MIT Art Design and Technology University

MIT School of Computing, Pune

Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities
First Year Engineering
23ASH1106-Fundamentals of Photonics

Class – F.Y. (SEM-II), <SOC-2, 3 >

1_Unit Name- Interaction of Photon with Matter

AY 2023-2024 SEM-II
 Main Topic: 1

• In this Chapter you will learn the following:

• Introduction
• Maxwell Boltzmann distribution
• Fermi Dirac distribution
• Bose Einstein distribution
Photonics
 Photonics is the physical science of light waves. It deals with the science
behind the generation, detection and manipulation of light.

 Particles in the field of photonics, such as electrons and photons, exhibit

quantum mechanical behavior. Understanding their statistical distribution
is fundamental to predicting their behavior in different physical systems.

 Different physical systems/situations encountered in nature are described

by three types of statistics
1. Maxwell Boltzmann (or M-B) Statistics (Classical Statistics)

2. Fermi Dirac Statistics (Quantum Statistics)

3. Bose-Einstein (or B-E) statistics
 These three statistics concern when how particles occupy a system
which consists of several energy levels (and each energy level
could also have several energy states).

 A particle in this system can be in one of those energy levels

depending on the energy particle has.

 It’s impossible to have just one particle in a system since in real

life it needs various particles to constitute a system. They occupy
the levels under a statistics rule.
Maxwell Boltzmann statistics (Classical Statistics)
 Maxwell Boltzmann statistics is applicable to identical, distinguishable
particle of any type of spin. E.g. gas molecules
 Particles which are regulated by Maxwell-Boltzmann Statistics have to be
distinguishable from each other and one energy state can be occupied by
any number of particles.
 MB distribution function is given by
f(E) = exp -(E-Ef/kT)
Where, f(E)- the distribution function which gives the probability that a
particle is in energy state E
k – Boltzmann Constant
T- Temperature in kelvin.
 Application: It is mostly used in kinetic theory of gases to find distributions
of gas molecules, their velocities and internal energies.
Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics can be used to derive the Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution of particle speeds in an ideal gas.

n- number of particles
V- velocity of the particles

Fig distribution of particle speed for 106 oxygen particles at -100, 20 and 600 °C.
 Distinguishability of Particles
 The Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac distributions differ from the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann

distribution because the particles they describe are indistinguishable.

Particles are considered to be indistinguishable if their wave packets overlap

significantly. This kind of consideration comes from the fact that all particles have

characteristic wave properties according to the De-Broglie hypothesis. Two particles can be

considered to be distinguishable if their separation is large compared to their De-Broglie

wavelength.

 For example, the condition of distinguishability is met by molecules in an ideal gas under

ordinary conditions. For oxygen gas at STP (Standard temperature and pressure), the molecules

have a separation on the order of 3 nm and De-Broglie wavelengths on the order of 0.03 nm, a

factor of a hundred smaller. On the other hand, two electrons in the first shell of an atom are

inherently indistinguishable because of the large overlap of their wavefunctions.

 Fermi Dirac Statistics

Fermi Dirac statistics is applicable to the identical, indistinguishable particles of

half integral spin called as fermions.
Energy states are discrete
These particles Obey Pauli Exclusion Principle . Ex Electron, proton etc.
There is a restriction on the number of particles which can occupy a
particular energy level.
FD distribution function is given by

(𝑬 𝑬𝒇 )/𝒌𝑻 f(E) – Fermi distribution function that represents probability

that a fermion occupy a state of energy E.

Note: Distribution functions are nothing but the probability density functions used to describe
the probability with which a particular particle can occupy a particular energy level. When we
speak of Fermi-Dirac distribution function, we are particularly interested in knowing the
chance by which we can find a fermion in a particular energy state of an atom
 Bose Einstein Statistics
Bose Einstein statistics is applicable to the identical, indistinguishable particles of zero
or integral spin. These particles are called Bosons.
For example, photons, phonons
Particles which are regulated by Bose-Einstein Statistics have to be indistinguishable
each other and one energy state can be occupied by any number of particles.
Do not obey Pauli’s Principle.
Any number of particles can occupy the same state at the same time.
 BE distribution function is given by

