOBEL PRIZE IN CHEMISTRY 2024 (PROTEIN)
Why in the News?
Nobel Prize in Chemistry has been awarded to David Baker for computational protein design and jointly to
Demis Hassabis and John Jumper for protein structure prediction.
David Baker’s work on Computational Protein Design (CPD)
• CPD aims to create new proteins with novel functions or properties not found in nature using
computational methods.
• Applications: Therapeutic proteins, creating more effective vaccines, Nanomaterials, biosensors, etc.
Work of Demis Hassabis and John Jumper on Protein Structure Prediction
• They used an AlphaFold2 (AI model) for predicting protein’s complex structures i.e., how proteins fold into
shapes that determine their
functions.
o Recently, AlphaFold3 has
been developed.
• Applications: Understanding
drug design, antibiotic
resistance, developing enzymes
to break down plastic, etc.
About Proteins
• One of the four major types of
biomolecules (Other:
carbohydrates, lipids, and
nucleic acids).
• Composed of linear chains of 20 naturally occurring amino acids.
o Types of Amino Acids:
 Nonessential Amino Acids: Synthesized in the body
 Essential Amino Acids: Cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained through diet
• Collagen and Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RuBisCO) are the most abundant
proteins in the animal world and the whole of the biosphere, respectively.

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9.2. GRAPHENE
Why in the News?
MeitY launched the India Graphene Engineering and Innovation Centre (IGEIC).
What is Graphene?
• A building block of Graphite.
o Graphite is a crystalline allotrope of carbon. Other carbon allotropes include Diamond and
Fullerene.
• A single layer (2D-dimensional) of carbon atoms, tightly bound in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice.
• Often called a wonder material for its extraordinary electrical and electronic properties.
Properties of Graphene
• Mechanical Strength: 200 times stronger than steel, yet 6 times lighter.
• Optical Transparency: Absorbs only 2.3% of light, making it suitable for transparent touchscreens, solar
cells, and display technologies.
• High Thermal Conductivity: About 5000 W/m/K at room temperature.
• Impermeability: Impermeable to gases, even those as light as hydrogen and helium.
• Quantum Properties: The Quantum Hall effect in Graphene could also possibly contribute standards in
metrology, quantum computing, and advanced electronics.

Related News
Carbon Fiber
• Vice President of India inaugurated the Centre for Carbon Fiber and Prepregs.
• Prepregs is a reinforcing fabric that is pre-impregnated with a resin system (thermoset or thermoplastic).
• About Carbon Fiber
o A polymer which is a form of graphite consisting of thin, strong crystalline filaments of carbon.
o Properties: Extremely strong, and light, high chemical resistance; temperature tolerant to excessive
heat; and have low thermal expansion. Also, they can be recycled.
o Applications: Manufacturing of components for automobiles, aircraft, etc.

9.3.1. PM E-DRIVE SCHEME

Why in the News?
Ministry of Heavy Industries has notified the PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement
(PM E-DRIVE) Scheme.
More on the News
• The PM E-DRIVE Scheme has subsumed schemes like the Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme 2024
(EMPS 2024).
• Also, it will replace the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles in India
(FAME India) Initiative.

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About the PM E-DRIVE Scheme
• Objective: Expedite the adoption of EVs by providing upfront incentives for their purchase and facilitating
the establishment of essential charging infrastructure.
• Time Period: 2024-26
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Heavy Industries
Key Features of the Scheme
• Subsidies: Demand incentives for consumers (refer to the infographic).
• Grants for creation of capital assets: Includes e-buses, establishment of a network of Electric vehicle
public charging stations (EVPCS) & upgradation of identified testing agencies.
• Project management
agency (PMA): The
Scheme shall be
implemented through a
PMA, which shall be
responsible for providing
secretarial, managerial,
and implementation
support.
• Other important
Features:
o Phased
Manufacturing
Programme (PMP)
has to be followed by
Original Equipment
Manufacturers and EV charging infrastructure/ public charging stations to be eligible for support.
Other initiatives for the promotion of the EV manufacturing
• Rationalization of GST on electric vehicles from 12% to 5%
• ‘Technology Platform for Electric Mobility (TPEM)’ formed by the Ministry of Science and Technology.
• PM-eBus Sewa-Payment Security Mechanism (PSM) scheme for procurement and operation of e-buses
by Public Transport Authorities (PTAs).

9.4. CRITICAL MINERALS

Why in the News?
Under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act (MMDRA), 1957, the Central Government
increased the area limit (set for preventing cartelisation) for 24 critical minerals listed in part D of the First
Schedule to MMDRA.
What are Critical Minerals?
• These minerals are building blocks of essential modern-day technologies and are at risk of supply chain
disruptions due to limited global production and geopolitical factors.
o E.g., Lithium, cobalt, nickel, copper, rare earth elements, etc.
• Government of India has released a list of 30 critical minerals for India.
o These minerals are - Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite,
Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE, Rhenium,
Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium, and
Cadmium.

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India’s Initiatives
• Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. (KABIL) is mandated to identify and acquire overseas mineral assets of critical and
strategic nature, such as lithium and cobalt.
• Member of Mineral Security Partnership (MSP) to bolster supply chains.
o Also joined MSP Finance Network.
• Other multilateral/bilateral partnerships such as the agreement between India and Argentina for
exploration and mining of 5 lithium blocks in Argentina.

About Tantalum
• A rare metal
• Characteristics: Corrosion-resistant, ductile (in pure form), etc.
• Uses: Making capacitors in electronic devices, surgical equipment & implants, nuclear power plants,
aeroplanes, and missiles, etc.

9.4.1. LITHIUM
Why in the News?
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and
Research has established 1,600 tonnes of Lithium
resources in Mandya district.
About Lithium (white gold)
• A soft, silvery-white alkali toxic metal with the lowest
density of all metals.
• Reacts vigorously with water.
• Lithium does not occur as a metal in nature but is
found combined in small amounts in nearly all
igneous rocks and the waters of many mineral
springs.
o Spodumene, petalite, lepidolite, and
amblygonite are important minerals containing
lithium.
• The electrolysis of molten lithium chloride and potassium chloride produces the metal.

9.5. ELECTRONIC TOLL COLLECTION (ETC)

Why in the News?
The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has notified the National Highways Fee Amendment Rules,
2024, under the National Highways Act, 1956, for GNSS-based ETC.

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More on the News
• Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-based Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) is intended to replace
FASTag eventually.
About GNSS-based ETC
• Working: Uses
satellite-based
imaging to track the
vehicle's position and
collect tolls based on
the distance travelled.
• Main components:
o OBU: GNSS-
enabled device
installed in a
vehicle to
determine vehicle
route and
calculate toll.
o ANPR cameras: Installed on the highways to recognize vehicle number plate and deduct toll money.
• In this system, geo-fencing of highways is done.
o Geofencing creates virtual geographic areas that trigger a specific action when a GPS tracking device
enters or exits the zone.
• Benefits: Decrease the need for roadside tolling infrastructure; reduce congestion; etc.

9.6. ATOMS4FOOD
Why in the News?
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) participated in the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Scientific Forum ‘Atoms4Food’.
About Atoms4Food
• Genesis: Jointly launched by IAEA and FAO.
• Purpose: To harness the advantages of nuclear techniques along with other advanced technologies to
enhance agricultural and livestock productivity, etc.

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9.7. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS
9.7.1. KAVACH
Indian Railways is rolling out tenders for equipping 10,000 locomotives with Kavach 4.0
About KAVACH
• An electronic system of Safety Integrity Level 4 standards, with a probability of error of 1 in 10,000 years.
• Developed by: Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO)
• Key features: Centralised live monitoring of train movement, Prevention of Signal Passing at Danger (SPAD),
Automatic braking to prevent overspeeding, etc.

9.7.2. 3D HOLOGRAM TECHNOLOGY

Japan has issued new yen banknotes packed with 3D hologram technology to fight counterfeiting.
• Holograms' intricate patterns and properties make them difficult to duplicate completely.
About Hologram Technology
• A photographic pattern that gives a three-dimensional image when illuminated by coherent light.
• Holograms show different images and colors depending on the angle at which they are viewed.
• Formation of Holograph involves principles of interference and diffraction.

9.7.3. LIQUID NITROGEN

FSSAI has issued an advisory on the unauthorized use of liquid nitrogen in food by food-serving
establishments.
About Liquid Nitrogen
• An inert cryogenic fluid with a temperature of −196 °C.
o It is colourless and odourless.
• Functional use: freezing agent, propellant, packaging gas & foaming agent'.
• Health Effects: Frostbite, burns, asphyxiation, and damage to internal organs.
• As per the Food Safety and Standards (Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Regulation, 2011,
nitrogen is a Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) additive.

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9.7.4. THERMITE
A new type of drone called “dragon drone” has been used recently in the Russia-Ukraine war.
About Thermite
• Releases a substance called thermite, a mixture of aluminum and iron oxide.
• When ignited, it produces a self-sustaining reaction that makes it almost impossible to extinguish.
• Thermite isn't banned internationally, but using incendiary weapons in civilian areas is prohibited by the
UN's Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons.

Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of Vision IAS.

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6. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
6.1. BIOTECHNOLOGY
6.1.1. GENOME INDIA PROJECT
Why in the News?
Genome India Project (GIP) has achieved a significant milestone by making the genomic data of 10,000
individuals publicly accessible.
More on the News
• Whole genome sequencing data for 10,000 individuals have been archived at Indian Biological Data
Centre (IBDC).
o IBDC, Faridabad is India’s first national life science data repository, supported by Department of
Biotechnology (DBT).
• Framework for Exchange of Data Protocols (FeED) and the IBDC Portals were also launched.
o ‘Framework for Exchange of Data (FeED)’ Protocols is under Biotech-PRIDE Guidelines and it
ensures high-quality, nation-specific data sharing in a transparent, fair, and responsible manner.
About Genome India Project
• Genesis: Initiated in 2020 by DBT with collaborations of 20 institutions to map India's genetic diversity.
• Primary objective: Build a comprehensive catalogue of genetic variations that reflect unique diversity of
Indian population.
• Key Achievements:
o 20,000 samples collected from 83 diverse populations, establishing a bio bank.
o 10,000 genomes sequenced in first phase, creating a reference genome for India.

To know more about Genome Sequencing, refer to Article 1.1. Genes and Related Concepts in PT365
Science & Technology 2025.
Related News
Next Generation DNA Sequencing
• Pashmina Certification and Next Generation DNA Sequencing Facilities inaugurated at Wildlife Institute
of India (WII).
• About Next Generation DNA Sequencing
o Next-generation sequencing (NGS): A modern method of analyzing genetic material that can
rapidly sequence large amounts of DNA or RNA.

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o Benefit: NGS can sequence an entire genome within days, compared to months with earlier
techniques.
o Key applications of NGS
> Microbiology: Helps in pathogen identification, outbreak tracking, and studying antimicrobial
resistance etc.
> Medical Research & Gene Therapy: Identify cancer types, replace defective genes for inherited
diseases etc.
> Other: Wildlife conservation (assessment of population genetic health, etc.), Agriculture
(Sequence crop genomes to enhance drought resistance), etc.

6.1.2. KEY CONCEPTS/TERMS IN NEWS

6.1.2.1. EXTRACHROMOSOMAL DNA (ECDNA)
Studies reveal how ecDNA drives cancer progression and drug resistance.
About Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA)
• ecDNA are small circular DNA fragments that float freely in the nucleus, separate from chromosomes.
• Genesis: Formed due to DNA damage (e.g., chromothripsis) or errors during DNA replication.
• Role of ecDNA in Cancer:
o Found in up to 90% of certain tumour types, including brain tumours, liposarcomas, and breast
cancers.
o ecDNA often contains multiple oncogenes, promoting tumour growth and drug resistance.
> Oncogenes are mutated genes capable of causing cancer that are required to activate tumour
growth.

6.1.2.2. SELECTIVE SILENCING

Researchers at Columbia University have revealed impact of selective silencing on disease outcomes.
About Selective Silencing
• Every cell in the body (except sperm and eggs) contains two copies of each gene (one inherited from each
parent).
• However, certain cells can exhibit a bias, selectively inactivating one parent’s copy of a gene, i.e., selective
silencing.
o Silencing means blocking a specific gene’s message.
• This selective silencing could be the reason why some individuals carrying genes linked to diseases
remain symptom-free.

6.1.2.3. CIS-REGULATORY ELEMENTS

Researchers have used AI to design new DNA Switches (also called Cis-Regulatory Elements (CREs)) that can
precisely control expression of a gene in different cell types.
• It opens the possibility of controlling when and where genes are expressed in human body, for human health
and research.
About CREs
• CREs themselves are not part of genes, but are separate, regulatory DNA sequences.
• Although every cell in an organism contains the same genes, not all the genes are needed in every cell, or at
all times. This gene expression is regulated by CREs.
• These play a crucial role in cellular identity, developmental processes, and stimulus responses.

6.1.2.4. BIOFILM
Indian Institute of Science (IISc) has devised a way to break down ‘biofilm barriers’ to aid entry of drugs.

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• Most of the disease-causing bacteria secrete matrix-like layers around themselves called biofilms.
• These biofilms act as thick barriers limiting the entry of drugs and helping the bacteria become resistant to
antibiotics.
About Biofilm
• A biofilm is an assemblage of microbial cells that is irreversibly associated (not removed by gentle rinsing)
with a surface and enclosed in a matrix of primarily polysaccharide material.
• It may form on a wide variety of surfaces like living tissues, indwelling medical devices, industrial or
potable water system piping, natural aquatic systems etc.
• In food industries, usually the surfaces and equipment with food and non-food-contact are regularly
annexed by microorganisms that can form biofilms.

6.1.3. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.1.3.1. QARTEMI
Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has approved 2nd Living drugs, Qartemi, a Chimeric
Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy for treating blood cancer.
• NexCAR19 is first CART-cell therapy.
About Qartemi
• India's first globally benchmarked CAR T-cell treatment specifically designed for adult B-cell non-Hodgkin
lymphoma.
• Developed by Immuneel Therapeutics, a Bengaluru-based biotech startup.
To know more about CART-cell therapy, refer to Article 1.2.1. Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T-cell
therapy in PT365 Science & Technology 2025.

