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Basic Knowledge

Circuits

Tools

Analog vs. Digital

Communication Protocols

E N GIN E E RIN G E SSE N T IA L S

Electrical engineering is a technical discipline concerned with the

study, design, and application of electricity! Through electrical
engineering, we can design devices and systems using electrical
components such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, etc. Electrical
Engineers can design and work on items such as super low power
microcontrollers, PCB Design, high power turbines, navigation
systems, etc.

Get a brief overview and dive deeper into all our electrical engineering essentials below.

Metric Prefixes & International System of Units (SI Units):

When you're getting into electrical engineering, it's important to know
common electronic units and prefixes.

Quantity SI Unit Abbreviation

Voltage volts V

Current ampere A

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Power watt W

Energy joule J

Electric charge coulomb C

Resistance ohm Ω

Capacitance farad F

Inductance henry H

Frequency hertz Hz

Prefix Power Numeric Representation

tera (T) 1012 1 trillion

giga (G) 109 1 billion

mega (M) 106 1 million

kilo (k) 103 1 thousand

no prefix 100 1 unit

milli (m) 10-3 1 thousandth

micro (μ) 10-6 1 millionth

nano (n) 10-9 1 billionth

pico (p) 10-12 1 trillionth

FULL LIST OF PREFIXES AND SI UNITS 

What is Electricity?
Electricity is all around us in our
everyday lives. Even when you're not
using any electronic equipment, electrical
signals course through your nervous
system to instruct your body on what to
do.

Electricity is briefly defined as the flow of electric charge,

but there's much more to it. When dealing with electronics, you will be dealing mainly with current
electricity. However, you may find yourself asking, "Where do the charges come from? How do we move
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them? Where do they move to? How does an electric charge cause mechanical motion or make things
light up?" To begin to explain electricity, we need to zoom way in, beyond the matter and molecules, to
the atoms that make up everything we interact with in life. Dive in or get a quick refresher with our
tutorial on the natural phenomenon we call electricity.

LEARN MORE ABOUT ELECTRICITY 

Electric Power

For electronics to function they require

power. Our phones are receiving power
from their rechargeable batteries, and
our computers receive power from a 120
(or 220) Volt AC outlet that gets
converted to 12 or 18 Volts DC. Power is
one of the most fundamental concepts
when it comes to electronics.

In general, more power means more energy. We can calculate power using the various SI units from
above. Energy is measured in terms of joules, and power is a measure of energy over a set amount of
time; therefore, we can measure energy as joules per second, which is also known as the "watt."

Once you can calculate a watt, you can use a more common equation for calculating power.

LEARN MORE ABOUT ELECTRIC POWER 

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Working with Wire

Electrical wire comes in two different

forms: either solid core or stranded
core. Solid core is a solid wire, and
stranded core is many solid wires all
bundled into a group. Stranded wire is a
lot more flexible to work with than solid
core, however it's more difficult to use in
a breadboard or when PTH soldering.

Wires also come in different gauges. The gauge or thickness of a wire is used to determine the amount
of current a wire can safely handle – in general, the thicker the wire the more current it can carry. Most
wire strippers will have corresponding gauge slots for easy and accurate wire-stripping, and we can
splice wires together by stripping their ends, soldering them together and then re-sheathing the exposed
wire with heat shrink electrical tape, or some other sheathing material to the solder joint to cover the
exposed connection. For a more in-depth look on stripping wires, splicing them and various types of
crimps (connectors), check out our Working with Wire tutorial.

LEARN MORE ABOUT WORKING WITH WIRE 

Connector Basics
Connectors are used to join different
sections of circuits together. There are
many types of connectors, and all are
gendered.

For example, the power adapter from the wall outlet that
charges your phone is a common type of connector. If it
plugs into another connector, then it is said to be a male
connector, if it gets plugged into by another connector then
it is a female connector. Most connectors have a polarity; for example, modern wall plugs have two
different widths for the plug blades. This connector is polarized because it will only plug into the wall one
way. If you want to learn more basic connector terminology, identify polarized connectors and learn
which connectors are best suited for certain applications, you can follow along with our tutorial.

