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18 Prokaryote and Eukaryote Cells

Key Idea: Cells are classified as either prokaryotic or size and organization. Prokaryotic cells (all bacteria and
eukaryotic and are distinguished on the basis of their size, archaea) are small, single cells with a simple internal
internal organization, and complexity. structure. Eukaryotic cells are larger, more complex cells. All
Cells are divided into two broad groups based on their multicellular and some unicellular organisms are eukaryotic.

Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells
▶ Eukaryotic cells are large (30-150 µm). They may exist
▶ Prokaryotic cells are small (~0.5-10 µm) single
as single cells or as part of a multicellular organism.
cells.
▶ Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles,
▶ They lack any membrane-bound organelles.
e.g. mitochondria and (photosynthetic organisms)
▶ They are relatively basic cells and have chloroplasts.
very little cellular organization. Their DNA,
▶ Eukaryotic cells are complex and have a membrane-
ribosomes, and enzymes are free floating within
bound nucleus.
the cell cytoplasm.
▶ Ribosomes (80S) are larger than in prokaryotes,
▶ The ribosomes (70S) are smaller than
except those in mitochondria and chloroplasts, which
eukaryotic ribosomes.
are 70S.
▶ Photosynthetic bacteria have enzymes and light
▶ Photosynthesis occurs only in chloroplast organelles.
capturing membranes.
▶ Multiple linear chromosomes consisting of DNA and
▶ Single, circular chromosome of naked DNA.
associated proteins.
▶ Prokaryotes have cell walls, but it is different
from the cell walls that some eukaryotes have.
Chromosomes Nuclear membrane
contained in present.
Simple cell structure (limited nucleus.
Nuclear membrane absent. organization).
Single, naked chromosome
is free in cytoplasm within a
nucleoid region.

Membrane-bound
organelles are absent.

Nucleoid region (pale).

Free 70S ribosomes in cytoplasm.

Peptidoglycan
cell wall.
Presence of Complex cell structure (high degree
membrane- of organization).
bound
organelles.
Example prokaryote - E.coli. Example eukaryote - plant palisade mesophyll

1. Describe cellular features that enable the identification of a prokaryote cell from a micrograph:

Prokaryotic cells are small (~0.5-10 µm) single cells. They lack any membrane-bound organelles.They are
relatively basic cells and have very little cellular organization. Their DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes are
free floating within the cell cytoplasm.

2. Describe cellular features that enable the identification of a eukaryote cell from a micrograph:
Eukaryotic cells are large (30-150 µm). They may exist as single cells or as part of a multicellular
organism. Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles, e.g. mitochondria and (photosynthetic
organisms) chloroplasts. Eukaryotic cells are complex and have a membrane-bound nucleus.
3. Draw a scientific diagram of a prokaryote cell based off the micrograph, above left. Include the following labels;
nucleoid region, cell wall, and cytoplasm, and annotate the diagram with the function of each structure. Attach the
diagram to this page.

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20 Eukaryotic Cell Structures

Key Idea: Eukaryotic cells have many features in common. and structure. Some specialized cells, e.g. erythrocytes,
However, there are several differences between plant, have lost many cell components in order to maximize the
animal and fungal cells. Some specialized cells have atypical cell’s capacity to carry oxygen. Other specialized cells,
structures. such as aseptate fungal hyphae and skeletal muscle fibres
Animal cells, unlike plant cells, do not have a regular shape. have lost their individuality and become fused to become
In fact, some animal cells, such as phagocytes, are able to multinucleated cells. Sieve tube elements in plant cells lose
alter their shape for various purposes, e.g. engulfing foreign their nuclei in development to maximize their capacity for
material. Plant and fungal cells have a cell wall, giving rigidity transport of substances through the plant.

Generic animal cell Generic plant cell Generic fungal cell

Vacuole
Yeast cell bud scar

Centriole Chloroplasts Cell wall

Other plastids
(here, an
amyloplast storing
starch granules)

Animal cell components Plant cell components Fungi cell components

` Cell wall - not present. ` Cell wall - composed of cellulose. ` Cell wall - composed of chitin.
` Vacuole - small and temporary. Used ` Vacuole - large and permanent. Maintains ` Vacuole- large and permanent.
to expel waste products from cells. turgor pressure for cell rigidity. Maintains turgor pressure to assist in
` Chloroplasts not present. ` Chloroplasts - yes, many or few, cell rigidity.

` Other plastids - not present. depending on the type of cell. ` Chloroplasts - not present.