6.1.3.2. ARCHAEA
Study of archaea have given scientists clues to survival strategies of microorganisms by adapting to harsh
conditions with the help of their Toxin-Antitoxin (TA) systems.
• TA Systems are found in many bacteria and archaea, and are usually composed of a toxin that inhibits an
essential cellular process and an antitoxin that counteracts its cognate toxin.
About Archaea
• Archaea are organisms consisting of a single cell without a nucleus.
• Archaea form one of the three domains of life; the others are bacteria and eukaryotes.
• They inhabit a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as near rift vents in deep sea
or heat springs.

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6.2.1.1. MAJORANA 1
Why in the News?
Microsoft has launched Majorana 1 Quantum Chip.
More on the News
• It is the world's First quantum chip to be powered by new topological core architecture.
o While regular chips use ‘bits’ (O or 1) to process information, quantum chips use ‘qubits’.
• It will revolutionize the development of quantum computers because it creates more stable and scalable
quantum computing components. About Ocelot
• Also, recently, Amazon launched a • A prototype that has only a tiny fraction of the computing
quantum computing chip named power needed to create a useful machine.
Ocelot (refer to box). • Key features:
About Majorana 1 o It consists of two integrated silicon microchips.
o Its high-quality oscillators are made from a thin film of
• Uses the first-ever topoconductor ( superconducting material called Tantalum
(topological superconductor) • It uses cat qubits, named after the famous Schrödinger's
o A topoconductor is a special
cat thought experiment.
category of material that can o Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment where a cat
create an entirely new state of inside a sealed box is both alive and dead
matter (not a solid, liquid or gas but simultaneously (superposition) until someone observes
a topological state). it.
o Material is made from indium
arsenide (a semiconductor) and aluminium (a superconductor).
• Uses a superconducting nanowire to observe the particles and can be controlled with standard computing
equipment.
• Relies on a subatomic particle called the Majorana fermion
o Majorana fermion is a fermion that is both a particle and its antiparticle; its existence was first
theorized in the 1930s.
Why Majorana 1 is a Big Development?
• It requires fewer qubits (or quantum bit) than rival chips and also has error rates are lower compared to
other rival chips like Google (Willow), IBM, etc.
• Combining with AI can deliver transformative and real-world solutions such as breaking down
microplastics into harmless byproducts, etc.

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Related News
Quantum Diamond Microchip Imager
• India’s first Quantum Diamond Microchip Imager will be developed by Tata Consultancy Services (TCS)
in partnership with IIT-Bombay.
• About Quantum Diamond Microchip Imager
o An advanced sensing tool for semiconductor chip imaging.
o Uses the defects in a diamond’s structure, known as Nitrogen-Vacancy (NV) centers.
Quantum Teleportation
• Researchers successfully teleported a quantum state of light over 30 kilometers of fiber optic cable.
o This breakthrough shows the potential for quantum and classical networks to share the same
infrastructure.
• About Quantum Teleportation
o A method for transferring quantum information between two points using entangled states &
preserving their identities across distances.
o Significance: Paves the way for a quantum internet, offering benefits like faster encryption, improved
sensing, and global connectivity for quantum computers.

6.2.2. BIG DATA

Why in the News?
India joins the UN Committee of Experts on Big Data and Data Science for Official Statistics (UN-CEBD).
About Big Data
• Definition: Data whose scale, diversity, and complexity require new architecture, techniques, algorithms,
and analytics to manage it and extract value and hidden knowledge from it.
o It includes structured data (inventory database, list of financial transactions); unstructured data
(social posts or videos); and mixed data sets (used to train large language models for AI).
• Characteristics of Big Data: Volume, Variety, Velocity (high rate of change) and Veracity (uncertainty and
incompleteness).
Applications of Big Data in Various Sectors
• Healthcare: Personalized medicine, clinical risk management, disease prediction, drug recommendations,
etc.
• Logistics and Transport: Bolster supply chain performance by fostering proactive and reactive capabilities.
• Marketing and Advertising: Precise targeting, market analysis, customer insights.
• Smart Cities: Resource management, improved infrastructure planning, and AI-driven solutions to urban
challenges.
• Education: Personalized learning, improving educational quality.
• Earth Sciences: Climate and earth studies, weather modelling, and prediction.

6.2.3. KEY CONCEPT/TERMS IN NEWS

6.2.3.1. NEUROMORPHIC DEVICE
Indian Scientists have developed a Neuromorphic device.
About Neuromorphic Device
• Neuromorphic devices give ideas about how the human body senses and responds to pain.
• Inspired by the habituation process of human body.
o In our bodies, special sensors called nociceptors detect pain and help us respond to harmful
situations.
o Over time, with repeated exposure, one can actually feel pain less intensely through a process called
habituation.
• Benefit: Make wearable tech smarter, and improve human-machine interactions.

6.2.3.2. BLUETOOTH LOW ENERGY GATEWAY

State of the Art Bluetooth Low Energy Gateway and Node System launched at IIT Ropar.
About Bluetooth Low Energy Gateway
• Connects Bluetooth-enabled sensors to cloud platforms, enabling seamless data transmission, real-
time environmental monitoring, and advanced analytics across diverse sectors.
• Key features include:
o Robust Connectivity: Offers 4G, Wi-Fi, and LAN compatibility for flexible networking.
o Long-Range Communication: Supports data transmission up to 1 km in line-of-sight (LOS) scenarios.
• Application: Precision farming, Logistics, Monitoring work in Smart cities, Industrial sites etc.

6.2.3.3. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) SPOOFING

As per reports, Israel used GPS spoofing against Iran.
About GPS Spoofing or GPS simulation
• Refers to the practice of manipulating or tricking a GPS receiver by broadcasting false GPS signals.
o This form of cyber-attack undermines the reliability of GPS data.
• Spoofing is different from GPS jamming.
o In the latter, the GPS signals are jammed or blocked.

6.2.4. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.2.4.1. DHARANI
IIT Madras has become the first research organization in the world to releases an open-source brain mapping
dataset named DHARANI.
About DHARANI
• Largest open-access digital dataset of the human fetal brain (developing brain of a fetus).
• Created with custom-made Indian technology.
• Advances neuroscience research and could aid in brain-related health treatments.

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6.2.4.2. SSI MANTRA
India’s indigenous Surgical robotic system, SSI Mantra, performed two world-first robotic cardiac
telesurgeries with latency of only 40 milliseconds.
About SSI Mantra
• Only robotic system worldwide to receive regulatory approval for telesurgery and tele-proctoring.
• Performed the robotic beating heart Totally Endoscopic Coronary Artery Bypass (TECAB), considered one
of the most complex cardiac surgical procedures.

6.2.4.3. THE BHASHINI PROJECT

Ministry of Labour & Employment launches Multilingual Functionality on e-Shram Portal.
• The Bhashini project upgraded the e-Shram portal to support all 22 Scheduled Languages.
About The Bhashini project (2022)
• An AI-based language translation tool, enabling multilingual support for Indian languages.
o It is part of the broader National Language Translation Mission (NLTM).
• Aim: Bridge language barriers and provides content and services in speech and text to citizens in their native
language.
• Ministry: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY).

6.2.4.4. GENCAST AI
Google DeepMind Unveils GenCast AI Model for Advanced Weather Forecasting.
About GenCast AI
• A weather forecasting model that claims better accuracy and extended forecasting range compared to
existing tools.
• It uses ensemble forecasting, similar to traditional numerical weather prediction (NWP), but is powered by
AI rather than simulations.
To know more about Artificial Intelligence, refer to Article 3.1. Artificial Intelligence in PT365 Science &
Technology 2025.

6.2.4.5. MULEHUNTER.AI
RBI launched AI tool MuleHunter.AI to help financial institutions identify mule bank accounts and curb digital
frauds.
• Mule accounts are used by criminals for illicit laundering of funds.
About MuleHunter.AI
• Developed by Reserve Bank Innovation Hub (RBIH), a wholly owned subsidiary of RBI.
• Uses AI/ Machine Learning based solutions to identify suspected mule accounts efficiently on a near-
real-time monitoring.

6.2.4.6. SECURE IOT

IIT-Madras incubated startup Mindgrove launched Secure IoT, India’s debut high-performance SoC (system on
chip).
• SoC combines many electronic parts into one chip, like a mini-computer.
About Secure IoT
• Secure IoT is first indigenous microcontroller chip.
• Applications: In deep embedded applications like smart variants of fans, speakers, wearables, etc.
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6.2.4.7. MOIRÉ SUPERCONDUCTORS
Recent study reported that moiré materials made from semiconductor materials can be superconducting.
About Moiré Materials
• About: They are a type of superlattice material (periodic structure formed by alternating layers of materials)
with unique structures and properties.
o Created by stacking two layers of a semiconductor, and rotating one layer by a small angle.
• Benefits: Tunable electrical and optical properties, exhibit superconductivity, orbital magnetism, and
quantum properties, etc.

• Test Location: ISRO Propulsion Complex in Mahendragiri,

Tamil Nadu.
o The sea-level test introduced an innovative ‘Nozzle
Protection System’ to address technical challenges in
engine restart capability.
• ISRO has been working on the engine in view of its Gaganyaan
mission.
About CE20

• Developed by: The Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC),

Valiamala, Kerala.
• Output: It has been upgraded to produce a thrust level of 20
tonnes.
• Successful Mission: It has demonstrated its capability by successfully operating in six successive LVM3
missions, including the Chandrayaan-2, Chandrayaan-3, etc.
o LVM3 (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III) is three-staged vehicle, capable of lifting
4000kg payload.

Related News
Semi-Cryogenic Engine (SCE)-200
• ISRO successfully conducted the first Pre-Burner Ignition trial for semi-cryogenic engine (SCE)-200
o The SCE ignition is achieved using a start fuel ampule which uses a combination of Triethyle
Aluminide and Triethyle Boron developed by Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC).
• Semi-Cryogenic Engine (SCE)
o SCE uses refined kerosene instead of liquid hydrogen which offers advantages of lighter weight and
storage at normal temperature.
o ISRO is developing a powerful SCE that produces a thrust of 2,000 kilonewtons (kN).
Vikas engine
• ISRO successfully carried out demonstration of restarting its Vikas liquid engine.
o It is a step towards developing technologies for recovery of stages, leading to reusability in future
launch vehicles which could substantially reduce cost of future space missions.
• About Vikas (Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai) Engine
o It has been conceptualized and designed by ISRO’s Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC).
o It is workhorse engine that powers liquid stages of ISRO’s launch vehicles.
o It improves payload capability of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Launch
Vehicle (GSLV) and GSLV Mk-III launch vehicles.

6.3.2.1. V404 CYGNI SYSTEM

Why in the News?
Astronomers discovered the first black hole triple system “V404 Cygni system”.
About V404 Cygni system
• It holds a central black hole in the act of consuming a small star that’s spiralling in very close to the black
hole.
• V404 Cygni system, initially believed to be a binary black hole system.
o Binary black hole systems often pair a black hole with either a star, neutron star, or another black
hole, orbiting each other due to gravitational attraction.
• The new discovery found, a 2nd star orbiting the black hole at a vast distance, completing one orbit every
70,000 years (making it a triple system).
• It is located within the Milky Way and around 8,000 light-years from Earth.
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Significance of the New Discovery
• Debunks Supernova explosion: The distant star's presence challenges traditional black hole formation
theory.
• Direct collapse: Scientists suggest this black hole is formed through "direct collapse,"
o In direct collapse, a star quietly implodes, allowing distant objects to maintain their orbital connections.
Related News
LID-568
• According to a study, LID-568 Black hole is expanding at an unprecedented rate challenging the
conventional understanding of black holes.
o LID-568 appeared to be consuming infalling material due to gravitational attraction known as
accretion, at more than 40 times the Eddington limit.
> Eddington limit shows the maximum energy output the black hole can produce through the
accretion process.
• About LID-568
o A supermassive black hole formed about 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang event.
o It has a mass about 10 million times greater than the sun, so 2-1/2 times that of Sagittarius A*.
> Sagittarius A*is a supermassive black hole located at the center of our galaxy-the Milky Way.

6.3.3. THIRD LAUNCH PAD

Why in the News?
Union Cabinet approved the establishment of ‘Third Launch Pad’ (TLP) project at Satish Dhawan Space Centre
of ISRO at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh.
About TLP
• Key Features: Configured to support Launch of Next Generation Launch Vehicles (NGLV) and LVM3 with
Semi cryogenic stage as well as scaled up configurations of NGLV.
• Significance of TLP
o Capacity augmentation: Enables higher launch frequencies
o Expanded vision of Indian Space Programme: Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) and an Indian Crewed
Lunar Landing by 2040 require a next generation of heavier launch vehicles with new propulsion
systems.

Existing Launch pads in India

• Currently, ISRO relies on 2 launch pads located at Shriharikota:
o First Launch Pad provides launch support for PSLV and Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).
o Second Launch Pad was established primarily for GSLV & LVM3 and also functions as standby for
PSLV.

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Next Generation Launch Vehicles (NGLV) Programme
• About: Aims to develop a new rocket (also known as Soorya Rocket) to launch satellites and spacecraft
• Features
o 3 stage vehicle with reusable first stage.
o The booster stages will use semi-cryogenic propulsion.
o It will have 3 times the present payload capability with 1.5 times the cost compared to LVM3.
Other Launch Vehicles of the ISRO
• Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV): It is the third generation launch vehicle.
o First Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.
o It is a 4 stage launch vehicle with 1st & 3rd stages being solid rocket motors and 2nd & 4th being liquid
engines.
o Second stage is powered by a Vikas engine.
• Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV): Operational fourth generation launch vehicle with
3-stage.
o It is used to launch communication satellites in geo-transfer orbit using cryogenic third stage.
o Its second stage is powered by Vikas engines.
• Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV): A 3 stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid Propulsion
Stages and liquid propulsion.
• GSLV Mk-III (LVM3): A three stage vehicle with two solid strap-on motors (S200), one liquid core stage
(L110), and a high thrust cryogenic upper stage (C25).