LEARN MORE ABOUT CONNECTORS 

IN T RO T O C IRC UIT S

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Every electronics project begins with a circuit. Here we will talk about
the basics of a circuit, go over Ohm’s Law, discuss how to tell whether
a circuit is in series or parallel, and talk about opamps.

What is a Circuit?

You can think of a circuit as the flow of electric current in a circular path
that starts and stops in the same place.

Figure 1: Basic Circuit

When using a voltage source we add what is known as a ”load” to the circuit. This can be LED’s,
resistors, etc. Basically anything that will cause a voltage drop because the electrical current wants to
flow from a higher voltage to a lower voltage.

Figure 2: Short Circuit

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If no load is present in the circuit, it's a short circuit. This is dangerous, because there is nothing to
restrict the current flow, and you can end up with burned wires, damage to the voltage source or a
quickly-drained (or exploded!) battery.

Figure 3: Open Circuit

This is an open or broken circuit, which is a circuit that is incomplete. Although not dangerous like
the short circuit, it will ultimately fail to work because voltage can’t reach the components.

LEARN MORE ABOUT CIRCUITS 

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Voltage, Current, Resistance and Ohm's Law

When exploring the world of electronics, it

is vital to start by understanding the basics
of voltage, current and resistance. These
are the three basic building blocks required
to manipulate and utilize electricity.

With a constant voltage source, we can see how current and resistance change. With a high resistance,
there will be very low current flowing through the load. With a low resistance, we will see the opposite.
We can use Ohm's law in conjunction with the power equation to determine any electrical characteristic
(power, voltage, current, or resistance) as long as we know 2 of the other quantities. To get a full
understanding of the relationship between voltage, current and resistance, view our tutorial on Ohm's
Law.

LEARN MORE ABOUT OHM'S LAW 

Series and Parallel Circuits

Simple circuits (ones with only a few components) are usually fairly
straightforward, but things can get sticky when other, more complicated
components are involved. This is where series and parallel circuits come
into play.

When looking at the difference between circuits in series and circuits in parallel. First we need to know
what a node is that way we can determine whether or not a circuit is in series or parallel. Referring to
figure below we can see that R2, R3, and R4 are all connected to the same node (The teal-blue wire).
This is where the current would split representing a parallel circuit. Between R1 and R2 there is a node
but the current does not split, so this is an example of a series circuit.

Example schematic with four uniquely colored nodes.

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Remember: two components are in series if they share a common node and if the same amount of
current flows through them. If two components share two common nodes then they are in parallel.

Series circuit

Parallel circuit

LEARN MORE ABOUT SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS 

Reading Schematics

Schematics are the maps for designing,

building and troubleshooting circuits.
Understanding how to read and follow
schematics is an important skill for any
electrical engineer.

Each part of a circuit, from transistors to switches, has its

own schematic symbol.

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LEARN HOW TO READ A SCHEMATIC 

T OO L S W E USE

In addition to proficiency in all the electronics topics listed above,

electrical engineers are also required to have the knowledge and skills
to use a multitude of different tools. Let's go over some of the
essentials.

Multimeter

Arguably the most indispensable tool in

an electrical engineer's arsenal is a
multimeter. Besides measuring voltage
and current, a multimeter can also help
you diagnose circuits, learn about
existing electronic designs and even test
a battery. They can also do a continuity
test to make sure traces and components
are connected properly. Take a look at our full guide and video to get
started and see the different multimeters we carry.

LEARN HOW TO USE A MULTIMETER 

Breadboard

Breadboards are one of the most

fundamental pieces of learning how to
build circuits. A breadboard is generally
used for prototyping as it is easy to
replace components, diagnose issues
and test without needing to solder.

LEARN HOW TO USE A BREADBOARD 

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Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is used when a signal

needs to be analyzed (amplitude, period,
clock cycle, etc.). An oscilloscope's
probe reads various types of signals,
such as continuous and discrete, so both
analog and digital signals can be
displayed to the user.

The trusty o-scope is very versatile, and is useful in a variety of troubleshooting and research situations,
including:

Determining the frequency and amplitude of a signal, which can be critical in debugging a circuit's
input, output, or internal systems. From this, you can tell if a component in your circuit has
malfunctioned.
Identifying how much noise is in your circuit.
Identifying the shape of a wave -- sine, square, triangle, sawtooth, complex, etc.
Quantifying phase differences between two different signals.

