Different methods/ techniques of data collection

A. Descriptive or Survey Method: It is a scientific enquiry on social problem limited to

certain geographical area for collecting quantitative facts for brining the problem to focus for
suggesting points worth considering. It is also helps to formulate important principles of
knowledge and the solution of the scholarly problems.
The chief scientific characteristic of survey is that it is through the collected data which
facilitates careful implementation of logical understanding. It also provides logical models by
examining cause and effect relationship so it becomes deterministic. One can understand a
larger population by studying the sample out of the population in question.
After the quantification of variables and its analysis, a number of models could be constructed
and one that fits in with the objectives of the study is selected. It demands a specific method.
The survey method dealing with immediate problems to a geographically confined area with
the motive of the constructive programme, becomes as source of hypothesis/es and fully
utilizes scientific method fulfilling the objectives of supplying information on any problem
describes and explains a phenomenon. Survey may be general or specific, regular adhoc,
preliminary or final, census or survey.
The planning of a survey is done the same way as preparing a project.

Merits:

 It brings the researcher in face to face situation with the respondents making it first hand
and authentic, ceteris peribus.
 Permits greater objectivity
 Helps testing the validity of a theory
 Brings emotional impact of social situation through participants’ observations.
Limitations:
 High financial involvement.
 Time consumption.
 Rigidity of technique.
 Subjectivity of the researcher may march the reliability and validity
 Sampling errors may also creep in.
The mathematical model is an abstraction of the real situation. To test the validity,
the data has to be collected and have to be compared to the model. The model then is accepted
to represent the real situation, if no profound descripensiveness is found between the model
and data collected, the model will be outright rejected and another model is hypothesized and
subsequently tested again till a suitable model has been found to fit in the real situation. This,
presently accepted, model would be challenged in future and replaced by another after having
had put to test like the one being replaced. The following flow chart diagram would give the
procedure of problem solving:
 Problem Solving Process
Research Problem Experimental Data
Data Collection and reduction

Abstraction Verification
(Model Building) (Model Testing)

Mathematical Model Hypothetical Data

Simulation

Main problems which are the major concern of the social scientist are:
 Model building
 Data collection and reduction
 Model testing.
To test the validity of the model, the statistical principles and procedures are necessary.
B. Case Study Method: The scientific case study is an intensive investigation of an
individual family group, community, institution as well as an abstract thing like friendship.
The case study helps in exploring and quantitatively analyzing the social life with the help of
careful and complete observations. The study should cover a continual expanse of time and
cover a sufficiently wide cycle of time such as whole life cycle but the number of units should
be small with qualitative character.

Likewise, in agricultural economy, we study a few farms such as in cost accounting survey of
the entire farm as a unit not a few enterprises. This is an in-depth study of the farms in
question and every account is taken of the farming activity.
Assumptions:
 Totality of being underlying unit:
 Complexity of social phenomenon that is making a deeper probe and keen insight.
 Study of historical perspective
Sources of data:
 Personal documents
 Life history.
The techniques in case study: Diagnostic approach help in maintaining objectivity through
the personnel interviews giving the case and informal environment, permitting free flow of
talk, complete and correct notes are immediately taken down. Supplementation of the
interview is done by the use of written records which help in verification of the interview as
well as provide further information. A preliminary statistical survey helps in selecting the
typical case for the study. In short the technique comprises of three phases:
 Choice of case.
 Recording of data.
 Interpretation of data.
Basic advantages:
 It helps in developing a valid hypothesis
 Framing schedule and questionnaires.
 Stratification of samples.
 Enlarging range of personal experience.
 Deviant cases are located helping to find out new things.
 Stresses significance of recorded data.
 It is the most suitable method when a problem forms a process rather than an incident.
Main disadvantages:
 Generalization is not fruitful as it emerges from a few cases.
 The methodology is unsystematic and loose because it is not statistically tested.
 Chances of error are hugh.
 An ad hoc theorizing tendency develops in the researcher.
 The technique involves cost and time.
C. Experimental Technique: The positive approach in science is to establish a cause and
effect relationship. The social science as well tries to prove the hypothesis based on facts and
draw conclusions. Experimental technique is a method of testing hypothesis by setting up
artificial or controlled conditions for observations and hooking up to factors into casual
relationship for finding out the effect of independent variables on dependent one by
manipulating of independent variables. The investigator observes the phenomenon and
through the use of reasons and mathematics proves or disproves the hypothesis/es.
Types of experiments: These are based on the setting, the nature, and extent of control and
the technique adopted for the manipulation of variables. These are classified as :

 Trial and error experiments. The proposed hypothesis is tested in an actual social
conditions but the technique could undergo modifications according to the changed
conditions.
 Controlled observation under study. Under this condition, the variables are
manipulated to know the cause and effect relationship.
 Natural experiments. This is done under field conditions based on controlled
observational study.