6.3.4. ANALOG SPACE MISSION

Why in the News?
ISRO has launched India’s first analog space mission in Leh (Ladakh) to plan lunar mission experiments.
About Analog Space Mission
• Analog space missions are field tests done in locations that have physical similarities to that of the extreme
space environments.
• Developed by joint collaboration of ISRO’s Human Spaceflight Center, and other partner.
• Other major analog missions: NEEMO (NASA), SIRIUS Program (UAE), etc.
Why is Ladakh ideal as Analog Site?
• Geomorphological similarities to an early Mars and Moon:
o Dry, cold, arid desert, with abundant rocky ground.
o Vast flat land devoid of vegetation, dunes, and drainage networks.
o Segregated ground ice and permafrost, and rock glaciers.
• Geochemical similarities to Martian surface: Volcanic rocks, saline lakes, and hydrothermal systems.
• Exobiological similarities: Permafrost (evidence of water in past), increased UV and cosmic radiation flux,
reduced atmospheric pressure, hot springs (rich in boron) and sufficient isolation.

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6.3.5. DIRECT-TO-DEVICE (D2D) SATELLITE CONNECTIVITY
Why in the News?
BSNL launched India’s first Direct-to-Device (D2D) Satellite connectivity.
More on the News
• It marks a major event in extending satellite communications to everyday consumers which were earlier
limited to emergency and military use.
• Global initiatives such as AST Space Mobile, Lynk Global, Constellation Global, SpaceX- Starlink, also
uses D2D technology.
o Chinese scientists have developed world’s first satellite series (Tiantong-1) to make Direct Satellite
Calls.
Working of Direct-to-Device Satellite Technology
• Principle: Satellites act as cell towers in space, bypassing the need for terrestrial cell towers.
• Non-Terrestrial Network (NTN) technology: It allows for seamless two-way communication between
devices and satellites.
Significance
• Reliable connectivity: Uninterrupted internet
connectivity, regardless of weather conditions.
• High-speed internet and wider coverage even in
the remotest areas where cellular or Wi-Fi
networks are unavailable.
• Emergency calls and SOS messaging:
Communication in emergency situations where
cellular or Wi-Fi networks are unavailable (useful
for adventurers, travellers etc)
Challenges
• Latency: Ensuring minimal delay for real-time
applications like voice calls and video streaming.
• Device compatibility: Ensuring technology works
across various smartphones and operating systems.
• Propagation challenges: Overcoming signal loss and interference in diverse environments.

6.3.6. SATELLITE CONSTELLATION FIREFLY

Why in the News?
Indian private space-tech company Pixxel launched India’s first private satellite constellation ‘Firefly’.

• HSI analyses a wide spectrum of light instead of just assigning primary colours (red, green, blue) to each
pixel, effectively spectrally fingerprinting the Earth.
• HSI provide more information on what is imaged.
o For instance, while a typical satellite can identify a forest from space, HSI can distinguish between
different types of trees and determine health of each individual tree.
• Key Application: Waste Sorting, environmental monitoring, mineral exploration, etc.
About Satellite Constellation

• A network of identical artificial satellites with the same purpose and shared control, designed to work as
a system.
o They communicate with global ground stations and, at times, interconnect to complement each
other’s functions.
• Starlink, with 2,146 active satellites, is the largest satellite constellation.
• Types: Based on orbital altitude there are three types:
o Geostationary orbit (GEO): At an altitude of 36,000 km, it synchronizes with Earth's rotation.
> Geosynchronous orbit is a low inclination orbit having a period of 23 hours 56 minutes and 4
seconds.
o Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): At altitude of 5,000 to 20,000 km, traditionally serving navigation
purposes.
o Low Earth Orbit (LEO): At altitude of 500 to 1,200 km, primarily support research, telecommunication
and Earth Observation needs.

Related News
TSAT-1A
• Tata Advanced Systems Ltd and Satellogic announced the successful deployment of TSAT-1A into space.
• About TSAT (Tata Satellite) -1A
o India’s first indigenously developed and built satellite capable of sub-meter resolution optical
imaging.
o It is equipped with both multispectral and hyperspectral imaging capabilities.

6.3.9. KEY CONCEPTS/TERMS IN NEWS

6.3.9.1. DARK COMET
NASA researchers have discovered more dark Comets, Oumuamua-like (a messenger from afar arriving first)
objects.
Dark Comets
• These celestial objects look like asteroids but act like comets and have less surface area for material to
form tails.
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• They deviate from expected orbit. That deviation couldn’t be explained by the Yarkovsky effect.
o It is a phenomenon which changes the path of celestial objects due to asymmetric radiation of heat
energy.
• They spin quite rapidly and disperse escaping gas and dust in all directions, making them less visible.
• Dark comets follow elongated, elliptical paths that bring them close to the Sun before sweeping back out
to the farthest reaches of the Solar System.

6.3.9.2. GRAVITATIONAL LENSING

Physicists at Durham University, UK, have discovered over 44 previously unknown stars located behind a
cluster of galaxies using Gravitational Lensing (GL).
About Gravitational Lensing
• GL occurs when massive objects distort and magnify light from objects behind them (such as a galaxy or
a quasar), acting as cosmic telescopes and making distant galaxies appear brighter
• This happens because the object's mass curves space and time, causing light to travel along a curved path.
o According to Einstein's general theory of relativity, mass causes spacetime to curve, and light follows
the curvature of spacetime.
• A key effect of this lensing is magnification, allowing us to see distant, faint objects. The Hubble Space
Telescope uses this effect to study galaxies far beyond its normal range.

6.3.9.3. TIDAL TAIL

A Nascent galaxy was discovered in formation at the end of the tidal tail of the NGC 3785 galaxy.
• NGC 3785 galaxy is known to possess the longest tidal tail discovered so far.
About Tidal Tail
• Formed due to gravitational forces ("tidal forces") when two galaxies interact closely, essentially pulling
material away from each other during a close encounter or merger process.
o A seemingly longer-than-average tidal tail consists of a stream of stars and gas.
• Tidal tail offers a glimpse into how galaxies like ultra-diffuse ones, with very low surface brightness,
come into being.

6.3.10. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENT IN NEWS

6.3.10.1. KODAIKANAL SOLAR OBSERVATORY
International solar conference celebrates 125th anniversary of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory.
About Kodaikanal Solar Observatory, 1899
• Genesis: Currently owned & operated by Indian Institute of Astrophysics.
• Objective: To obtain more data on how the sun heats up Earth’s atmosphere and to understand monsoon
patterns.
• Location: Kodaikanal, Palani range of hills (Tamil Nadu).
o Kodaikanal was chosen for its proximity to equator & its dust-free high-altitude location.
• Radial motion of sunspots, better known as the Evershed Effect, was discovered from the sunspot
observations made at KSO.

6.3.10.2. MISSION SCOT

6.3.10.3. KM3NET
Scientists are deploying two underwater telescopes under Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope (KM3NeT) to
detect high-energy neutrinos.
About KM3NeT
• KM3NeT houses the next generation neutrino telescopes under Mediterranean Sea.
o It will search for neutrinos from distant astrophysical sources such as supernovae, gamma ray bursters
or colliding stars.
• Telescopes are similar to IceCube Neutrino Observatory, located in frozen ice of Antarctica.

6.3.10.4. MEERKAT TELESCOPE

Astronomers have used the MeerKAT radio telescope to investigate giant radio galaxies in the field of
Cosmological Evolution Survey (COSMOS).
About MeerKAT radio telescope
• Location: Northern Cape province of South Africa.
• Features:
o It consists of a connected array of radio telescopes.
o It consists of 64 interlinked receptors, including the main reflector, sub-reflector, receivers, and other
electronics.
o Benefits: Extremely high sensitivity, wide field of view, and unprecedented imaging capabilities
• It is a precursor instrument to mid-frequency component of Square Kilometer Array (SKA) telescope

6.3.10.5. CROPS EXPERIMENT

ISRO achieved a milestone as cowpea seeds aboard PSLV-C60's CROPS experiment sprouted leaves in
space.
• It was ISRO’s first biological experiment and part of CROPS (Compact Research Module for Orbital Plant
Studies).
About CROPS Experiment
• An automated platform designed to cultivate and sustain plant life in microgravity environment of space.
• Developed by the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre.
• Current accomplishment not only demonstrates ISRO’s capability to grow plants in space but also
provides valuable insights for future long-duration missions.

6.4. HEALTH
6.4.1. DISEASES AND RELATED DEVELOPMENTS
6.4.1.1. RARE DISEASES
Why in the News?
Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) approves first anti-complement therapy for rare
diseases
What are Rare Diseases?
• WHO defines rare disease as often debilitating lifelong disease or disorder with a prevalence of 1 or less,
per 1000 people. For E.g. Fanconi Anemia, Osteopetrosis etc.
o However, different countries have their own definitions to suit their specific requirements.

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• Rare diseases also come under the category of 'orphan diseases'.
o Drugs to treat such diseases are called "orphan drugs" as the number of persons suffering from
individual rare diseases is small and do not constitute a significant market for drug manufacturers.
• Currently, 63 Rare Diseases are listed under National Policy for Rare Disease 2021 (NPRD, 2021),
classified under 3 groups.
Classification of Rare Diseases in India (as per NPRD 2021)
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
• Amenable to one-time • Long-term treatment needed • Definitive treatment is
curative treatment with relatively lower costs available but challenges in
o E.g., Disorders and documented benefits optimal patient selection for
amenable to organ o E.g., Disorders managed benefit, very high cost and
transplantation like Urea with special dietary lifelong therapy
cycle disorders, etc. formulae like o E.g., Gaucher Disease,
Phenylketonuria, etc. Pompe Disease etc.
Initiatives taken to tackle rare diseases
• Global
o WHO’s Fair Pricing Forum: It foster dialogue between regulators, insurers, pharmaceutical companies
and patient groups to ensure sustainable access to medicines, including orphan drug.
o Rare Diseases International (RDI): Global alliance of people living with a rare disease of all
nationalities.
• India
o National Policy for Rare Diseases, 2021: Aims to lower incidence and prevalence of rare diseases.
> Financial support of up to Rs. 50 lakhs per patient is provided for treatment.
o Rashtriya Arogya Nidhi: Provides financial assistance for poor patients suffering from rare disease.

6.4.1.2. DIABETES
Why in the News?
Ministry of Science & Technology introduces 'PPP plus PPP' Model to check diabetes in India.
More on the News
• “PPP plus PPP” is a two-tiered collaboration where India’s public and private sectors unite internally
to strengthen healthcare infrastructure while simultaneously engaging with international counterparts.
• Also, recently, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has set up the country’s first diabetes biobank
in Chennai.
About Diabetes or Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
• A chronic, metabolic disease that causes elevated blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia).
• Symptoms: Loss of glucose through urine and formation of harmful compounds known as ketone bodies.
o It can cause serious damage to the heart, blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, and nerves.
• Major Types
o Type 1 (juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes): Autoimmune disorder in which insulin
producing cells are destroyed.
o Type 2: Most common type and usually occurs in adults. Caused when body becomes resistant to
insulin or doesn't make enough insulin.
o Gestational: Develops during pregnancy
• WHO Target: To halt the rise in diabetes and obesity by 2025

Related News
IL-35 Protein
• Researchers have discovered a specific protein IL-35 that protects against type 1 and autoimmune
diabetes.
• About IL-35-Protein
o Protects the immune system by lowering particular immune cells that produce inflammatory
chemicals.
o Regulates macrophage activation, T-cell proteins, and regulatory B cells.
> Macrophages form from monocytes (type of White blood cells (WBC)), which themselves derive
from the bone marrow.
o T cells and B cells are a type of WBC called lymphocytes
GLP-1 Receptor Agonists
• Scientists at the WHO have endorsed a new class of medicines known as Glucagon-Like Peptide
(GLP)-1 receptor agonists to treat type 2 diabetes and obesity.
• About GLP-1
o These interact with GLP-1, a key hormone that plays an integral role in regulating blood glucose levels,
lipid metabolism, and several other crucial biological functions.
▪ GLP-1 is produced in the intestine and released in response to food.
▪ It causes reduced appetite and release of insulin.

6.4.1.3. POLIO
Why in the News?
Recently, India completed 10 Years of Polio Eradication.
More on the News
• In March 2014, the WHO declared India polio-free.
• Eradication was achieved through the initiatives like Universal Immunization Programme (UIP),
participation in the Global Polio Eradication Initiative, etc.
About Poliomyelitis (Polio)
• Highly infectious viral disease that largely affects children under 5 years of age.
• Transmission: Person-to-person spread mainly through the faecal-oral route or by a common vehicle (e.g.,
contaminated water or food), etc.
• Vaccine-derived polio occurs when the weakened strain in oral polio vaccine (OPV) mutates, potentially
regaining the ability to cause paralysis in under-vaccinated populations.
About Universal Immunization Programme
• It is one of the world’s largest public health programs providing free vaccines for 12 vaccine-preventable
diseases.
• In 1985, Expanded Programme on Immunization was renamed as UIP.
• UIP is a part of the Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) Program under National Health Mission (NHM).

6.4.1.4. OTHER DISEASE IN NEWS

Guillain-Barre • Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS) outbreak has been reported in Pune, Maharashtra
Syndrome (GBS) • Campylobacter, a bacterial gut infection that spreads through contaminated
food and water, has been linked to the outbreak.
• About Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)
o A very rare but potentially paralysing nerve disorder caused by the immune
system mistakenly attacking the body's own nerves.
> It is often triggered by gastrointestinal or respiratory infection.
o Symptoms: weakness, sensation changes, sometimes paralysis etc.
Human • China experienced a surge in HMPV cases, particularly in children under 14 years
metapneumovirus of age.
(HMPV) • About HMPV
o A respiratory virus that causes mild infections similar to that caused by a
common cold.
> It belongs to the Pneumoviridae family along with respiratory syncytial
virus (RSV).
o Transmission: Spreads from person to person or surfaces to person.
o Symptoms: Cough, fever, nasal congestion, and shortness of breath.
o Treatment: Currently, there is no specific antiviral therapy to treat HMPV and
no vaccine to prevent HMPV.
Norovirus • US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has reported significant surge in
Norovirus cases.
• About Norovirus
o A highly contagious virus that causes gastroenteritis, commonly known as
"stomach flu."
> Noroviruses are relatively resistant in environment as they can survive
freezing as well as high temperatures (up to 60°C).
o Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, etc.
o Transmission: Primarily through faecal-oral route, either by consumption of
contaminated food or water, or by spreading directly from person to person.
Thrombotic • A recent study found an association between the inactivated COVID-19 vaccine
Thrombocytopenic CoronaVac and Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (TTP).
Purpura • About TTP
o A rare blood disorder in which thrombi (blood clots) are formed in small
blood vessels throughout the body.
o Clots can limit or restrict the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the organs
including brain, kidneys and heart.
o It can be inherited or acquired and occurs due to lack of an enzyme,
ADAMTS13, that controls blood clotting.
o Major symptoms may include thrombocytopenia (lower than normal platelet
count), purpura (purple bruises under the skin); hemolytic anemia (abnormal
destruction of red blood cells), etc.
Disease X • Recent unclassified outbreak in Democratic Republic of Congo has raised
concerns over Disease X.
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• About Disease X
o Refers to a hypothetical disease, unknown pathogen with potential to
cause global epidemic or pandemic.
o Coined by WHO in 2018 and included it in Blueprint for Priority Diseases to
focus on risks of emerging diseases.
o COVID-19 is regarded as first instance of real Disease X.