(𝑬 𝑬𝒇 )/𝒌𝑻

Where, f(E)- the BE distribution function which gives the probability that a particle is in
energy state E
k – Boltzmann Constant
T- Temperature in kelvin.
Application of BE distribution function – Video shows realization physical phenomenon based on BE distribution
Maxwell Boltzmann Statistics Fermi-Dirac Statistics Bose-Einstein Statistics
Applicable to identical, Applicable to identical, Applicable to identical,
distinguishable particles, it is indistinguishable particles, it is indistinguish-able particles, it
classical statistics quantum statistics is quantum statistics
For example - Molecules of gas Free electrons Photons in cavity, photons in
solids, He atoms at low T

Applicable to particles of any Applicable to the particles of half- Applicable to particles of

spin integral spin integral spin

Particles does not obey Particles does obey uncertainty Particles does obey
uncertainty principle principle uncertainty principle

No limit on number of particles Never more than one particle per state No limit on number of
per state Obey Pauli’s Principle particles per state
Each particle is as likely to be Do not obey Pauli’s Principle
in one cell as in another
Distribution function Distribution function Distribution function
1 1
f(E) = exp -(E-Ef/kT) 𝑓 𝐸 = ( )/ 𝑓 𝐸 =
𝑒 +1 𝑒( )/
−1
Main Topic:2

Objectives:
In this unit you will learn the following:
Introduction:
 Band Theory of Solids
 Formation of Energy bands in Solids
 Classification of solids on the basis of band theory
 Fermi level in metals
 Semiconductors: Intrinsic & Extrinsic
 Position of Fermi level in Semiconductors
 Energy band diagram of p-n junction diode
 Introduction
Photonics involves the manipulation of light for various applications.
Semiconductor devices, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, and
photodetectors, are central to optoelectronic systems. In the context of
optical fiber communication, semiconductor devices facilitate signal
processing, modulation, and detection.

For a better knowledge of semiconductors, one should understand the

properties of semiconductors on the basis of band theory of solids.

Understanding the band theory of solids is pivotal for grasping the

principles that govern the behavior of semiconductors and for designing
and optimizing the performance of the semiconductor devices.
 Band Theory of Solids
•The band theory of solids explains electronic behavior in terms of
energy bands and band gaps. This theory is particularly powerful in
describing the behavior of electrons in crystalline solids, providing a
comprehensive understanding of electronic properties in materials.

•Merits:
• Describes electronic behavior in terms of energy bands and band gaps.
• Provides a comprehensive understanding of semiconductor properties.
•Demerits:
• Complex mathematical models may be challenging for introductory
studies.
• May not capture certain phenomena at the nanoscale.
 Formation of Energy Bands
• A single isolated atom has discrete energy levels.
When two identical atoms are considered to
be far apart, the electron energy levels in an
individual atom are not affected by the
presence of the other.

• As long as the atoms are widely separated, they have identical energy levels; electrons
fill the levels in each atom independently.

• But when the atoms are brought closer, they begin to

interact strongly and as a result, each isolated energy level
will be transformed into two energy levels of similar
energies. When two atoms come close, one energy level
splits into two energy levels.
 • When three atoms
approach each other
closely, the original
level splits into three
levels; four atoms
produce four levels
and so on.

• If ‘N’ number of atoms are brought together to form a solid and if these atoms’
electrons interact they will split up into ‘N’ number of closely spaced energy levels
in the place of discrete energy levels.

• The series of closely spaced energy levels is known as bands of allowed energies.
 All types of solids consists three types of bands

1. Valence Band:

The band formed by series of energy levels containing valence electron

is called valence band.
It may be partially filled or completely filled with electrons.

2. Conduction Band:

It is an allowed energy band next to the valence band which contains free
electrons that take part in conduction.

3. Forbidden Band:

It is an energy gap between the valence and conduction band . The energies in
this band are forbidden i.e. not allowed for the electron.

To raise the electron from valence band to conduction band, energy equivalent
to the forbidden energy gap has to be supplied to the electron.
 Classification of Solids on the basis of band theory
Depending on the difference between conduction and valence band i.e. width of the
forbidden energy gap, solids can be classified into three Categories.
• Conductors
• Semiconductors
• Insulators

Conductors:
 In conductors, the valence band & conduction band
overlap. There is no forbidden energy gap.
 Therefore, electrons can easily gain electrical energy when an electric external
electric field is applied and are easily available for conduction.
 The resistance of conductor is very low & it increases with temperature.
 Hence the conductors are said to have positive temperature coefficient of
resistance. E.g. Metals like copper, gold, silver, aluminum are good conductor.
 Insulators:
• Insulators have completely filled valence band
& an empty conduction band which are
separated by a large forbidden gap.