` Centrioles - composed of a protein ` Other plastids - double membraned ` Other plastids - not present.
called tubulin. Used in spindle fibre structures for manufacturing/storing food. ` Centrioles - not present (except for a
formation during cell division. Amyloplasts store starch. Leucoplasts (in few exceptions).
root cells) can synthesize fatty acids and
` Cilia/flagella - yes, in some cells but
some amino acids.
` Cilia/flagella - not present in true
not shown in above image. Found fungi. An exception is the primitive
in sperm cells to provide motility ` Centrioles - found in lower plants but fungi, Cryptomycota, which
and in mucosal membrane cells, to absent from conifers/ flowering plants. possesses a flagellum but no cell
help move mucus that can contain ` Cilia/flagella - found in lower plants but wall.
pathogens, out of the body. absent from conifers and flowering plants.

1. What is the difference between vacuoles in plant and animal cells?

In animal cells, vacuoles are small and temporary. Used to expel waste products from cells. While in the plant
cells, vacuoles are large and permanent. Maintains turgor pressure for cell rigidity.

2. Both plant and fungal cells have a cell wall. What would indicate that the structure evolved independently in each?

The composition of their cell walls: in plant cells are cellulose composed and in fungi cells are chitin composed.

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Atypical eukaryotic cells

While eukaryotic cells have much in common, some cells, as they differentiate, change to suit their specialist roles. The resulting
changes in structure make them look quite different in appearance from the ‘generic’ models of eukaryotic cells described
previously. The number of nuclei in some specialized cells can be used as examples of their deviation from the generic structure.
Some specialized cells with atypical nuclei are: erythrocytes (red blood cells), skeletal muscle cells, phloem sieve tube elements in
plants, and aseptate fungal hyphae.

red blood cells

Eli

Fungal hyphae form a dense network of filamentous cells that can Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are adapted for their specialized
cover vast areas, especially in rotting wood, or in the soil. These role in transporting oxygen around the body. They have no nucleus
are the blue filaments visible in the above photo. The long cells and the cytoplasm of each erythrocyte typically contains around
can be divided by septae, which separate them into individual 270 million molecules of haemoglobin, each made up of four haem
cells. However, the cells can also be aseptate (without septae) groups. This makes them very efficient oxygen transporters. By
and form a long, continuous cell body with many nuclei present losing space in the cell normally used up by other organelles,
along the length of the filament. space has been maximized for carrying haemoglobin.
BCC Bioscience Image Library cc0

Sieve tubes in plants are made up of sieve elements. These Skeletal muscle fibres are composed of long, specialized
long, continuous cells, divided by sieve plates are responsible for cells. During myogenesis (the formation of muscle cells during
the transport of sugars around the plant. During development, embryonic development), the individual cells fuse to form
these cells lose their nuclei and other organelles to maximize the continuous cells with many nuclei distributed along the entire
space available for their specialized role. Companion cells, which length. A single muscle fibre can have thousands of nuclei. The
sit alongside the sieve elements, allow for exchange of ions, multiple nuclei provide the cell with all of the enzymes and other
metabolites, RNA and other proteins. proteins required for optimal functioning.

3. Which cell and tissue types from above have lost their nuclei, and what advantage does that adaptation present?
Sieve tube during development, these cells lose their nuclei and other organelles to maximize the space available for their specialized
role. Companion cells, which sit alongside the sieve elements, allow for exchange of ions, metabolites, RNA and other proteins.

Erythocytes have no nucleus and the cytoplasm of each erythrocyte typically contains around 270 million molecules of haemoglobin,
each made up of four haem groups. This makes them very efficient oxygen transporters. By losing space in the cell normally used up
by other organelles, space has been maximized for carrying haemoglobin.

4. Why would large, fused cells (e.g. skeletal muscle fibres and fungal hyphae) have multiple nuclei?

The multiple nuclei provide the cell with all of the enzymes and other proteins required for optimal
functioning.

5. Summarize how we know that plant, animal, and fungi are all eukaryotes, rather than prokaryotes:

We know plants, animals, and fungi are all eukaryotes because they have key cellular features that prokaryotes
do not have: a true nucleus, organelles only found in eukaryote cells like mitochondria or the golgi apparatus, a
bigger size.

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23 Endosymbiosis Theory
20
Key Idea: The origin of complexity in eukaryotic cells can be
explained by endosymbiosis theory.
the cells they engulfed. The two organelles that evolved in
eukaryotic cells as a result of bacterial endosymbiosis were
Endosymbiosis theory (from endo: internal; symbiosis: mitochondria for aerobic respiration, and chloroplasts for
relationship) is used to explain the evolution of eukaryotic photosynthesis in aerobic conditions. Primitive eukaryotes
cells by the engulfment of prokaryotic cells in early common probably acquired mitochondria by engulfing purple bacteria.
ancestors. It is thought that eukaryotic cells evolved from Similarly, chloroplasts may have been acquired by engulfing
pre-eukaryotic (bacterial) cells that ingested other free- photosynthetic cyanobacteria. Other organelles may have
living bacteria. They formed a symbiotic relationship with formed from infolding of the plasma membrane.