6.4.2. ORAL REHYDRATION THERAPY (ORT)

Why in the News?
Richard Cash, physician and global health scholar, died who was instrumental in the development of Oral
Rehydration Therapy (ORT).
About ORT
• ORT is the administration of appropriate solutions (glucose, sodium chloride, etc.) by mouth to prevent or
correct dehydration.
• ORT consists of:
o Rehydration: water and electrolytes to replace losses.
o Maintenance fluid therapy to take care of ongoing losses once rehydration is achieved.
• Richard conducted the first clinical trials of ORT in the late 1960s.
o It demonstrated that this low-cost intervention could effectively and safely reduce intravenous fluid
needs.
• Dilip Mahalanabis was an Indian public health specialist who pioneered the use of oral rehydration
solution (ORS) to treat diarrheal diseases.
o Potent in treatment of Diarrhoea and Cholera.
• Efficacy in Adults: Patients receiving the oral solution required 80% less intravenous fluids for cure in
comparison to other techniques.
How ORT works?
• ORT works because of the molecular mechanisms that govern sugar and sodium absorption inside the
gut.
• The cells that make up the lining of the gut have special receptors on their surfaces that allow them to
actively absorb sugar molecules.
• The increase in sugar and sodium inside the cells leads to increased absorption of water and chloride
ions.

6.4.3. MINISTRY OF AYUSH

Why in the News?
The Ministry of Ayush recently marked its 10th anniversary.
More on the News
• Founded in 2014, the Ministry of Ayush aims to revive ancient medical knowledge while supporting the UN’s
Sustainable Development Goals and Universal Health Coverage.
• The Ministry evolved from the Department of Indian System of Medicine & Homoeopathy.
• “AYUSH” is an acronym for the traditional medical systems practiced in India: Ayurveda, Yoga &
Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy.
Key Achievements of Ministry of Ayush in last decade
• Technology Integration: Digital platforms like Ayush Grid, e-Sanjeevani, and Ayush Telemedicine have
improved healthcare access, especially in remote areas.
• International Day of Yoga (IDY): Achieved global recognition, with 24.53 crore participants in 2024.

About National AYUSH Mission (NAM)

• It was launched to promote and develop traditional medical systems: Ayurveda, Yoga, Naturopathy,
Unani, Siddha, Sowa-Rigpa, and Homeopathy.
• Objective: Increasing accessibility to Ayush services, etc.
• Tenure: Till 2026.
Steps taken by India to promote Traditional Medicines
• Quality Assurance and Certifications: Introduced the Ayush Mark and Ayush Premium Mark certification
programs for Ayush products.
o Provided WHO Good Manufacturing Practices-Certified Manufacturing Units for Certificate of
Pharmaceutical Products (COPP) certifications to 31 Ayurvedic drug manufacturers.
• WHO Collaboration: India signed
an agreement with WHO to
establish the WHO Global Centre
for Traditional Medicine (GCTM)
in Jamnagar, Gujarat.
o WHO and the Ministry of
AYUSH organized the First
WHO Traditional Medicine
Global Summit in
Gandhinagar, Gujarat.
o WHO released the Outcome document titled Gujrat Declaration.
• Capacity Building: The Champion Sector Services Scheme (CSSS) was launched to develop skilled
human resources.
• Education Reforms: Under the NCISM Act, 2020, the government established the National Commission
for Indian System of Medicine (NCISM) and National Commission for Homeopathy (NCH).
• Other: National Exit Test (NExT) for AYUSH, AYURGYAN Scheme, etc.
Related News
Varmam Therapy
• National Institute of Siddha (NIS) has set a Guinness World Record for providing Varmam therapy.
• About Varmam Therapy
o A unique and traditional healing modality within Siddha system of medicine.
> Varmam is one of the oldest South Indian Martial Arts which later evolved into a therapy. It is
an art of unarmed fighting system targeting nerves, veins, joints and organs.
o Process: Involves therapeutic manipulation of Varmam points called Varma Adi (Varmam
assault) wherein pranic energy remains concentrated.
o Therapy is a very unique, non-invasive, cost effective, non-pharmacological form of treatment.

6.4.4. KEY CONCEPTS/TERMS IN NEWS

6.4.4.1. BRAIN ROT
The term brain rot has been named the Oxford Word of the Year 2024.
About Brain Dot
• Refers to a decline in mental health and cognitive abilities due to excessive consumption of low-quality
online content, particularly on social media.
• Factors responsible:
o It is the result of overstimulation of human brain.
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o It has been associated with issues like decreased attention span, reduced critical thinking, mental
health issues etc.

6.4.4.2. ANTIBIOTICS
Recently, Union Minister of Science and Technology launched the first indigenous antibiotic “Nafithromycin”
for resistant infections.
About Antibiotics
• They are chemical substances (produced both synthetically and by some microbes) used as drugs to kill
or stop the growth of disease-causing microorganisms.
• They have low toxicity for humans and animals and can be mixed with livestock feed to check microbial
infections in animals.
• They work against bacterial and not viral infections (like common cold, flue).
o Viruses lack cell wall that is attacked by antibiotics.

6.4.4.3. XPERT MTB/RIF ULTRA

WHO has granted prequalification to molecular diagnostic test for tuberculosis (TB) called Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra.
• The test is the first to meet WHO's prequalification standards for TB diagnosis and antibiotic
susceptibility testing.
About Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra
• Detects the genetic material of MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS in sputum samples.
• Simultaneously, the test identifies mutations associated with rifampicin resistance, a key indicator of
multidrug-resistant TB.

6.4.4.4. METHYLCOBALAMIN
FSSAI provided clarification in Guidelines for usage of Methylcobalamin in health supplements, medical
purposes and nutraceutical products under certain conditions.
• FSSAI had banned Methylcobalamin in 2016 and lifted the ban in 2021 but is yet to notify the same
About Methylcobalamin
• An activated form of Vitamin B12 essential to regulate vital bodily functions like cell multiplication,
blood formation and protein synthesis.
o Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin integral to DNA synthesis, RBC production, and neurological
function.
o Other forms of Vitamin B12 are cyanocobalamin and hydroxocobalamin.
• Source: Milk Products
• Uses: Pain alleviation in diabetic neuropathy, treatment of anaemia, Alzheimer's disease.

6.4.5. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.4.5.1. INTERNATIONAL PATHOGEN SURVEILLANCE NETWORK (IPSN)
IPSN has announced first round of grants towards understanding disease threats.
About IPSN
• Brought together by WHO Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence, established in 2021.
• Aim: Provide world with better data, analytics and decisions to detect and respond to health
emergencies.
o It is a new global network of pathogen genomic surveillance (PGS) actors.

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6.4.5.2. PANDEMIC FUND PROJECT
It focuses on “Animal Health Security Strengthening in India for Pandemic Preparedness and Response”.
About Pandemic Fund Project
• A $25 Million initiative funded by the G20 Pandemic Fund and was established under Indonesia’s G20
Presidency (2022).
• Aim: To enhance low- and middle-income country’s capacity to respond to animal health threats and
pandemic through financing investments
• Implementing Entities: Asian Development Bank (ADB), World Bank, and Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO).

6.4.5.3. GLOBAL ANTIBIOTIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIP (GARDP)

WHO and GARDP jointly released report on policy and regulatory interventions to address antibiotic shortages
in low and middle-income countries.
About GARDP
• Genesis: GARDP is a not-for-profit organization established in 2016 by the WHO and the Drugs for Neglected
Disease initiative (DNDi). It was legally formed as a Swiss foundation in 2018.
• Purpose: To deliver on WHO’s Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (2015).
• Role: Works with public, private, and non-profit sectors to preserve antibiotics for future generations.

6.4.5.4. GLOBAL HEALTH EMERGENCY CORPS (GHEC)

WHO and partners, activated the GHEC for the first time in response to a recent Mpox outbreak.
About GHEC
• Genesis: WHO founded the GHEC in 2023 after the response to COVID-19 pandemic.
• Objective: Strengthening the response to health emergencies, and a collaboration platform for countries
and health emergency networks.
• Role: It supports countries on their health emergency workforce, the surge deployment of experts, etc.

6.4.5.5. BHARAT HEALTH INITIATIVE FOR SAHYOG HITA AND MAITRI (BHISHM)
The Bharat Health Initiative for Sahyog Hita & Maitri (BHISHM), part of Project Aarogya Maitri, is an innovative
emergency medical aid program.
About BHISHM
• At its core are compact, portable "mini cubes" filled with essential medicines and equipment, designed
for rapid deployment in various emergencies.
• Highly modular and scalable. 36 mini cubes combine to form a mother cube, and 2 mother cubes create
a full BHISHM Cube.
• The system incorporates advanced technology, featuring inventory management via RFID and digital
support in 180 languages.

6.4.5.6. HIGH RISK FOOD

FSSAI has classified packaged drinking water as ‘High Risk Food Category’.
About High-Risk Food
• High risk foods are ready to eat foods that support multiplication of pathogenic bacteria that could be
harmful.
• These include dairy products; meat products including poultry; fish and fish products, etc.
• All Central Licensed Manufacturer/Processors under High-Risk Food Categories shall get its business
audited by FSSAI focusing on food safety auditing agency every year.

• Indigenous endothermic scramjet fuel, jointly developed by DRDL (Hyderabad based laboratory of DRDO)
and Industry, was used.
o An endothermic fuel absorbs heat from its surroundings when it undergoes a chemical reaction.
o It offers dual benefits of significant cooling improvement and ease of ignition.
• It used state-of-art Ceramic Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC), designed to withstand extreme temperatures
encountered during hypersonic flight.
• The test marks a crucial milestone in developing next-generation hypersonic missiles.
• Jet engine (also called gas turbines) is an internal-combustion engine that propels aircraft by discharge of
a jet of fluid, usually hot exhaust gases generated by burning fuel with air drawn in from the atmosphere.
o And, it works only within the atmosphere.
About Scramjet Engine

• A scramjet engine means a Supersonic

Combusting Ramjet engine.
o It is an improvement over the ramjet
engine.
> A ramjet is a form of air-breathing
jet engine that uses the vehicle’s
forward motion to compress
incoming air for combustion
without a rotating compressor.
> Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) is also a
variant of an air-breathing engine,
operate both in subsonic and
supersonic combustor modes.
• Key Features:
o Uses flame stabilisation technique:
This holds continuous flame inside the combustor.
o Depends on assisted take off: Both ramjets and scramjets cannot produce thrust at zero air speed.
> Therefore, a scramjet-powered vehicle requires an assisted take off by a rocket to accelerate it to
a speed where it begins to produce thrust.
• India is part of elite club of nations that have successfully tested scramjet engines which includes the USA,
Russia, China, etc.

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How does the Scramjet engine work?
• Air Intake: Vehicle must already be
moving at supersonic speeds
(above Mach 3).
• Compression: Incoming air is
compressed due to the high
velocity of the aircraft.
• Combustion: Fuel (typically
hydrogen) is injected into the compressed air and ignited while maintaining supersonic airflow.
• Thrust Generation: The expansion of hot gases produces thrust, propelling the vehicle at hypersonic
speeds (based on Newton’s third law).
Advantages of Scramjet Technology
• Increased Efficiency: It is a more efficient propulsion
system than a rocket.
o A rocket engine carries both fuel and oxidizer, while a jet
engine relies on atmospheric oxygen for combustion.
• Enhanced Space Access: It will reduce the cost of space
missions as jet engines are re-usable.
o Also, rockets fitted with scramjet engines will be able to
carry heavier satellites.
o An ISRO project called AVATAR is aimed at developing a
rocket to launch the ramjets and scramjets engine.
DRDO (Defence Research & Development Organisation)
• Formed in 1958, it is the R&D wing of the Ministry of Defence for developing cutting-edge defence
technologies and achieving self-reliance in defence.
• DRDO constitutes a network of around 41 laboratories for aeronautics, electronics, combat vehicles,
missiles, advanced computing and simulation, etc.

6.5.3. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.5.3.1. PANTSIR AIR DEFENSE SYSTEM (PADS)
Bharat Dynamics Limited, signed a MoU with Russia’s Rosoboronexport for “cooperation on Pantsir variants”.
About PADS
• Pantsir-S1 system is a mobile, short-range air defence system equipped with both missile and gun
capabilities.
• Provides air defence to small military, industrial, and administrative facilities.
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• Defend against fixed- and rotary-winged aircraft, cruise missiles, and high-precision weapons.

6.5.3.2. DARK EAGLE ANTI-MISSILE SYSTEM

Recently, the United States successfully tested the new Dark Eagle Anti-Missile System.
About Dark Eagle Anti-Missile System:
• A Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon (LRHW) jointly developed by US Army and Navy.
• It features a two-stage ballistic missile equipped with a gliding hypersonic warhead (C-HGB).
• Designed to challenge and potentially surpass capabilities of Russia’s S-300V4, S-400, etc.

6.5.3.3. PINAKA WEAPON SYSTEM

DRDO completed Flight Tests of the indigenously developed Guided Pinaka Weapon System.
About Pinaka Weapon System
• A Multi-Barrel Rocket Launcher (MBRL) system.
• Precision strikes: It can launch a salvo of 12 rockets within 44 seconds covering an area of 700x500
meters.
• Range: 38Km (Pinaka I), 60 Km (Pinaka II), 75 Km (Pinaka III, the latest version)

6.5.3.4. IRON BEAM

Israel expects its “Iron Beam” laser defence system to be operational within one year.
About Iron Beam
• Aim: To intercept and destroy various projectiles with precision using high-powered laser.
o It would be a significantly cheaper alternative to the interceptor missiles.
o It would supplement other existing aerial defense capacities such as the iron dome.
• Limitation: it struggles in poor weather and low-visibility conditions.