LEARN HOW TO USE AN OSCILLOSCOPE 

Soldering Iron
Soldering is one of the most fundamental
skills needed when working with
electronics. You only need an iron, solder
and soldering tips in order to begin.

There are other helpful terms and tools to know if you want
to learn to solder. The tip is the part of the iron that heats
up and allows the solder to flow around the two
components being joined. Most soldering irons have the
option to change the tip if one is damaged or you need a different tip for the task at hand. Soldering
wick allows you to remove solder so it is easier to move a component. Tip tinner removes the oxidation
that builds up at the soldering tip so you can get the most heat transfer from your tip. Flux is extremely
useful – it's a chemical agent that healps lead-free solder flow smoothly. A tutorial on soldering irons and
various tools can be found below.

LEARN HOW TO SOLDER 

A N A L OG V S. DIGIT A L SIGN A L S
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A signal consists of a time-varying quantity that allows us to visually

see how the circuit is interacting with the various components. For us,
this time-varying quantity is most likely voltage or current. When it
comes to working with electronics we deal with both analog and digital
signals, which can occur as both an input and an output. Projects we
create have to interact with the real, analog world in some way, but
most microprocessors, computers and logic circuits are built using
purely digital components.

Analog:
Analog signals are a smooth continuous plot, with voltage on the y-axis and time (usually in seconds)
on the x-axis. An example of an analog signal can be seen in figure 6. Some of the most common
analog components are resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors.

Digital:
Digital signals must have a finite set of possible values. Most digital signals oscillate between two
fixed values. An example of an analog signal can be seen in figure 7. Most communication between
integrated circuits is digital, such as serial communication, I2C, and SPI, which we will go over in more
detail later.

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LEARN MORE ABOUT ANALOG VS DIGITAL 

Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC):

Most microcontrollers have an ADC built

in, which allows us to read an analog
signal from the outside world and convert
it to a digital signal. You will know if the
board you are working with has ADC
pins, because most board manufacturers
will have an ”A” in front of their label (A0-
A7 for example).

Digital signals are easier to work with because they consist of only two fixed values. For example, if the
digital signal outputs 5V, we can convert that into a 1 in binary, which would portray an active pin (high
pin). If 0V is the output, we can convert that into a 0 in binary, which would show the pin is off.

LEARN MORE ABOUT DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION 

DIV IN G IN T O A N A L OG

Here we will discuss the most common analog components: capacitors,

diodes, voltage dividers and transistors.

Capacitors

A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical

component. Along with resistors and
inductors, they are one of the most
fundamental passive components we
use.

When current flows into a capacitor, the charge gets stuck

on the plates when it can't get past the insulating dielectric.
Because the electrons are stuck to one of the plates, the capacitor becomes negatively charged. The
negative charge on one plate pushes away similar charges on the opposite plate, making it positively

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charged. The stationary charges on these plates create an electric field that influences voltage, resulting
in the capacitor becoming charged. You can calculate the charge in a capacitor with the following
equation.

In order to calculate the current through a capacitor we use the following equation:

Here, dv/dt is the derivative of voltage. If the voltage is constant, then the current going through the
capacitor is 0 because the derivative of a constant number is 0. This is why current cannot flow through
a capacitor holding a steady voltage.

LEARN ALL ABOUT CAPACITORS 

Diodes

The function of a diode is to control the

direction of current flow. Current passing
through a diode can only go in one
direction - forward.

Current trying to flow the reverse direction is blocked. If the

voltage across a diode is negative, no current can flow and the resulting circuit acts as an open circuit;
in this situation the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode has two terminals: the anode (positive
terminal) and the cathode (negative terminal). Below is a chart regarding diode characteristics.

Operation Mode On (Forward-Biased) Off (Reverse-Biased)

Current Through I>0 I=0

Voltage Across V=0 V<0

Diode Acts Like Short Circuit Open Circuit

There is a third characteristic of a diode called breakdown. When the voltage applied across the diode
is very large and negative, a lot of current will be able to flow in the reverse direction, from cathode to
anode.