 Ex-post facts. In this technique, all factors will be identical but one of the independent
factors will be different and the result is seen after sometimes.
 Laboratory experiments. Under the laboratory conditions artificial conditions are
created and one of the factors is manipulated but the rest of the factors are kept under
control.
Experiments with people-Human beings cannot be put to the discomforts of the four walls of
the laboratory. Group methods are adopted to test the hypothesis.

Principal group methods:

  One group method. If all factors are kept under control then a single identifiable factor is
introduced in one group and the result is seen through a mark able difference and changes
are measured.

 Parallel or Equivalent group method. Since all the factors in a single group cannot be
controlled this method is resorted to. Here both the groups should be alike in age, sex,
intelligence, family background and income etc. and are studied simultaneously. Example
could be sighted from the “effect of institutional loans granted to farmers in a particular
region on their income”. One of the groups is controlled and the other is the experimental
group to which the factors under investigation are applied and they are compared for the
significant differences or changes.

 Rotation group method. In this method more than two equivalent groups are selected
and every time an experimental group is selected in rotation from these groups and the
changes are observed. In this method each one has a chance of being an experimental
group or controlled group.
Precautions in experimental methods:
 Generalization on a single experiment is avoided.
 Uses of faculty instruments are to be avoided.
 Class identification of variable affecting the results is done.
 Any biases are strictly avoided.
 There should be sufficient number of subjects.
 Correct choice of the subject is to be made.
 Unconscious signalling of practices is to be avoided.
Advantages of experimental Technique:
 Direction of casual factor is established in a most clear manner
 Absolute cost is relatively lesser than other methods.
 Preferences of experimental methods
 Replication for confirmation of results is possible.
 Experimental method helps in unraveling multivariate cases; factors of the two closely
related variables which are independent variables causing variation in the dependent
variable.
 One can trace the extent to which change is made by the factor responsible for the change
by keeping the other variable constant.
 There is flexibility in the arrangements of the parameters and variation in the variables.

Disadvantages of the experimental Technique:

 Lack of reality between analogy and the real world.

 Some experiments may pose danger, for example, a control on a national economy.
D. Statistical Technique: In order to establish and effect relationship in social science
research, there is need for a more precise and objective method of analysis. For this statistical
technique is the answer. This technique supersedes more speculations and qualitative
impressions. The two senses in which statistics is used are the numerical data and statistical
methods; the later is used extensively in social science research. The statistical technique
means the presentation, tabulation and interpretation of data.

Thus, Statistics is defined as the “science of collecting, classifying, measuring and

evaluation of facts as a basis for drawing inferences”, the inductive or empirical
approaches in research use statistics for reasoning process from the particular to general and
this type of reasoning contrasts sharply from the deductive logic.
The two chief characteristics of statistical method are that it is an aggregative study, that is,
many cases are studied simultaneously not one single individual. The second characteristics
are that it is quantitative study by giving information in quantitative terms.
Functions of statistical techniques:
 Collection of data.
 Description of phenomenon and its objective estimation, in case, even if there are
subjective attributes they are given objectivity with the help of sealing technique.
 It ascertains trends and provides future estimation.
 It helps in comparative study and provides future estimation.
 It helps in comparative study of two populations.
 It also helps in ascertaining and measuring the degree of relationships in two variables,
example of a technique is found in co-efficient of co-relation analysis.

Basis of statistical analysis:

 The law of statistical regularity. An example is found in the study of social and
economic phenomenon, which are complex one the researcher can find the relationship
between two variables and then study the trend thus he gets direction in which the
phenomenon is moving.

 Inertia of large number. A large number of observations is required in this technique

which is done by selecting the size of the sample, taken from a population, which should
be adequate and representative.
Steps in statistical research:
 Collection of data. The data is collected with the help of schedule or questionnaire by the
survey method or statistical method.
 Processing of data. The raw data is converted into percentage, ratios, co- efficient etc,
for tabulation or for study drawing inferences.
 For comparison and establishment of relationship-statistics are requiredt like co-relation,
regression analysis, production function , ‘t’ and F tests etc. that the relationship between
variables and thus comparison could be made.
 The results are presented by drawing inferences from the analysis of data.
Advantages of statistical method:

 It is the most helpful technique in the economic analysis, for example, demand and supply
analysis as it has become very important tops of analysis.
  The economists help the banking institutions, planners, the State bodies, by using the
statistical technique in solutions of the problems.
 Social researchers give tangible results using this technique
Limitations of Statistical technique:

 Generally, qualitative phenomenon cannot be studies with the help of this technique.
 Through this technique only a cross section of the population is studied, therefore, it
cannot reveal the entire story.
 Interested parties can make the misuse of this technique for getting results in their interest
through manipulation of data.
E. Historical Technique: The significance of the historical method in research is
supported by the quotation from Pauline Young’s book, “though today is different from
yesterday, it was shaped by yesterday, today and yesterday might probably influence
tomorrow, “Historical method of study is generally concrete, for, in dealing the process of
growth the interaction of the different elements of social life on one another cannot be over
looked.
Past records are first understood, they help in discovering facts, one gets insight into the
auther’s life and finally makes generalization. This will enable development hypothesis and
draw conclusions from them.
The study of economics might lose sight of what the past thinkers have contributed without
the in depth study of the history of economic thought. Historical method is the recognition of
the development of economic life, and its consequent emphasis on dynamical, distinguished
from the purely static elements in industrial and commercial organization.
The study of business cycle by Wesley Mithchell probes into the history of economic
development is the result of historical studies.
As a scientific method, historical research helps in formulating the hypothesis by stabling
authority from critical study of historical evidences; historical observations which may be
both qualitative and quantitative and conclusions are reached through the principles of
probability.
The non-scientific nature of historical method are due to unplanned nature of the events, lack
of authority, incomplete evidence, manipulation in drawing conclusions and the significant
variables cannot be manipulated.
Sources of historical data:
 Primary sources. These include eye- witness, letters, personal diaries, official records,
literary and philosophical writings, auto-biographies, archaeological records, etc.
 Secondary sources. Bio-graphics, text books, journal articles, newspapers, encyclopaedias,
dictionaries etc.
 Types of documentary studies: These are biographies of eminent personalities. Whos’
whos, history of an institution, national and international libraries, achieves history of
organizations. In India National Archives, Libraries of the Central and State Governments,
Public libraries, Private collections and many more sources are important places from
where one can get authoritative and reliable information.
Limitation of historical research:
 History cannot be written life size.
 Subjectivity creeps in-a very lively example could be found in the current controversy
regarding the revision of text books of history as proposed by the National Democratic
Alliance government which has been labelled as saffronization.
 All happenings cannot be known at the time of writing.
 Impression less reporting of historical events.
F. Projective Technique: Sometimes important information remains unrevealed because
either the respondent is unable to tell or does not want to tell. Under the circumstances, they
are stimulated by creating a situation where in the respondent feels free and can directly reveal
knowledge about himself and the social world around him. Projective method is thus defined,
it involves the presentation of a simulative situation designed or chosen because it will mean
to the subject not what the experimenter has already decided, but rather what it would mean to
the personality who gives his or her private idiosyncratic (mental constitution or feelings) or
of the organization.
Major Projective Technique:

 Verbal technique. In this a number of words are given and the first thought associated
with each word is asked. This is also known as word association. This technique is used
in marketing research.

 Association. Here a picture, cartoon, ink blot etc. are shown to the respondent and he is
asked what does he means by that.

 Completion test. Respondent is asked to complete an incomplete sentence, for example,

my great joy is……

 Role playing, the respondents are asked to play the role given to him or her. The
researcher then observes the existence or no-existence of fear, hospitality, frustration,
dominance, insecurity, sympathy, prejudices etc.

 Constructive. The respondent or subject is asked to make clay models, painting, play
with dolls, draw or write. This will reveal a deep seated feeling of the respondent.

 Tomkin’s picture arrangement test. The respondent is given twenty-five plates each
containing three sketches. The subject is asked to arrange them in most reasonable
sequences and the responses are interpreted for personality, conformity, social orientation,
optimism or pessimism.

 Work orientation; psycho-dramic and socio-metric technique. The subject is asked to

play the role of himself or somebody else’s known as psychodrama or socio-drama
respectively and this creates an insight into his attitude.

Reason behind the use of the Projective technique:

  The subject finds it easier to express himself.
 It solves the problems of validation because the respondent describes his feelings and
attitudes.
 It gives extensive information over that of the schedules or questionnaires.
G. Inter-disciplinary Approach: We are living in the era of specialization; therefore, the
experts of one subject cannot study the problem in depth to find out the solution. The project
which involves different disciplines must have experts from the respective fields and hence
the research approach is termed as inter-disciplinary. For an inter-disciplinary project, there
must be a common objective to make to project of a utilitarian nature which tries to find a
solution to an immediate problem in a co-operative spirit of the scientists from different
disciplines.

Steps in the process of inter-disciplinary approach:

 Formulation of a definite plan.

 Selection of personnel’s.
 Co-operative performance till the end of the project.

The approach to the project would be:

 The selection of a co-ordinator from amongst the social scientists

 A common programme is checked out.
 The experts of different disciplines take the problem from his own field.
 Periodic meetings should be held to take an account of the works performed and discuss
matters of concern.
 If there is any need for modification, there must be flexibility to accommodate the required
change.
 The findings are co-ordinated and interpreted.
Merits:

 It is the study of a phenomenon as a unified whole the avoids the defects of segmental
approach.
 Dangers of biases and overspecialization are averted.
 The immediate problem gets solved and gives a tangible result for the utilitarian purposes
 Co-operative efficiency of different disciplines is made known.
 The co-operation and sympathy for creative activity is sought.
Demerits:
 The experts of different disciplines have their own approach which makes a complete co-
ordination difficult.

 At times the study becomes haphazard and unfocussed.