6.5.3.5. MH-60R HELICOPTERS

Recently, U.S. approved $1.17 billion deal to sell India support equipment for MH-60R helicopters.
About MH-60R helicopters
• These helicopters provide Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) and Anti-Surface Warfare (ASuW) capabilities.
• These can operate from shore and ship.
• Boasts advanced digital sensors, including multi-mode radar, electronic support measures system,
etc.

6.5.3.6. DHRUV ADVANCED LIGHT HELICOPTERS (DALHS)

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) has stated that DALHs flying safety records are better in comparison to
global standards.
About Dhruv ALHs
• An indigenously developed utility aircraft by HAL with a twin engine.
• It has a multi-role, multi-mission dimension to it.
• It can be used for the military as well as for civil operations.

6.5.3.7. INS VAGHSHEER

Prime Minister commissioned INS Vaghsheer along with INS Surat and INS Nilgiri.
• INS Surat is 4th and final ship of the P15B Guided Missile Destroyer Project.
• INS Nilgiri is 1st ship of the P17A Stealth Frigate Project.

6.5.3.8. SANJAY SYSTEM

SANJAY has been launched to enhance the Indian Army’s surveillance and reconnaissance capabilities.
About SANJAY System
• An advanced Battlefield Surveillance System (BSS).
• Jointly developed by the Indian Army & Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
• Creates a unified surveillance picture of the battlefield via the Army Data Network and Satellite
Communication Network by processing the gathered information.
o The system is designed to seamlessly integrate data from both ground and aerial battlefield sensors.

6.5.3.9. BHARGAVASTRA
India has successfully tested first indigenous micro-missile system, Bhargavastra, designed to counter the
threat of swarm drones.
• Swarm drones are multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) working together as a coordinated
system.
Key Features of Bhargavastra
• Detection Capability: Capable of detecting small incoming drones at distances exceeding 6 kilometers.
• Rapid Response: Designed for rapid deployment on mobile platforms.
• Multi-Target Engagement: can simultaneously detect and track & engage up to 64 targets.
• Guided Micro Munitions: Utilizes micro munitions that can be guided towards identified threats.

6.5.3.10. E-TARANG SYSTEM

Ministry of Defence launched the AI-enabled e-Tarang System.
About AI-enabled e-Tarang System
• A unique software, developed by Integrated Defence Staff in collaboration with Bhaskaracharya
National Institute for Space Applications and Geo-informatics (BISAG-N).
• Key Features:
o It will enable automated, efficient planning and management of Defence Spectrum.
o It will ensure interference-free operation of equipment in both peacetime and wartime.
• It will support development of newer technologies in higher frequency bands.

6.5.3.11. KAVERI ENGINE

Kaveri engine has been cleared for inflight testing.
About Kaveri Engine project
• Developed by: Gas Turbine Research Establishment under DRDO.
• Initiation: The Kaveri engine project began in the late 1980s to power the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas.
• Current Capability: The dry Kaveri engine produces 49-51 kilonewton of thrust, suitable for UAVs like the
Ghatak stealth UCAV.
• Significance: Marks a strategic achievement, enhancing India’s self-reliance in aero-engine technology.

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6.5.3.12. EURODRONE
India has joined Eurodrone programme as an observer member.
• Eurodrone or European Medium Altitude Long Endurance Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (MALE
RPAS) is a twin-turboprop MALE unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).
• It can be used for long-endurance missions such as intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and
reconnaissance (ISTAR), maritime surveillance, etc.
About Eurodrone programme
• Members: Four-nation initiative involving Germany, France, Italy, and Spain.
• Led by: the Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR).

6.5.3.13. SATAN 2
Russia is set to deploy the RS-28 Sarmat intercontinental ballistic missile, known as 'Satan 2'
About Satan 2
• A next-generation intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) considered one of the most powerful nuclear
weapons globally.
• Equipped with Multiple Independently Targetable Re-Entry Vehicles (MIRVs), allowing it to strike
multiple targets simultaneously.

6.5.3.14. SABAL 20 LOGISTICS DRONE

EndureAir Systems, a private drone manufacturer, has delivered its innovative Sabal 20 Logistics Drone to
Indian Army for deployment in the Eastern sectors.
About Sabal 20 Drones
• An advanced electric UAV designed for aerial logistics, capable of carrying up to 20 kg of supplies over long
distances.
o Its tandem rotor and variable pitch technology, like the Chinook helicopter, offer stability, high-
altitude performance, and minimal turbulence, making it perfect for rugged terrains.
• Key features: Vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) technology, a low RPM design for stealth during sensitive
military operations, etc.

6.5.3.15. UNIFIED COMPLEX RADIO ANTENNA (UNICORN)

India and Japan signed a Memorandum of Implementation for co-development of UNICORN mast for Indian
naval warships.
About UNICORN
• It is a mast with integrated communication systems which will help improve the stealth characteristics
of Naval platforms.
o Indian Navy currently uses Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)’s Advanced Composite Communication
System, a 4th-gen integrated voice/data system for ship communications.
o This is first case of co-development and co-production of defence equipment between India and Japan
signed in 2015.

6.5.3.16. SONOBOUYS
India and U.S. will coproduce interoperable sonobuoys for the Indian Navy
About Sonobouys
• An Air-launched expendable electro-mechanical acoustic sensor.
• Provides crucial water temperature data to enhance the accuracy of other sonar systems.

6.6. MISCELLANEOUS
6.6.1. HYPERLOOP
Why in the News?
Avishkar Hyperloop team of IIT Madras in
collaboration with TuTr (a startup) has recently
completed a 410-meter Hyperloop test track, the
first such experiment in Hyperloop in India.
What is Hyperloop Technology?
• Concept: In 2013, the CEO of SpaceX, Elon
Musk, proposed a concept of ultra-high-speed
rail (UHSR) called hyperloop and open-sourced
it.
• Hyperloop: A high-speed transportation
system in which pods, essentially pressurized
vehicles travel at extraordinary speeds through
low-pressure tubes.
o The technology is based on gravity vacuum tube,” “gravity vacuum transit, or high-speed tube
transportation.
• Functioning:
o It is essentially a magnetic levitation (maglev) train system that uses one set of magnets to repel cars
so that they hover above a track and another set of magnets to propel them forward over the track.
o The track is a low-pressure tube with built-in vacuums that remove nearly all air from the steel tube.

6.6.2. SATYENDRA NATH BOSE (S. N. BOSE)

Why in the News?
The Centenary celebration of iconic ‘Bose-Einstein’ (B-E) Statistics was recently inaugurated by S. N. Bose
National Centre for Basic Sciences, Ministry of Science and Technology.
Scientific Contributions of S. N. Bose
• Bose-Einstein Statistics: Describes how a collection of non-interacting and indistinguishable particles
distribute themselves among a set of available discrete energy states at thermodynamic equilibrium.
o The statistics was extended to gas molecules by Einstein. And Particles which obey B–E statistics are
referred as Bosons.

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o Bose-Einstein statistics predict phenomena such as Photon Behaviour (explains blackbody
radiation and the Planck distribution of energy).
o Also it enabled first Quantum revolution in 20th century which helped in development of technologies
such as lasers, the transistor, etc.
> Second revolution led to
development of quantum
computing, quantum sensing, etc.
• Bose-Einstein Condensates (BEC): A
quantum phenomenon predicted by Bose
and Einstein (1925).
o BEC is a state of matter created when
particles are cooled to near absolute
zero (-273.15 degrees Celsius/0
Kelvin).
o All the atoms become a single entity at this point, and possess quantum properties, wherein each
particle together functions as a wave of matter.
o Referred to as the ‘fifth state of matter’
• Organic chemistry: X-ray diffraction methods and the differential thermal analysis were employed in
order to understand the atomic structure of common clay minerals.
• Thermoluminescence: He designed a rapid scanning spectrophotometer of comparatively high
sensitivity to meet the requirements of the experimental workers in this field.
• Discovery of GOD Particle: The Higgs Boson, also known as the God Particle, was discovered using
scientific principles rooted in Bose-Einstein statistics and the concept of BEC.
o The fundamental particle 'Bosons' were named after him.
o Also, he is referred as "Father of the God Particle" along with Peter Higgs.

6.6.3.1. OPERATION DRONAGIRI

Why in the News?
Ministry of Science and Technology launched Operation Dronagiri and Integrated Geospatial Data Sharing
Interface (GDI).
About Operation Dronagiri
• A pilot project under National Geospatial Policy 2022, and will be implemented by Geospatial Innovation
Cell, Department of Science and Technology.
• Purpose: To demonstrate the potential applications of geospatial technologies and innovations in
improving the quality of life of citizens and ease of doing business.
• First Phase Implementation: In the states of UP, Haryana, Assam, Andhra Pradesh & Maharashtra.
o Pilot projects and use cases will be demonstrated to showcase potential applications of integration of
geospatial data and technology in 3 sectors: Agriculture, Livelihoods, Logistics and Transport.
About Integrated Geospatial Data Sharing Interface (GDI)
• Interface is being built for making spatial data accessible with advanced data exchange protocols and
privacy-preserving features.
• Significance: Enabling seamless data sharing, enabling data-driven decisions for public good, fostering
responsible use of geospatial data.

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Related News
Bhuvan Panchayat and NDEM 5.0
• Ministry of Science and Technology to launch two Geoportals – Bhuvan Panchayat 4.0 and National
Database for Emergency Management (NDEM 5.0).
o National level geospatial databases for these two portals are created by ISRO.
• About Bhuvan Panchayat 4.0
o An online geospatial data and services dissemination platform.
o Objective: Integrate and use space-based information in governance and research initiatives for
spatial planning at Gram Panchayat level.
• About NDEM 5.0
o It provides a comprehensive geospatial database for entire country for situational assessment and
effective decision-making during disasters/ emergency situations.

6.6.3.2. LIDAR
Why in the News?
Scientists have detected a lost Mayan city, hidden for centuries by
the dense Mexican jungle, using LiDAR.
About LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
• A dual-use optical remote sensing technology that uses light
in the form of a pulsed laser to measure distances and map the
surrounding environment.
• Types of LiDAR
o Topographic: Typically uses a near-infrared laser to map the
land
o Bathymetric: Water-penetrating green light to also measure
seafloor and riverbed elevations.
• Working of LiDAR Systems
o Consists of three main components: Laser emitter, scanning mechanism, and Specialized GPS
receiver.
o Works on the same principles as RADAR and SONAR, i.e., emits waves of energy to detect and track
objects.
> RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) uses microwaves and SONAR uses sound waves

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6.6.4. NANOTECHNOLOGY RELATED NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS
6.6.4.1. NANOPORE TECHNOLOGY
Scientists have developed a nanopore based tool that could help diagnose illnesses much faster and with
greater precision by analyzing signals from individual molecules.
About Nanopore Technology
• Refers to nano-scale holes embedded in a thin membrane structure to detect potential change when
charged biological molecules smaller than nanopore pass through hole.
• Makes possible to sequence nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) directly from biological samples in real time.
• Potential application: Can be used for detection of disease markers, and non-invasive early diagnosis
of cancer.

6.6.4.2. NANO-TRANSPORTERS
Breakthrough on Advancements in drug delivery inside cells through Nano-transporters has been reported.
Breakthroughs:
• Nano-burflower shaped gold nanoparticles’: Improve the efficiency of intracellular delivery and in
treatment of cancer.
• Hydrogels created using five amino acid protein fragments from SARS-CoV-1.
o These hydrogels, which are gels without liquid content, are effective for drug delivery.
About Nano-transporters
• Designed to deliver active compounds to a specific target site (cells or tissues) in a controlled manner.
• Significance: Minimize the damage to the surrounding tissue & allow a lower dose of the drug to be used.

6.6.4.3. NANO BUBBLE TECHNOLOGY

Union Minister of State for Environment launched 'Nano Bubble Technology' for cleaning and purifying water of
National Zoological Park, Delhi.
About the Nano Bubble Technology
• Nanobubbles: They are 70-120 nanometers in size, 2500 times smaller than a single grain of salt.
o Nanobubbles have a strong negative surface charge that prevents them from coalescing and enables
them to physically separate small particles and droplets like emulsified fats, from water.
• Applications: Water Purification, Agriculture (Enhance oxygenation of irrigation water), Healthcare, etc.

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6.6.5. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY RELATED DEVELOPMENTS
6.6.5.1. GRAVITY ENERGY STORAGE (GES)
GES is emerging as an alternative to battery energy storage for solar and wind power.
About GES:
• A type of mechanical energy storage system that uses gravitational potential energy to store and generate
electricity.
o It involves lifting a heavy mass during excess energy generation and releasing it to produce
electricity when demand rises or solar energy is unavailable.
> Types of weights used are often water, concrete blocks or compressed earth blocks.
• Advantages: High efficiency, large storage capacity, low environmental impact, longevity etc.
• Applications: Renewable energy integration, grid stabilization etc.

6.6.5.2. SURFACE HYDROKINETIC TURBINE TECHNOLOGY (SHKT)

Central Electricity Authority has recognized SHKT technology under Hydro Category to drive innovations in
alternate technologies.
About SHKT
• Unlike conventional hydroelectric systems that rely on potential energy of water, it harnesses kinetic energy
of flowing water with minimal potential.
• Enables generation of electricity without the need of large dams.
• Significance of SHKT
o It is a cost effective and scalable solution for generating renewable energy.
o Turbines are easy to install, making them highly suitable for locations like canals, hydropower
tailrace channels.
o They can be deployed in remote locations where powergrid might be absent.

6.6.5.3. SOLAR- MICRO-HYDROPOWER

In Manipur's Hengbung village, a groundbreaking micro solar pumped storage facility provides 24/7 power to
the village.
About solar micro hydropower
• Utlizes solar energy to pump water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir during periods of high
solar irradiance.
• This stored water can then be released through a micro-hydro turbine to generate electricity when solar
power is unavailable.
• Key advantages: Grid stability, reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, etc.