LEDs act as normal diodes and only allow current to flow in one direction. They also have a forward
voltage rating, which is the voltage required for them to light up.

LEARN ALL ABOUT DIODES 

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Voltage Dividers

A voltage divider is a circuit that turns a large voltage into a smaller one.

Using just two series resistors and an input voltage, we can create an output voltage that is a fraction of
the input. Voltage dividers are one of the most fundamental circuits in electronics. You may see them
drawn a few different ways, but they should always essentially be the same circuit. And remember, any
part of your system that pulls current is kind of like adding another resistor to the network, so don't forget
to include all potential loads on any nodes!

The equation used to calculate the output voltage (or one of the other values) is as follows.

LEARN MORE ABOUT VOLTAGE DIVIDERS 

DIV IN G IN T O DIGIT A L

Here we will discuss binary, which is how a computer reads data (1s
and 0s), as well as how logic levers work.

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Binary

Most people are used to thinking about numbers as the decimal values,
or base-10 numeral system. Electronics, however, think about numbers
in binary, or base-2 numeral system. Binary also has bitwise operators:
the complement, and, or, & xor.

String 1 String 2

Operator 11110000 10101010

Compliment 00001111 01010101

or 10100000

or 11111010

xor 01011010

Here we use the same two strings defined above when computing the compliment.

LEARN MORE ABOUT BINARY 

Logic Levels
A logic level is a state in which a signal
can exist. Often in digital circuits this
state is either on or off, a 1 or a 0 in
binary respectively. Many
microcontrollers today also have active-
low and active-high pins.

Active-low pins must be pulled by connecting it to ground

and active-high pins are connected to the input voltage which is usually either 3.3V or 5V depending on
the microcontrollers datasheet.

LEARN ALL ABOUT LOGIC LEVELS 

C O M M UN IC A T ION PRO T O C OL S

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Many communication protocols can be separated into two categories:

parallel or serial communication. Parallel interfaces transfer several
bits at the same time and require a bus to transfer data, whereas serial
interfaces transfer data one bit at a time. Serial communication has
several rules to follow:

Data bits: The data you want to send (such as an ASCII character) converted into an 8-bit
number.
Synchronization bits: Start bits and stop bits start the beginning and end to a packet. There is
always only one start bit, but there can be up to two stop bits.
Parity bits: Low-level error checking, which is optional and rarely used due to it slowing down
the data transfer.
Baud rate: How fast data is sent over a serial line - expressed in units of bits/second (bps).

Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)

A universal asynchronous
receiver/transmitter (UART) is a block
that implements serial communication by
having both parallel and serial interfaces.

One side (parallel) consists of data lines, and the other

side (serial) has the transmit (TX) and receive (RX) lines.
Never connect TX to TX and RX to RX! The wires should
cross, TX should be connected to RX, and RX should be
connected to TX between the separate serial
communication devices. UARTs do exist as stand-alone ICs, but they're more commonly found inside
microcontrollers.

LEARN MORE ABOUT UART 

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI):

SPI is an interface bus used to send data
between microcontrollers and small
components, like sensors and SD cards.

SPI works in a slightly different manner than serial

communication - it uses a synchronous data bus rather
than an asynchronous data bus. With this in mind, it uses separate lines for data and a clock that keeps
both the receiving and transmitting side in perfect sync with one another. The clock is an oscillating
signal that tells the receiver exactly when to sample the bits on the data line. This is either the rising or

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falling edge of the clock signal. When the receiver detects that edge, it will immediately look at the data
line to read the next bit. One reason SPI is popular is that the receiving hardware can be a simple shift
register - simpler and cheaper than the UART, which is required by asynchronous serial communication.

LEARN ALL ABOUT SPI 

Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)

The Inter-Integrated Circuit (I 2 C) Protocol

is intended to allow multiple "peripheral"
digital integrated circuits ("chips") to
communicate with one or more
"controller" chips.

Like SPI, it is only intended for short distance

communications within a single device. Like ASIs (such as
RS-232 or UART), it only requires two signal wires to
exchange information. SparkFun's Qwiic Connect System takes advantage of the benefits of I2C to allow
different sensors, actuators, displays and more to be daisy-chained together with a polarized cable.

LEARN MORE ABOUT I2C 

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