Evolution of eukaryotic cells

Photosynthetic
cyanobacterium engulfed.

Developing
Original pre- nucleus
eukaryotic cell Chloroplast

Infolding
membrane Mitochondrion

Internal membranes, Plant cell and

including the endoplasmic some protists.
reticulum, are formed by
infoldings of the plasma Aerobically respiring
membrane. purple bacteria engulfed.
Animal cell, fungi,
and some protists.

Evidence for the endosymbiosis theory:

Many observations about cells are supported by endosymbiosis theory. Multiple streams of evidence strengthen the theory
and include:

▶ Mitochondria and chloroplasts have a similar morphology (structure) to bacteria.

▶ Mitochondria and chloroplasts divide by binary fission, splitting in half to form new organelles just like bacteria. Thus,
new mitochondria and chloroplasts arise from pre-existing ones; they are not manufactured by the cell.
▶ Both mitochondria and chloroplasts have a chemically distinct inner membrane. The outer membrane is similar to the
plasma membrane (as if a vesicle formed around the engulfed cell) but the inner membrane is similar to the bacterial
membrane.
▶ Bacterial DNA is a single circular molecule. Mitochondria and chloroplasts also have their own, single, circular DNA. Like
bacterial DNA, this DNA has no intervening, non-protein-coding regions or associated proteins. Also, the organelle DNA
mutates at a different rate from the nuclear DNA.
▶ Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain ribosomes that are more similar in size (70S) to bacterial ribosomes than
ribosomes in the cytoplasm (80S).
▶ Antibiotics that inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria also inhibit protein synthesis in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
▶ Analysis of chloroplast DNA has shown that they are related to cyanobacteria.

1. How do the 70S ribosomes in mitochondria and chloroplast provide evidence for the endosymbiosis theory?

Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain ribosomes that are more similar in size (70S) to bacterial
ribosomes than ribosomes in the cytoplasm (80S).

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86 Compartmentalization in Cells
Key Idea: Eukaryotic cells use organelles to compartmentalize organelles, which contain and regulate certain operations.
specific functions which increases the cell’s efficiency. This increases the cell's overall efficiency because specific
Cellular organelles are adapted to perform one or more areas are focused on specific tasks. Like the plasma
functions in the cell. In eukaryotic cells, some organelles are membrane, the membranes of organelles control entry and
bound by a double membrane. These include mitochondria, exit of materials to and from their compartments. Membranes
nuclei and, in plants, chloroplasts. Other organelles are bound also allow attachment of proteins for specific tasks and
by a single membrane. These include the Golgi apparatus, help create chemical gradients to power the biochemical
endoplasmic reticulum, and vesicles. Ribosomes have no reactions necessary to sustain life.
membrane. Membranes allow compartmentalization into

Compartments and processes in an animal cell

Cellular respiration Protein synthesis Transport in and out
of the cell
mitochondria nucleus, rough endoplasmic reticulum, free
Glucose is broken down, ribosomes plasma membrane
supplying the cell with Genetic information in the nucleus is translated Diffusion and active transport
energy to carry out the into proteins by attached or free ribosomes. mechanisms move substances
many other reactions across the plasma membrane.
involved in metabolism.

Containment of
damaging oxidative
reactions
peroxisomes
Isolate damaging oxidation Structural elements
reactions, such as beta of the cell, including
oxidation. Peroxisomes are the cytoplasm and
derived from the cytoskeleton are not
endoplasmic reticulum. considered organelles.

Secretion
Cell division
Golgi apparatus, plasma Cytosis
Breakdown nucleus, centrioles
membrane
plasma membrane, vacuoles Centrioles are microtubular
The Golgi produces secretory lysosomes
Material can be engulfed to bring structures involved in key
vesicles (small membrane- Contain hydrolytic
it into the cell (endocytosis) stages of cell division. They
bound sacs) that are used to enzymes to destroy
or the plasma membrane can are part of a larger organelle
modify and move substances unwanted cell organelles
fuse with secretory vesicles to called the centrosome.
around and export them and foreign material.
expel substances from the cell
from the cell, e.g. hormones, Lysosomes are derived
(exocytosis). In animal cells,
digestive enzymes. from the Golgi.
cytosis may involve vacuoles.