6.6.5.4. DIAMOND BATTERY

Scientists from University of Bristol and UKAEA have created world’s first carbon-14 diamond battery, a
sustainable power source that can last thousands of years.
About Diamond Battery
• Uses a man-made diamond that, when placed in a radioactive field, is able to generate a small electrical
current.
o The diamond incorporates carbon-14 (half-life of 5,700 years), an isotope used in radiocarbon dating.
• Uses fast-moving electrons from radioactive decay.
• Encased in diamond, it safely absorbs short-range radiation, and generates low levels of electricity
without leakage.

6.6.5.5. ANEEL (ADVANCED NUCLEAR ENERGY FOR ENRICHED LIFE)

NTPC Limited signed a strategic pact with US-based Clean Core Thorium Energy (CCTE) to explore
development and deployment of ANEEL.
About ANEEL
• Developed by CCTE, ANEEL is a Thorium based fuel for Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs).
o It combines thorium with small amounts of enriched uranium.
• Expected Benefits of ANEEL Fuel:
o Utilization of thorium as a fuel in existing PHWR reactors.
o Waste Reduction: Through high burn up fuel performance, it reduces nuclear waste generation by over
85%.
o Cost Savings: Fewer fuel replacements reduce operational expenses.

6.6.5.6. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION (AEC)

The Union government has re-constituted the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC).
About AEC
• Establishment: First set up in August 1948 within the Department of Scientific Research, later it was
brought under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)
• Mandate: To plan and implement the various measures required for the expansion of the atomic energy
programme and responsible for formulating the policy of the DAE.

6.6.6. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS/DEVELOPMENTS

6.6.6.1. ATOMIC CLOCK
Quantum-based atomic clock has been developed in United Kingdom.
About Atomic clock
• Atomic clock, type of clock that uses certain resonance frequencies of atoms (usually cesium or rubidium)
to keep time with extreme accuracy.
o It is claimed that Quantum-based atomic clock will lose less than one second over billions of years,
allowing scientists to measure time at an unprecedented scale.
• Benefits of Quantum-based atomic clock:
o Increasing accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS),
o Enhance the accuracy of advanced weapon systems, like guided missiles etc.

6.6.6.2. DARK OXYGEN

Recently, Scientist discovered "dark" oxygen 13,100 feet deep in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone of the Pacific
Ocean.
About Dark Oxygen
• Metallic nodules on the seafloor, rich in manganese and iron, were found to generate oxygen by splitting
seawater (H₂O) without sunlight.
o This challenges the belief that photosynthesis is the sole source of oxygen and suggests oxygen-rich
environments could exist on other planets, potentially supporting life.
• It also hints that oxygen production on Earth may have occurred before photosynthesis, reshaping our
understanding of life’s origins.

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6.6.6.3. TUNGSTEN
Grant of tungsten mining rights to Hindustan Zinc Limited sparked strong opposition from the public,
environmentalists, and politicians due to concerns over the biodiversity-rich heritage area in Melur.
About Tungsten
• Appearance: A shiny, silvery-white metal.
• Properties: highest melting point of all metals.
• Principal tungsten-containing ores: Are scheelite and wolframite.
• Uses: Filaments of light bulbs, arc-welding electrodes, Tungsten carbide as a new ‘painless’ dental drill
which spins at ultra-high speeds.
• Issues: Not very energy efficient; they produce much more heat than light.
• As per Second Schedule of Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act 1957, Tungsten is a
major mineral

6.6.6.4. ORGANOPHOSPHATE
Doctors in Jammu & Kashmir expressed the likelihood of Organophosphates, used in pesticides, behind the
death of few villagers.
About Organophosphates
• Formation: Chemical compounds formed through the esterification process involving phosphoric acid
and alcohol.
o Esterification is a chemical reaction where two reactants like alcohol and acid combine to create an
ester as the reaction product.
• Applications: Herbicides, Pesticides, Insecticides, Nerve agents in chemical warfare (disrupts the
transmission of nerve signals or neuromuscular transmission in exposed organisms), etc.

6.6.6.5. ELECTROKINETIC MINING (EKM)

Recently, a research team has developed Electrokinetic Mining (EKM), an eco-friendly method for extracting
Rare Earth Elements (REEs).
About Electrokinetic Mining (EKM)
• An innovative technique that uses electrokinetics, the movement of particles or fluids under an electric
field to extract rare earth elements (REEs) from ore bodies.
• Key Features
o High Recovery Rate: Over 95% recovery of REEs.
o Environmental Benefits: Reduces chemical leaching by 80% & energy consumption by 60%.

6.6.6.6. PINK FIRE RETARDANT (PHOS-CHEK)

Recently, Los Angeles authorities used pink fire retardant to combat wildfires.
About Pink Fire Retardant (Phos-Chek)
• Fire retardant is a mix of chemicals used to extinguish or slow down spread of fires.
• Phos-Chek mostly contains ammonium phosphate-based slurry.
o Typically, it is made of salts such as ammonium polyphosphate, which does not evaporate easily
like water and stays for longer.
o It is pink because it most visible by firefighters against the landscape.
o Spraying fire retardant using planes is ineffective, expensive and a growing source of pollution for
rivers and streams.

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6. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
6.1. HUMAN ENHANCEMENT
Why in the News?
The human enhancement industry was worth $125 billion in 2024 and is expected to grow to $348.5 billion by
2033, according to a recent report.
What is Human Enhancement?
• It refers to a natural, artificial, and technological alteration of the body to enhance cognitive and physical
capabilities and functions of individuals.
• It is undertaken using drugs, hormones, implants, genetic engineering to dietary supplements and
cosmetic surgeries for self-improvement.
• Unlike traditional medicine, which seeks to treat or cure illness, human enhancement focuses on
surpassing typical human limits.
o E.g., advances in human enhancement technologies provide resistance against diseases like
malaria, tuberculosis, and Lyme.

Related Concept
Epigenome Editing
• Studies found that Gene Editing can be performed in a gentler way using Epigenome editing.
• About Epigenome Editing
o It adjusts gene transcription through modifying epigenome, directly targeting root of
dysregulation while leaving primary DNA sequence intact.
> Epigenome refers to all chemical compounds and modifications (like methyl groups or histone
modifications) that regulate gene expression without changing DNA sequence.
o Unlike traditional gene editing methods that involve cutting DNA, epigenome editing allows for
precise control over gene expression (With Reversible Changes), making it a safer alternative.

6.2. TRANSGENIC ORGANISM

Why in the News?
A transgenic mouse is in spotlight following the US President misstatement on ‘transgender mice’ funding.

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About Transgenic Organisms
• Concept: Transgenic refers to an organism or cell whose genome has been altered by the introduction of
one or more foreign DNA sequences from another species.
• Transgenic Mouse: Key model for studying biological processes due to its physiological, anatomical, and
genomic similarities with humans.
• Purpose & Applications
o Understanding Normal Physiological Processes: E.g., Transgenic mice created to study metabolism
o Modelling Human Diseases: E.g., Transgenic pigs, used to model human diseases like Alzheimer's.
o Developing New Treatments: E.g., Transgenic zebrafish, accelerate drug testing & therapy
development.
o Production of Therapeutic Proteins: E.g., Transgenic goats developed to produce human
antithrombin.

Related News
Pink Bollworm-Resistant GM Cotton
• CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) has developed the world's First Pink Bollworm-
Resistant GM Cotton.
o Varieties like Bollgard 1 and Bollgard 2 have controlled certain bollworm species but have not been
effective against Pink Bollworm (PBW) as it has developed resistance to the Cry 1Ac protein.
• To address this, CSIR-NBRI engineered a novel insecticidal gene, demonstrating superior resistance
against PBW, compared to Bollgard 2 cotton.
o It also protects against other pests like the cotton leafworm and fall armyworm.

6.3. NAVIGATION WITH INDIAN CONSTELLATION (NAVIC)

Why in the News?
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) successfully launched NVS-02 satellite from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, making it the 100th launch of ISRO.
More on the News
• It was launched into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit used GSLV-F15 Vehicle, which is a three-stage
launch vehicle with a third-stage CUS 15 cryogenic engine.
• The NVS-02 is the second satellite in the NVS series, and part of India’s Navigation with Indian
Constellation (NavIC).
What is NavIC?
• A regional navigation satellite
system (erstwhile known as Indian
Regional Navigation Satellite System
(IRNSS)) launched by ISRO.
• Consists of 7 satellites of which 3
satellites placed in geostationary orbit
& 4 satellites are placed in inclined
geosynchronous orbit.
• Services: Standard Position Service
(SPS) for civilian users & Restricted Service (RS) for strategic users.
• Coverage Area: India and a region up to 1500 km beyond Indian boundary.
• NavIC’s SPS offer accuracy of better than 20 meters and a timing accuracy of better than 40
nanoseconds.
o NavIC SPS signals are interoperable with the other global navigation satellite system (GNSS) signals.

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6.4. LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR
Why in the News?
The Webb Space Telescope has captured an image of a plume of gas and dust streaming from a star in the
making.
More on the News
• Image has been released by the NASA and European space Agency.
• The composite images of plume of gas and dust streaming from a star are from about 625 light-years
from Earth in one of the closest star-forming regions of our Milky Way galaxy.
Life Cycle of a Star
• Nebula (Birth): A large
cloud of gas (mainly
hydrogen and helium)
and dust.
o Protostar: Gravity
collapses nebula
into dense, heating,
spinning regions
that form a
protostellar disk.
• Main Sequence: Star's
longest phase, steadily
fusing hydrogen into
helium in its core.
o Our Sun is about
halfway through its main sequence.
• Red Giant or Supergiant: When hydrogen in the core is depleted, the star evolves based on its mass.
o Low to Medium Mass Stars (e.g., the Sun): Core contracts, outer layers expand, and star becomes a
red giant.
o Massive Stars: Expand into supergiants, fusing heavier elements (e.g., carbon, oxygen, up to iron) in
successive stages.
• End Stage
o Low to Medium Mass Stars: Outer layers eject as a planetary nebula and core becomes a dense, non-
fusing white dwarf.
> If its mass stays below the Chandrasekhar Limit (1.4 solar masses), it remains stable.
o High Mass Stars (10 solar masses or more): When the core accumulates iron, it collapses under
gravity and rebounds in a catastrophic explosion called supernova.
> If the core remnant is 1.4–3 solar masses, it becomes an incredibly dense neutron star.
> If the remnant exceeds ~3 solar masses, it collapses into a black hole, with gravity so strong that
not even light escapes.

6.5. METEORITE
Why in the News?
Scientists confirm meteorite fall in a village in Beed (Maharashtra).

Related News
Asteroid Bennu
• NASA’s Asteroid Bennu sample reveals mix of life’s ingredients.
• About Asteroid Bennu
o Bennu is a small, near-Earth asteroid that passes relatively close to Earth about every six years.
o NASA's OSIRIS-REx spacecraft collected samples in 2020 using a robotic arm and returned them to
Earth in 2023 for analysis.
o Findings: Essential life-building compounds, including amino acids, nucleobases, and minerals
suggesting water once existed on Bennu.

6.6. NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES (NCD)

Why in the News?
The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare launched the Intensified Special NCD Screening drive under the National
Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD).
About NP-NCD
• Launch: NP-NCD, formerly known as National Programme for Prevention and Control of Cancer,
Diabetes, Cardio- vascular diseases and Stroke (NPCDCS) was launched in 2010.
o Subsumed under National Health Mission (NHM) in 2013-14.
• Key Objectives of NP-NCD: Health promotion through behaviour changes with involvement of
community, civil society, media etc.
About Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)
• NCDs are chronic diseases that are not transmissible from one person to another.
• Main types of NCDs are cardiovascular diseases (such as heart attacks and Stroke), cancers, chronic
respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma) and diabetes.

Burden of NCDs
• Global Scenario: Four top killers that together account for more than 80% of all premature NCD deaths
annually include cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases, and diabetes.
• Indian Scenario NCDs Account for 63% of All Deaths in India.
o Cardiovascular diseases (27%) is the highest contributor.
Initiatives for Controlling NCDs
• Global
o WHO Global Action Plan (2020 to 2030)
o Global NCD Compact 2020–2030.
• Indian:
o Affordable Medicines and Reliable Implants for Treatment (AMRIT) aims to provide affordable
medicines for the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular diseases etc.
o Eat Right India movement by FSSAI promotes healthy eating.
o National Oral Health Programme
o Other: National Mental Health Programme (NMHP), National Tobacco Control Programme (NTCP),
75/25 Initiative for hypertension and diabetes, Fit India Movement, etc.

6.7. DEEP OCEAN MISSION

Why in the News?
Recently, the fourth-generation deep-ocean submersible named Matsya 6000 successfully completed its wet
testing.
About MATSYA 6000
• MATSYA 6000 is an indigenously built manned submersible, under the Samudrayaan project (a project
under the Deep Ocean Mission).
o Objective of Samudrayan Project is to develop a self-propelled manned submersible to carry 3 human
beings to a water depth of 6000 meters in ocean with scientific tools for deep ocean exploration.
• Developed by National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT).
• Aim: To comprehensively study deep-sea resources and to assess marine biodiversity assessment.
• With its launch, India will become sixth country (after US, Russia, Japan, France, and China) to have
crewed under-sea expedition.

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About Deep Ocean Mission
• Launched: In 2021 by MoES as a Central Sector
Scheme with Cabinet approval.
• Purpose: To develop technologies for exploring
deep ocean resources, promoting sustainable
marine development, supporting the Blue
Economy initiative, addressing climate change
and pollution.
Note: India has been allotted a site of 75,000 sq.km.
in Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) by UN
International Sea Bed Authority for the exploitation
of polymetallic nodules(PMN).

6.8. ADVANCED DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS (ADAS)

Why in the News?
The global Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and AD system sensor market is projected to be worth
$43 billion by 2030: NITI Ayog Report.
What is ADAS?
• ADAS are a set of electronic
systems which are integrated into
vehicles to enhance driver safety,
improve vehicle performance, and
provide convenience.
• Equipment used in ADAS: Radar,
Lidar, GPS, sensors, etc.
• Types of ADAS:
o Active ADAS: Actively intervene
and assist in critical driving
situations and can even perform
automatic corrective actions
> E.g. Collision avoidance
systems
o Passive ADAS: Limited to provide information and alerts to the driver without directly intervening in the
driving process.
> E.g. Blind spot monitoring systems

6.9. OTHER IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS/NEWS

6.9.1. OVOID CELLS
Researchers have discovered a new type of brain cells, named Ovoid cells.
About Ovoid cells
• These are type of neuron that plays a fundamental role in recognition memory.