• The band gap energy is about 5 eV. Hence large

amount of energy is required to transfer
electrons from valence band to conduction
band.

• Insulators have low conductivity & high resistance.

• E.g. Diamond, glass, are insulators.
 Semiconductors:
• In semiconductors valence band is completely filled and
the conduction band is empty at absolute zero
temperature.
Eg  0.5 ev to 3eV
• The valence band and conduction band are separated by
a small forbidden band of the order 0.5 eV to 3 eV.

• Hence compared to insulators small energy is required to

transfer the electrons from valence band to conduction
band.
• Hence the conductivity is better than the insulator but not as good as the
conductor. Examples Si, Ge.
• As temperature increases, the electron from valence band will move to
conduction band leaving a vacancy in valence band which is known as hole.
• Hence conductivity increases with increase in temperature, therefore
semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient.
 Fermi Energy
The Fermi level is a concept that plays a crucial role in understanding the electronic
properties of materials, especially in the context of semiconductors and metals.

Fermi Level in Metals

 The highest filled state in the highest energy band which

contains electrons in a metal, at 0 K is called Fermi level & its

corresponding energy is called the Fermi energy EF. Fermi Level

 So, Fermi energy is the maximum energy that a free electron can

have in a conductor at 0K. T= 0 K

 At 0K, all the levels below Fermi level are completely filled with

electrons and all the levels above Fermi levels are completely

empty.
 But at high temperature there is a possibility that some of the electrons from levels
below Fermi level then gets transferred (jump) to the levels above Fermi level.

The Occupancy of energy levels by electrons in conductors is described by the Fermi

Dirac distribution function

(𝑬 𝑬𝒇 )/𝒌𝑻

Where, k is a Boltzmann Constant

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) gives a probability that an electron can occupy the
energy state of energy E at absolute temperature T.
Ef- Fermi Energy.

Case-1. At T=0 K for E< EF

( )
The term = 0 , So that f(E )= 1

probability of finding an electron with an energy less than fermi level is one.
Hence at T=0 K, all the energy levels below fermi level are certainly occupied.
Case-2. At T=0 K for E> EF

( )
The term =,
So that f(E )= 0
Hence at T=0 K, the probability of occupying the energy states above fermi
level is zero hence they are empty.
Case-3: If energy E is equal to fermi Energy (E= Ef),
probability of occupancy is given by

( )/

= 1/2

Thus, an energy state at fermi level

has a 50% probability of being
occupied by electron at temperature
T>0 K
 Acceptor Impurity- NA
(nh>>ne)

Fermi Level in Semiconductors

Fermi level in case of semiconductors may be defined as the energy which

corresponds to the center of gravity of conduction electrons and holes when

“weighted” according to their energies.

Position of Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors are the pure semiconductors which have no

impurities in them. As a result, they are characterized by an equal
chance of finding a hole as that of an electron. This in turn implies that
they have the Fermi-level exactly in between the conduction and the
valence bands as shown by Figure.
At any temperature T,

Ec Conduction band 𝒄
𝒇

Eg Fermi level EFin

Ev Thus Fermi energy level in
Valence band
the intrinsic semiconductor
is exactly at the middle of
Figure: Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor
forbidden gap.
Position of Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors
n-type Semiconductor:
In the case of an n-type semiconductor, more number of electrons
will be present in conduction band in comparison to the holes in
valence band. This means that there is a greater chance of finding an
electron near to the conduction band than that of finding a hole in the
valence band. Thus, these materials have their Fermi-level located
nearer to conduction band
Position of Fermi Level in Extrinsic Semiconductors

p-type Semiconductor:
In the case of an p-type semiconductor, more number of holes will be
present in valence band in comparison to the free electrons in
conduction band. This means that there is a greater chance of find hole
in the valence band than that of finding an electron in the conduction
band. Thus, p- type semiconductors have their Fermi-level located
nearer to valence band
Effect of temperature on Fermi Level
n-type Semiconductor
In case of n-type semiconductor, at low temperature region, electrons in
conduction band are only due to the transition of electrons form the donor level.
Therefore, the fermi level Efn lies between the donor level and bottom of the
conduction band.
As temperature increases the donor level
gets depleted (Shift towards conduction
band) and fermi level shifts downward. At

the temperature of complete depletion

of donor level (Td), fermi level coincides
with donor level.
With further increase in temperature fermi level shifts downward in an
approximately linear fashion. At higher temperature (Ti) semiconductor loses
its extrinsic property and behaves as an intrinsic semiconductor.
Effect of temperature on Fermi Level
p-type Semiconductor