Plant cells carry out photosynthesis

Chloroplasts capture light

energy and convert it into useful
chemical energy (as sugars).

Plant cell Chloroplast

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Membranes allow compartmentalization of reactions and processes

▶ Membranes play an important role in separating regions within the cell (and within organelles) where particular reactions occur.
Specific enzymes are therefore often located in particular organelles. The reaction rate is controlled by regulating the rate at
which substrates enter the organelle and therefore the availability of the raw materials required for the reactions.
▶ Nucleus and cytoplasm separation: The nucleus acts as a distinct region of biochemical reactions, including transcription of
DNA into RNA. While the RNA is still within the nucleus, post-transcriptional modification occurs, removing segments of RNA
that are not required as proteins, and stabilizing mRNA prior to translation by the ribosomes. Prokaryotes have no nucleus,
therefore any post-transcriptional modification must occur in the cytoplasm.
▶ Process separation: The membrane around the organelles allows for a concentration of metabolites and enzymes required
for particular processes, where they are moved across the membrane and contained. The increased surface area of the
internal membrane facilitates reactions. Harmful substances, often a by-product of metabolic reactions, can be contained by
membranes, and removed from the cells by vesicles.

Itayba CC 3.0

The nucleus is surrounded by a double- The Golgi apparatus (green) is a The inner membrane of a mitochondrion
membrane structure called the nuclear specialized membrane-bound organelle provides attachments for enzymes
envelope, which forms a separate that compartmentalizes the modification, involved in cellular respiration. It allows ion
compartment containing the cell's genetic packing, and secretion of substances gradients to be produced that can be used
material (DNA). such as proteins and hormones. in the production of ATP.

1. Select one cellular process from the previous page and summarize how the role of the organelles contribute to it:

Cellular respiration - mitochondria. Mitochondria are essential for producing ATP during aerobic respiration.

2. Identify two examples of intracellular membranes and describe their functions:

(a) Mitochondria inner membrane: Contains the electron transport chain (ETC) and ATP synthase.Creates a proton gradient by
separating the matrix from the intermembrane space. Drives ATP production through chemiosmosis during aerobic respiration.

(b) Endoplasmic reticulum membrane: Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and modification.
Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage.
The membrane provides a large surface area for these processes and helps transport molecules within the cell.

3. Explain how compartmentalization within the cell is achieved and how it contributes to functional efficiency:

Cells achieve compartmentalization using internal membranes, and this: keeps reactions organized, makes processes faster
and more efficient, and helps maintain different environments for different functions.

4. Explain how compartmentalization has enabled the evolution of larger cells:

As cells got larger, they faced challenges like:

Slower diffusion of molecules

Difficulty in coordinating all cell processes

Greater metabolic demands

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89 The Nucleus and Endoplasmic Reticulum

Key Idea: The nucleus and the ribosomes are organelles and the ribosomes. Free ribosomes translate the mRNA into
have adaptations that allow them to perform their role in proteins retained by the cell, whereas ribosomes attached
protein synthesis, mitosis, or meiosis. to the endoplasmic reticulum synthesize protein that is then
The nucleus is found in all eukaryotic cells and is a transported around and out of the cell. During mitosis and
compartmentalized organelle with a double membrane. The meiosis, the nuclear membrane needs to break down to allow
nuclear membrane must allow mRNA transcripted from the replicated chromosomes to move into newly forming cells or
contained DNA to be transported, via nuclear pores, towards gametes, and then reform around them.

Double membrane of the nucleus

▶ The nucleus has a double membrane: an inner and outer. The outer membrane also forms the nearest part of the endoplasmic
reticulum. The membrane compartmentalizes the nucleus, and prevents cytoplasm, and its contents, from contacting the
genetic material. This allows the different biochemical reactions that occur in the nucleus and cytoplasm to remain separate.
▶ The nuclear pores allow the transcripted mRNA to move out of the nucleus and towards the ribosomes. The mRNA transport is
controlled by exporter proteins, exportin (exportin-t in vertebrates), which attach to the mRNA and then releases it once it has
travelled through the nuclear pore.
▶ During mitosis and meiosis, DNA replication increases the number of chromosomes: identical sets for mitosis, and sets with
variation for meiosis. In higher eukaryotes, prior to this process, the nuclear membrane breaks down into vesicles, and the
nuclear pore proteins dissociate so all the nucleus contents are released into the cytoplasm. Once the chromosomes have
shifted into their new cells or gametes, the nuclear membrane reforms from replicated endoplasmic reticulum around the
chromosomes. In some unicellular eukaryotes, such as yeast, the nuclear membrane remains intact throughout (closed) mitosis.