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o Recognition memory is the process by which the brain differentiates between new and familiar objects
and forms long-term memories.
• Ovoid cells, named for their distinct egg-like shape, are present within the hippocampus of humans,
mice, and other animals.
• These cells activate whenever we encounter something new, triggering a process that stores objects in
memory.
• Finding could aid in the treatment of brain conditions related to object recognition, such as Alzheimer’s
disease, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Epilepsy.

6.9.2. NATIONAL GENE BANK

Union Government has announced the establishment of second National Gene Bank (NGB) to conserve 10
lakh crop germplasm, ensuring future food and nutritional security.
• The first NGB was established in 1996 at the ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
in New Delhi.
• Germplasms are the genetic constituents of plants or animals that are used in research, conservation and
crop breeding.
About Gene Banks
• Gene banks are biorepositories that store genetic material of plants, animals, and microorganisms to
preserve biodiversity and ensure long-term food security.
• Types of Gene Banks: Seed Banks (Svalbard Global Seed Vault, Norway), Field Gene Banks (live plants
conserved in natural conditions), Cryo-preservation Banks (preserve tissues, embryos, and cells),
Pollen and DNA Banks, etc.

6.9.3. BIOSAARTHI INITIATIVE

Ministry of Science and Technology unveiled BioSaarthi Mentorship Initiative for Biotech Startups
About the BioSaarthi Initiative
• It will provide structured mentor-mentee engagements, offering personalized guidance to emerging
biotech entrepreneurs.
• It will strengthen industry-academia collaboration.

6.9.4. SATELLITE INTERNET

Indian telecom companies Airtel and Reliance Jio ink pacts with Spacex to bring starlink’s satellite internet
services to India.
About Satellite Internet
• It is a wireless internet through
communication satellites orbiting
the Earth and is location
independent, global coverage.
• Satellites communicate with each
other using lasers, reducing
dependence on ground stations.
• Significance: Suited for
unconnected areas, connectivity
during disasters, provides
connectivity between military
bases and military planes, ships,
drones etc.
• Disadvantages: Astronomical Interference, Atmospheric changes, technical limitations.
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6.9.5. IRIS CHIP
IIT-Madras and ISRO jointly developed and successfully booted aerospace quality SHAKTI-based
Semiconductor Chip – IRIS (Indigenous RISCV Controller for Space Applications).
About SHAKTI
• SHAKTI class of systems are based on RISC-V (Reduced Instruction Set Computer Five), an open-source
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA), for designing custom processors.
• ‘SHAKTI’ is backed by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) under its Digital India
RISC-V initiative (DIRV).
o DIRV aims to promote indigenous development of microprocessor-based products that offer best-
in-class security and visibility for users adopting RISC-V technology.

6.9.6. GALLIUM NITRIDE (GAN)

Chhattisgarh laid foundation stone for India's first GaN-based semiconductor plant in Raipur.
About GaN-based semiconductor
• It is a wide bandgap semiconductor material composed of gallium and nitrogen.
• Advantages: It offers excellent efficiency, thermal stability, and fast switching speeds over Silicon and
Other Semiconductor Materials.

6.9.7. SANSAD BHASHINI INITIATIVE

Lok Sabha and MeitY agreed to develop the Sansad Bhashini initiative for AI-powered multilingual
Parliamentary operations.
About Sansad Bhashini initiative
• Aim: To leverage AI to enhance multilingual support (through Bhashini) and streamline parliamentary
operations.
• The key AI initiatives under Sansad Bhashini include AI-based translation, AI-Powered Chatbot for the
Parliament website etc.

6.9.8. DARE2ERAD TB PROGRAM

India has completed 10,000 Genome Sequences of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis under the Dare2eraD TB
program (Data Driven Research to Eradicate TB).
About DARE2ERAD TB program (2022)
• Objective: sequence >32,000 TB isolates to identify drug resistance mutations & improve treatment
outcomes.
• Ministry: Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science and Technology.

6.9.9. RAFAEL AIRCRAFT

Centre approved deal for 26 Rafale Marine (M) fighter jets from France.
About Rafael aircraft
• Manufacturer: Dassault Aviation, a French aerospace company.
• Generation: 4.5 generation with maximum speed 1.8 Mach (1 Mach=1235km/hr)

Fourth generation jet Ability to both switch and swing roles between air-to- MiG-29, F-16, Mirage-
fighters (1970- 1980s) air and air-to-ground. 2000 etc.

Four and half Added ‘stealth’, radar absorbent materials, and thrust Eurofighter Typhoon,
generation jet fighters vector controlled engines Rafale etc.

Fifth generation jet Advanced stealth technologies and advanced F-22 Raptor, Chengdu
fighters weapons, J-20 etc.

Note: In December 2024, China flew two sixth-generation fighter prototypes, the J-36 and J-50.
• Sixth-generation fighter jets are characterized by attributes such as AI integration, Hypersonic
capabilities, Unmanned capabilities, etc.

6.9.10. PROJECT VARSHA

INS Varsha, under Project Varsha to be operational by 2026.
About Project Varsha
• A classified naval project aimed at strengthening India’s underwater nuclear capabilities.
• Objective: To develop a secure underground base to house a fleet of over 12 nuclear-powered ballistic
missile submarines (SSBNs).
• Similar to Project Varsha from the east, Karwar base in Karnataka under Project Seabird safeguards the
west coast.

6.9.11. HANSA- 3 (NG)

CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research)-National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL) signs
technology transfer deal with a private firm to manufacture HANSA trainer-planes.
• This would be the first time an aircraft is manufactured in India based on technology fully designed and
developed indigenously.
About HANSA- 3 (NG)
• Key Features
o Powered by an advanced fuel-efficient Rotax 912 iSc3 Sports engine.
o Range of 620 nautical miles, 7 hours of endurance, and a maximum cruise speed of 98 Knots
Calibrated Airspeed (KCAS).
• Significance: Offers Large and world-class flying training ecosystem; strengthen India’s aviation industry,
etc.

6.9.12. NUCLEAR ENERGY MISSION

Union Finance Minister announced a dedicated Nuclear Energy Mission in the Union Budget 2025-26.
About the Nuclear Energy Mission
• Target: To achieve 100 GW of nuclear power capacity by 2047, aligning with its long-term energy transition
strategy and broader "Viksit Bharat" vision.
o The government plans to increase this to 22,480 MW by 2031-32.
• Aim: For research and development of small modular reactors (SMRs) and setting up of at least five SMRs
by 2033.

6.9.13. EXPERIMENTAL ADVANCED SUPERCONDUCTING TOKAMAK (EAST)

China’s EAST created new record in Fusion reaction.
About EAST
• EAST maintained a steady-state high-confinement plasma operation for 1000+ seconds reaching a
temperature of 100 million °C.
• Objective: Replicate the nuclear fusion processes that occur in the sun.

6.9.14. FUTURE CIRCULAR COLLIDER

The Future Circular Collider project raises concerns about monopolizing funding and restricts alternative
research directions.
About Future Circular Collider
• It is an ambitious proposed successor to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN.
• Scientific Objectives
o Unanswered Questions from the LHC: e.g. what role did the Higgs boson plays in the Big Bang?
o Exploring Beyond the Standard Model: The LHC has not yet detected new elementary particles beyond
the Higgs boson.

6.9.15. ORGANOMETALLIC MOLECULE

Scientists have discovered the berkelocene, the first organometallic molecule to be characterized containing
the heavy element berkelium.
About Organometallic molecule
• Molecules which contain a carbon-metal bond are known as organometallic compounds.
• They are unique because they combine the properties of both metals and organic (carbon-containing)
molecules.
• Properties:
o They are sensitive and can degrade when exposed to air or moisture.
o These compounds can be stable under heat, but the exact temperature tolerance varies widely.
o Some can conduct electricity, which is useful in electronic applications.
o They often serve as catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process.

6.9.16. PEROVSKITE LEDS

Novel technique unearthed to enhance next-generation lighting through Perovskite Light Emitting Diodes
(PeLEDs).
About Perovskite LEDs (PeLEDs)
• It combines the advantages of Organic LEDs (OLEDs) and Quantum dot LED (QLEDs), reducing their
sensitivity to heat and moisture, as well as colour instability, paving the way for efficient, durable
optoelectronic devices.
o OLEDs are monolithic, solid-state devices that typically consist of a series of organic thin films
sandwiched between two thin-film conductive electrodes.
o QLED display technology that utilizes quantum dots, which are semiconductor nanocrystals, to
produce vibrant and high-quality images.

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6.9.17. T-800 CARBON FIBRE
Public Accounts Committee reported on the premature closure of the T-800 carbon fibre project.
About T-800 Carbon Fibre
• T-800 carbon fibre is crucial for launch vehicles, spacecraft tanks, and Gaganyaan.
• Carbon fibre (graphite fibre), is made of thin carbon strands (5-10 microns thick).
• Key properties of carbon fibre: High tensile strength and strength-to-weight ratio, high stiffness and
stiffness-to-weight ratio, low density, low thermal expansion, high chemical resistance, and good electrical
conductivity
• Key Applications: Aerospace (e.g., aircraft wings), medical devices (e.g., prosthetic limbs), defense (e.g.,
lightweight armor), etc.

6.9.18. BOSE METAL

Researchers Find Strong Evidence of Bose Metal in Niobium Diselenide (NbSe2).
About Bose Metal
• It is a kind of anomalous metallic state (AMS). In this Cooper pairs are formed but don’t condense into a
superconductor.
o Cooper pairs are coupled electrons in a superconductor that behave like bosons and condense into a
collective quantum state.
• Exist in a state where conductivity is neither infinite (like a superconductor) nor zero (like an insulator).
• Applications: It helps in probing Quantum Processes.

6.9.19. SELENIUM
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) report links high levels of selenium in wheat to hair loss.
About Selenium
• Selenium is a natural element needed in small amounts for health.
• Harmful: If consumed in amounts just double what the body needs.
• Selenium occurs naturally in soil, affecting the selenium content in plant-based foods.

6.9.20. ABEL PRIZE

Japanese mathematician Masaki Kashiwara (78) won the Abel Prize, often called the "Nobel of Mathematics."
• He was honored for his work in algebraic analysis, representation theory, D-modules, and crystal bases.
About the Abel Prize
• Annual award for outstanding mathematicians.
• Named after mathematicians Niels Henrik Abel (1802–29).
o Abel demonstrated the impossibility of solving the general quintic equation in radicals.
o He was also an innovator in the field of elliptic functions (Abelian functions).
• Established in 2002 by the Norwegian Government.

6.9.21. NATIONAL INNOVATION CHALLENGE FOR DRONE APPLICATION AND

RESEARCH (NIDAR)
The MeitY, in collaboration with the Drone Federation India (DFI), launched the NIDAR under the SwaYaan
initiative.
• NIDAR aims to inspire and engage India’s student and research communities to develop collaborative
autonomous drones, addressing real-world challenges in the field of Disaster Management and
Precision Agriculture.
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About SwaYaan
• Approved by MeitY in 2022.
• Focuses on capacity building for human resource development in Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS),
including drones and related technologies

6.9.22. EARTH’S POLAR ORBIT

This Mission titled "Fram2" launched by Dragon spacecraft of SpaceX is a First human spaceflight to cruise
directly over Earth's polar orbit
About Earth’s polar orbit
• A polar orbit is when a satellite orbits Earth by passing over the North and South Poles.
o A deviation of 10 degrees over north and south poles is still classified as a polar orbit.
• Height: A type of low Earth orbit, typically between 200 to 1000 km in altitude.
• Significance: A spacecraft orbiting over the poles can observe the entire planet as it spins underneath.
o The path is particularly useful for weather, mapping and spy satellites.
• Issue: Launching rocket into polar orbits requires greater fuel since rockets cannot harness Earth’s
rotational speed.

6.9.23. PROJECT WATERWORTH

Meta has introduced its world’s longest undersea cable system - Project Waterworth.
About Project Waterworth
• Length: 50,000 km subsea cable will connect five continents.
• Depth: Cable will reach depths of up to 7,000 meters in deep waters.
• Significance: Strengthen scale and reliability of world’s digital highways

6.9.24. JAGADISH CHANDRA BOSE

Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) has announced the launch of the J. C. Bose Grant (JBG), a
new scheme, to recognize contributions of senior Indian scientists.
About Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858 - 1937)
• He was the first Asian to be awarded a US patent in 1904.
• He investigated of radio microwave optics and considered as the father of radio
and wireless communication.
• Key contributions
o He was the first person to prove that plants also have the ability to feel pain
and affection.
o Key Inventions:
> Cresco graph, used for measuring the growth in trees.
> Invented first wireless detection devices.
o He founded the Bose Institute, a premier research institute in 1917.
o He is considered the father of Bengali science fiction.
o Key Literary work: science paper "On the Similarity of Responses in Inorganic and Living Matter”, “The
Nervous Mechanism of Plants”, and Niruddesher Kahini (The Story of the Missing One).

6.10. KEY CONCEPTS/TERMS IN NEWS

6.10.1. TOXIC MALE TECHNIQUE
A new study by researchers has suggested that the toxic male technique could be used to address the
prevalence of mosquito-borne illness.

6.10.2. SMALL LANGUAGE MODEL (SLM)

Microsoft Research has introduced a new “1-bit” Small language model with a two-billion parameter scale that
can run on a CPU.
About Small Language Model (SLMs)
• They are designed to perform some of the same natural language processing tasks as their larger, better-
known large language model (LLM) counterparts, but on a smaller scale.
o They’re built with fewer parameters and simpler neural network architectures, which allows them to
operate with less computational power while still providing valuable functionality in specialized
applications.
• Advantages over LLMs: Lower computational requirements, decreased training time, reduced energy
consumption etc.
• Limitations: Limited capacity for complex language and reduced accuracy in complex task.

6.10.3. AI WASHING
Venture capitalists are concerned about AI washing used by startups to secure funding.
About AI Washing
• AI washing is the practice of overstating or misrepresenting the use of AI in products, services or business
strategies.
• AI washing takes its name from greenwashing.
• Examples: Mislabelling automation as AI, Superficial AI claims, using buzzwords phrases like “AI-driven”
etc.