Similarly, in case of p-
type semiconductor, fermi
level Efp rises with
temperature from below
the acceptor level to the
intrinsic fermi level Efi.
 P-N Junction Diode
• When a p-type Semiconductor is joined together with an n-type
Semiconductor a p-n junction is formed which is also known as a
Semiconductor Diode.
• The two kinds of majority carriers while diffusing across the junction
meet each other near the junction and undergo recombination's, leaving
negative ions on the p-side and positive ions on the n-side of the
junction. This distribution of Positive and Negative Charges is called
Space charge.
P-type N-type
- +
Free
Holes - + electrons
- +
- +

Depletion layer
Energy band diagram of p-n Junction
Let us now try to understand the formation of p-n junction from the point
of view of energy band diagram.
Consider a junction between p type and n
type Si. The band diagrams of the two
semiconductors, when apart, are shown in
figure. There are excess electrons on the n-
side and excess holes on the p-side.

When the two materials are brought

together, the electrons from the n side
move to the p side and combine with the
holes, while similarly, holes move from p
to n side and combine with the electrons
and the Fermi levels line up at equilibrium
as shown in Figure.
Forward Bias:

Under forward biasing p-side is connected

P N
to the positive terminal and n-side to the
negative terminal of the battery.

P-type N-type
C. B.
Due to the forward bias equilibrium
e (VB – V)
C. B. conditions are disturbed, and therefore energy
EF bands and fermi level are altered.
EF eV
V. B.
Since in forward bias the n-type is
V. B.
connected to negative terminal of battery,
energy of electrons on n-side increases by
an amount eV.

Consequently, Fermi level raises by eV and the energy bands adjust their positions so as
to suit the elevation of Fermi level. Due to this potential barrier is reduced.
Reverse Bias:

P N In this case n-side is connected

to the positive terminal and p-
V
side is connected to the negative
P-type N-type
C. B.
terminal of the battery.
e (VB + V)
It decreases energy of electrons
EFP
C. B.
on n-side and therefore fermi
eV EFn
V. B. level on n side lowers by an
amount eV.
V. B.

Consequently, the energy bands adjust their positions so as to suit the

elevation of Fermi level. Due to this potential barrier height is increased.
 Homojunctions and Heterojunctions Devices:

What is Homojunction?
A homojunction is a semiconductor device or interface that occur
between the layer of similar materials with equal bandgap but
different doping concentration.

P-type GaAS N-type GaAs

Energy band diagram of homojunction p-n junction diode

A homojunction can also be a p-i junction, which is formed between a p-type region and an undoped intrinsic region of
the same semiconductor, or an i-n junction, which is formed between an undoped intrinsic region and an n-type region of
the same semiconductor.
 What is Heterojunction?
A heterojunction is a semiconductor device or interface that occur between two lattice-
matched semiconductors of dissimilar materials with different bandgaps and different
doping concentration.
P-type N-type
AlGaAS GaAs

At the junction where these two

semiconductors are joined
together, difference in their

. bandgaps results in a
discontinuity due to lattice
Energy band diagram of single heterostructure p-n
junction diode mismatch of the two materials.
The semiconductor heterostructures are used to confine the charge carriers in the low band gap material.
For a heterojunction, the semiconductors on the two sides of the junction have different bandgaps.
The confined charge carries have tremendous applications than non-confined carriers, in fabricating various optical devices
Main Topic 3 – Absorption, Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission

Interaction of Light with matter

 Quantum Processes

 Atoms have different energy levels

 For simplicity we assume that atoms of material under consideration can be

characterised by only two energy levels E1 (Ground state) and E2 (excited state).