6.10.4. JEVONS PARADOX

Recently, Microsoft CEO highlighted Jevons Paradox in the backdrop of increased adoption of the AI systems
globally.
About Jevons Paradox
• It is the idea that technological progress that makes a resource cheaper or more efficient to use often leads
to an increase in demand for that resource.
• Background: William Stanley Jevons first described a paradox in 1865 where he maintained that more
efficient steam engines would not decrease the use of coal in British factories but would actually increase
it.

6.10.5. PHOTONIC CHIP

Government of India is supporting Photonic Chip Research for Next-Gen Computing.
About photonic chip
• Concept: A photonic chip is similar to an electronic chip but uses light (photons) instead of electricity
(electrons).

6.10.6. Q-SHIELD
Startup QNu Labs launches world’s 1st unique platform Q-Shield.
About Q-Shield
• Concept: It enables seamless cryptography management across any environment, including cloud, on-
premises, or hybrid.
• Significance: It provides an end-to-end solution for securing sensitive data in transit and at rest.

6.10.7. EINSTEIN RING

European Space Agency’s Euclid space telescope has recently discovered Einstein ring named NGC 6505.
About Einstein Ring
• It is a ring of light, first discovered in 1987, around a form of dark matter, galaxy or cluster of galaxies.
• It is an example of strong gravitational lensing.
• Gravitational effects associated with Einstein Ring can help in studying expansion of the Universe, detect
the effects of invisible dark matter and dark energy, etc.

6.10.8. MATTER-ANTIMATTER ASYMMETRY

CERN’s Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) experiment has confirmed Charge-Parity (CP) violation in
baryons - particles that make up atomic nuclei, including protons and neutrons.
About Asymmetry
• Particles and anti-particles are like perfect mirror images of one another but some particles disobey this
symmetry in a phenomenon known as CP violation.
• Matter and antimatter particles (same mass as matter but opposite electric charge) are always produced
as a pair.
o If they come in contact, they annihilate one another, leaving behind pure energy.
• After the Big Bang, a tiny portion of matter survived, creating all visible matter in today’s universe.

6.10.9. ACCRETION DISK

NASA's James Webb Space Telescope observed a constant flickering of light from the Accretion Disk.
About Accretion Disk
• Definition: A swirling disk of gas around a black hole, acting as its primary light source.
• Formation & Structure: Forms as black holes consume matter (accretion) from nearby stars or interstellar
gas, creating a hot, bright, and rapidly spinning disk where gas moves inward toward the event horizon.

6.10.10. QUIPU SUPERSTRUCTURE

Astronomers identified the largest known structure in the universe, named Quipu.
About Quipu Superstructure
• This superstructure has mass of 200 quadrillion solar masses and stretches over 1.3 billion light-years.
• Superstructures: Extremely large structures containing groups of galaxy clusters and superclusters.
• Effects of Superstructures: Cause fluctuations in the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), Distort sky
images due to gravitational lensing (GL), etc.

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6.10.11. YAMANAKA FACTORS
OpenAI has ventured into protein engineering by developing a model—GPT-4b micro which enhances
Yamanaka factors.
About Yamanaka Factors
• Yamanaka Factors are four specific proteins: Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc.
o These factors are transcription factors that regulate gene expression and can reprogram somatic
(adult) cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs).
• Applications: Regenerative Medicine, Drug Testing, etc.
• Discovery & Recognition: Identified in 2006 by Shinya Yamanaka; Awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine.

6.10.12. LIGHT SUPERSOLID

For the first time scientists of Italy’s National Research Council have made supersolid from light.
• The new research used a novel mechanism that relies on the properties of "polariton" systems.
o Polaritons are formed by coupling light and quasiparticles like excitons through strong
electromagnetic interactions
About Supersolid
• Definition: It is a rare state of matter that exhibits both solid-like structure and frictionless flow.
o It is defined by quantum mechanics where particles condense into an orderly, crystalline solid but
also move like a liquid that has no viscosity (thus, zero friction exist in their movement).
• Supersolid light could play a crucial role in developing more stable quantum bits (qubits).
• This will revolutionize optical devices, photonic circuits, and even fundamental quantum mechanics
research.

6.10.13. ALTERMAGNETISM
Researchers in Sweden have reported a new type of magnetism, called altermagnetism.
About Altermagnetism
• Meaning: It combines the favorable properties of ferromagnets and antiferromagnets in one material.
o Conventional magnets like iron, nickel etc., rely on aligned spins to deliver the push-and-pull force,
while antiferromagnets cancel these forces.
• Altermagnets embody dual nature with zero net magnetization (antiferromagnets) and non-relativistic
spin splitting (ferromagnets).
• Applications: Increase memory device operation speeds, enhance the efficiency and performance of
electronic systems, etc.

6.10.14. PLASTIC ICE VII

Scientists have confirmed a fourth form of water called Plastic Ice VII using advanced neutron-scattering
experiments.
About Plastic Ice VII
• It is an unusual phase of ice that forms at high temperature and high pressure and changes our
understanding of water in space.
• Formation: >3 gigapascals (Pressure) and >450 Kelvin (Temperature)
• This phase allows water molecules to rotate freely within a rigid crystalline structure.
• Importance of the discovery
o Planetary Science: Behavior of Plastic Ice VII can help simulate interiors of ocean worlds and
exoplanets.
94
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o Exoplanet Habitability: Its ability to transport nutrients in deep oceans may influence the potential for
alien life.

6.11. SPACE RELATED MISSIONS/TELESCOPE IN NEWS

Mission/Telescope Key Details
Lunar Trailblazer • Objective: It will orbit at an altitude of roughly 100 km and collect high-
Mission resolution images of targeted areas to determine the form, distribution and
abundance of water.
• Agency: NASA
Global Astrometric • Objective: Designed for astrometry (the science of mapping the cosmos)
Interferometer for through precise measurement of the location and movement of stars and
Astrophysics (GAIA) other celestial bodies
• Agency: European Space Agency (ESA)
Biomass (satellite) • Objective: Map the world’s forests to provide the very first comprehensive
measurements of forest biomass and stored carbon at a global scale.
• It is the first satellite to carry a P-band SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar)
• Agency: ESA
Euclid Telescope • Objectives: Study the Universe's evolution over the past 10 billion years,
revealing how it expanded and formed structures, and providing insights into
dark energy, dark matter, and gravity.
• Agency: ESA
SPHEREx Space • It stands for Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of
Telescope Reionization and Ices Explorer.
(Observatory) • Objective: Survey the sky in optical & near-infrared light.
• Agency: NASA

6.12. MISSILE/DEFENCE SYSTEMS/WEAPONS IN NEWS

Missile/Defence system Details/Features
Mk-II (A) DEW system • DRDO successfully conducted a trial of a Mk-II(A) LASER- Directed Energy
Weapon (DEW) system at the National Open-Air Range (NOAR) in Kurnool
district of Andhra Pradesh.
o India became the fourth country in the world, after the US, China, and
Russia who possess advanced LASER weapon capabilities.
• About Mk-II(A) DEW system
o Developed by: Indigenously by DRDO’s Centre for High Energy Systems
and Sciences (CHESS), Hyderabad.
o Mechanism: Once detected by a radar or inbuilt Electro Optic (EO)
system, it engages targets and uses an intense high-energy 30-kilowatt
LASER Beam to cut through the target, leading to structural failure.
o Characteristics: Lightning speed of engagement, precision, and can
have lethality delivered to the target within a few seconds.
Nag Missile System • Developed by Defence Research & Development Laboratory of DRDO.
(NAMIS) • It is one of the most sophisticated anti-tank weapon systems with fire-and-
forget anti-tank missiles and sighting systems for enhanced firepower and
lethality.
95
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Ashwini • Indigenously developed by Electronics & Radar Development
Establishment, DRDO.
• Key Features: Capable of tracking aerial targets from high-speed fighter
aircraft to slow moving targets such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and
helicopters.
Sonic Weapon (or • It delivers very loud sounds over long distances.
Acoustic weapons) o It can also be used to act like voice amplifiers to deliver voice
messages/other sounds.
• Impact: Tinnitus (perception of ringing, buzzing, or other sounds in ears
without an external source); hearing loss etc.
Missile Gandiva • It is next in line of the Astra series, building upon the success of its
predecessors, the Astra MK-1 and MK-2.
• Propulsion System: It is powered by a Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet
propulsion system.
• Speed: It can sustain supersonic speeds, reportedly up to Mach 4.5, over
extended ranges of 300–350 kilometres.
Golden Dome • A missile defence programme of the USA.
• Inspired from Israel's 'Iron Dome' missile defence system.
Gaurav • It is a Long-Range Glide Bomb
• Gaurav achieved 100 km range with pinpoint accuracy.
Typhon mid-range • It is US army's Strategic Mid-Range Fires (SMRF).
missile system • Missiles: Can launch both Standard Missile 6 (SM-6) missiles and
Tomahawk cruise missiles.

6.13. UPDATES
6.13.1. INDIAAI MISSION
Key Initiatives have been recently launched under the Mission
• AIKosha (IndiaAI Datasets Platform): A secured repository of datasets, AI models, etc.
• IndiaAI Compute Portal: Provides subsidized AI compute, storage, and network services with access to
10,000+ graphics processing units (GPUs).
• AI Competency Framework: Equips public sector officials with AI skills and competency mapping.
• iGOT-AI for Government Officials: AI-powered personalized learning on the iGOT Karmayogi platform.
• Other Initiatives: IndiaAI Start-ups Global Acceleration Program, IndiaAI Innovation Challenge, and IndiaAI
FutureSkills Fellowship

6.13.2. SEMI CRYOGENIC ENGINE

ISRO has successfully conducted the second short hot test of the semi-cryogenic engine.

• It will power the Semi cryogenic booster stage of the Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3).

96
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6.13.3. CHANDRAYAAN-3
Researchers from ISRO (among others) created the first detailed lunar map using data from the Pragyan rover.
Key Findings:
• Confirmation of Subsurface Magma Ocean: Findings confirms ancient ocean of molten lava that extends
across the entire moon.
• A Common Origin with Earth: The Moon’s geochemical similarities with Earth supports the theory that both
bodies originated from the same molten material.

6.13.4. BRAHMOS NG (NEXT GENERATION)

BrahMos NG missile's maiden flight test set for 2026, production to begin by 2027-28.

About BrahMos NG (Next Generation)

• Type: It is a lighter, smaller, and more versatile and lethal version of the existing BrahMos missile.
• Capability: Speed of Mach 3.5 and a range of 290 km (extendable to 450 km).

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Building Mental Resilience for UPSC CSE

with VisionIAS Student Wellness Cell

From Stress Management to Academic Excellence

Enhancing Academic Professional Mental Well-Supported

Comprehensive Safe and Non-Judgmental Confidential and

Common Issues and Our Approach

Emotional Struggles: Providing a safe space for expression and techniques

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Remember, seeking help is a sign of strength, not weakness.

1.2. Gene Therapy ______________________ 12 3.7. Li-Fi Technology ____________________ 31

Why Vision IAS Digital Current Affairs 2.0?

Start your journey to UPSC success today.

Significance/Application of the Discovery

1.1.2. GENETICALLY MODIFIED (GM) CROPS

Regulatory Framework of GM Crops in India

1.1.3. HERITABLE HUMAN GENOME EDITING (HHGE)

1.1.4. RNA EDITING

1.1.5. BRIDGE RECOMBINASE MECHANISM (BRM)

1.1.6. ONE DAY ONE GENOME

1.1.7.1. RECOMBINANT PROTEINS

1.1.7.3. DNA REPAIR

1.1.7.4. PLANT GENOME EDITING TOOL ISDRA2TNPB’

• TnpB proteins are considered the evolutionary ancestors of Cas12 nucleases.

1.2.1. CHIMERIC ANTIGEN RECEPTOR (CAR) T -CELL THERAPY

1.3. STEM CELL

1.4. ORGAN-ON-CHIP (OOC) TECHNOLOGY

How does organ-on-a-chip technology work?

Steps Facilitating the development Organ on chip technology in India

1.6. UNIFIED GENOMIC CHIP

About Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)

About Sex-sorted Semen Technology

1.7. BIOE3 POLICY (BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR ECONOMY, ENVIRONMENT

1.8. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

1.8.2. WOLBACHIA BACTERIA

1.8.3. HAYFLICK LIMIT

2.1. NANO FERTILISERS

2.2. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

2.2.2. FLUORESCENT NANODIAMOND (FND)

About Fluorescent Nanodiamond (FND)

• FNDs are nanometre-sized diamonds made of carbon nanoparticles.

2.2.3. PIEZOELECTRIC POLYMER

3.1.3. FACIAL RECOGNITION TECHNOLOGY

3.1.4. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

3.2. EXTENDED REALITY (XR)

3.2.1. DIGITAL TWINS

3.3. BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

3.3.2. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

3.3.2.2. BITCOIN HALVING

3.5. BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACES (BCIS)

3.7. LI-FI TECHNOLOGY

3.8. OTHER IMPORTANT NEWS

3.8.3. NEUROMORPHIC COMPUTING

4.1. HIGGS BOSON

Key Neutrino Observatories

4.3. GRAVITATIONAL WAVES (GW)

4.4. OTHER IMPORTANT DEVELOPMENTS

4.4.2. HIGH ENERGY PHOTON SOURCE (HEPS)

4.4.3. GIANT RADIO SOURCES

4.4.4. DAKSHA PROJECT

4.4.5. HYDROGEN LINE (21 CM LINE)

5.1.1. SPACE DOCKING EXPERIMENT (SPADEX)

5.1.2. BHARATIYA ANTARIKSH STATION (BAS)

About Gaganyaan Programme

Other Space stations

5.1.3. VENUS ORBITER MISSION (VOM)

About Lagrange point

• A follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 (2019).

5.1.6. REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE (RLV) TECHNOLOGY

5.1.7. OTHER DEVELOPMENTS

5.1.7.1. EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITE EOS-08

5.1.7.2. AIR BREATHING PROPULSION SYSTEM

5.1.7.5. TRISHNA: INDO-FRENCH THERMAL IMAGING MISSION

5.1.7.6. NATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT STUDIES

5.2. SPACE-RELATED PHENOMENON

About Hubble Constant

5.2.2. SOLAR STORM (GEOMAGNETIC STORM)

1.2. Gene Therapy __ 12 3.7. Li-Fi Technology 31