 At normal temperature most of the atoms will be in energy level E1

 The number of atoms per unit volume in an energy level is called the population

density
 Let the polpulation density at two levels E and E be N and N
1 2 1 2
 At normal temperature N >N
1 2
 Let us assume that radiation is passed through the medium
 The incident radiation can be seen as stream of photons
 Let the photon density be ρ(ν)
 We assume that the energy of photons is E = h ν = E2 – E1
 When photon passes through the medium, three diffrent process can occur
1)Absorption
2)Spontaneous emmision
3)Stimulated emission
 Absorption

 Initially the atom is in lower energy level E1

 A photon of energy E2-E1 is incident on atom. It imparts its energy to the atom and
disappears. We say that the atom has absorbed the photon
 As a result of absorption of adequate energy the atom jumps to excited state E2. Such a
transition is called absorption
 The process is initiated by photon hence it is called induced absorption
A + hν → A*
 Here A represents atom in lower state, A* represents atom in excited state
 As a result of absorption N1 decreases while N2 increases
 Attenuation of radiation takes place
 Spontaneous emission

 When an atom in lower energy level is excited to higher energy level, it can stay in
excited state for a time of about 10-8 sec
 The atom comes back to lower state by emitting a photon of energy E = h ν = E2 –
E1
 Emission of photon without an external input is called spontaneous emission
A *→ A + hν
 In conventional light sources the spontaneous emission is the dominant process
 In spontaneous emission, the instant of transition , direction of emission of photon,
the polarization state of photon are all random quantity
 No correlation among the parameters of the different photons
 Stimulated emission

 Atom is in excited state and interacts with the photon of energy E = h ν = E2 – E1

 The initial photon induces the excited atom to make a downward transition well
before spontaneous emission
 The atom emits a photon of energy E = h ν = E2 – E1 and come to lower energy
state
 The initial photon is not affected.
 This process is called stimulated emission or induced emission
A * + hν→ A + 2 hν
 Both the photon propagate in same direction, have same frequency, phase and
polarization
 Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
It is a random and probabilistic process It is not a random process

Natural so cannot be controlled from Artificial so can be controlled from

outside outside

Photons emitted in all directions, having Emitted photons are directional having
random phase and polarization state definite polarisation state and phase
relationships
No amplification – multiplication of Light amplification took place due to
photons does not take place rapid multiplication of emitted photons

Emitted photons are unpolarized and Emitted photons are polarized and also
also not monochromatic monochromatic
 Thank you !
• References

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e9TQs-EDiUs

• A Textbook of Engineering Physics by Avadhanulu (S Chand & Co Ltd)

• Concepts of Modern Physics by Arthur Beiser

• Principles of Physics Resnick Halliday by Wiley

• http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Solids/band.html#c3

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate

• http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/statcn.html#c1
 Unit-I Interaction of Photon with matter

Q.1 Explain the Maxwell Boltzmann statistical Distribution function. [2 M]L2

Q.2. Explain the Bose Einstein Statistical Distribution function. [2M]L2

Q.3 Explain the Fermi Dirac Statistical Distribution function. [2M]L2

Q.4 Compare MB, BE and FD statistics. [4M]L2

Q.5 Explain formation of energy bands (in solids) on the basis of band theory of solids. [4M]L2

Q.6 Explain the classification of solids on the basis of energy band diagram. [4M]L2

Q.7 Define Fermi Level and the expression for Fermi-Dirac distribution function? Explain with the
help of a diagram how it varies with the temperature in metals. [4M]L2

Q.8 Draw labeled energy band diagram for intrinsic and n- type semiconductor. [4M]L2

Q. 9 Draw labelled energy band diagram for extrinsic semiconductor. [2M]L1

Q. 10 Draw labelled energy band diagram for n- type semiconductor at T=0 K and T >0 K. [4M]L2

Q. 11 Draw labelled energy band diagram for p- type semiconductor at T=0 K and T >0 K. [4M] L2

Q.12. Draw labelled energy band diagram p-n junction diode i) Zero bias ii) Forward bias

iii) Reverse bias. [4M]L2

Q. 13 Explain with the neat diagram, the processes of absorption of light, spontaneous emission and
stimulated emission. Which of these processes is maximized for laser operation? [4M]L2

Q. 14 Explain the difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation. [2M] L1
Q. 15 Use FD distribution function to obtain the value of f(E) for E-Ef = 0.01 eV at 200K
[Ans: 0.3589] [2M]L2
Q. 16 Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state with energy 2 eV is occupied.
Given that Fermi energy is 1.5 eV. [ Ans: 1261.6 K] [2M]L2