Ribosomes Membrane bound Nuclear pores (complex composed

ribosomes of 50-100 different proteins)
▶ Ribosomes are organelles
Free ribosomes Double
without membranes. They are
composed of RNA and other membrane
proteins, and are located both
free in the cell cytoplasm,
and attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
▶ Their key function is
translation of the mRNA
(protein synthesis) into a
polypeptide (amino acid
chain). This is later modified
into a functional protein.
▶ The free ribosomes synthesize
protein for use within the cell.
The ribosomes bound to the
rough endoplasmic reticulum
synthesize protein that is
either integrated into the cell
membrane, or transported out of Endoplasmic
the cell to be used elsewhere. reticulum (rough)

Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth)

1. Why is it important that the nucleus is compartmentalized from the cytosol, the aqueous contents of the cytoplasm?

The nucleus has a double membrane: an inner and outer. The outer membrane also forms the nearest part of the endoplasmic
reticulum. The membrane compartmentalizes the nucleus, and prevents cytoplasm, and its contents, from contacting the
genetic material. This allows the different biochemical reactions that occur in the nucleus and cytoplasm to remain separate.

2. Why does the nuclear membrane break down and then re-form during the prophase stage of mitosis and meiosis?

During mitosis and meiosis, DNA replication increases the number of chromosomes: identical sets for mitosis, and sets with
variation for meiosis. In higher eukaryotes, prior to this process, the nuclear membrane breaks down into vesicles, and the
nuclear pore proteins dissociate so all the nucleus contents are released into the cytoplasm.

3. Compare and contrast the location and function of free ribosomes and bound ribosomes:

The free ribosomes synthesize protein for use within the cell. The ribosomes bound to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum synthesize protein that is either integrated into the cell membrane, or
transported out of the cell to be used elsewhere.

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87 Techniques in Cellular Visualization

Key Idea: Technology has enabled cellular components to be better understanding of processes that were previously
studied at a greater depth. uncertain. Technology, including the use of centrifuges
Technology and science are closely linked: new and cell fractionation, has allowed researchers to
understanding and research in science can lead to new separate the cellular components and organelles from
technology being designed. Likewise, the development the cell, divide them into specific organelle types and
of new technology and its use by scientists results in a then collect them for study.

Ultracentrifugation and fractionation

Low-speed Medium-speed High-speed Very high-speed

centrifugation
centrifugation centrifugation centrifugation

Cell
homogenate

Closed
Whole cells, Mitochondria, fragments of
nuclei, lysosomes, endoplasmic
cytoskeletons peroxisomes Ribosomes
reticulum, small
vesicles

Differential centrifugation involves test tubes containing a homogenate solution of free floating organelles from broken cells
being spun at progressively higher speeds to separate cell components on the basis of their size and density.

Centrifugation Fractionation Collection

Drop collection

Slow
Sample in sedimenting
stabilizing component
sucrose
gradient
Fast
sedimenting
component
Collection direction
Pierced
centrifuge tube

Once cellular components have been centrifuged, the denser components (faster sedimenting) settle lower down the test
tube, and the less dense are higher up (slow sedimenting). This fractionates different cellular components based on their
density. These are then separated into different tubes by drop collection.

1. Explain the purpose of ultracentrifugation:

Ultracentrifugation is used to separate different components of a cell by spinning them at very high speeds. The goal is to break
open the cells and then isolate organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes.

2. How does the property of density allow for collection of components by fractionation?

Different cell components have different densities. When the cell mixture is spun in the ultracentrifuge:
Heavier (more dense) components (like the nucleus) settle first at the bottom.
Lighter components (like ribosomes) stay near the top or form layers (fractions) at different levels.

3. Research another example of new technology leading to further cellular scientific discovery. Summarize your findings:

Cryo-Electron Microscopy (Cryo-EM) is a powerful imaging technology where cells and proteins are frozen very rapidly and then
visualized using electron beams. Revealed the detailed 3D structure of tiny cell components like ribosomes, viruses, and protein
complexes. Scientists could see proteins in action at near-atomic resolution, which wasn ’t possible before.

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88 Adaptations in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Key Idea: Mitochondria and chloroplasts are cellular storage molecule of cells. They are compartmentalized,
organelles that have adapted to carry out the process of with a double membrane, providing an increased surface
cellular respiration and photosynthesis, respectively. area for respiration reactions to occur. Chloroplasts are the
Chloroplasts and mitochondria are organelles involved in the organelles responsible for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts have
production of energy storage molecules in cells. Both are an internal structure characterized by a system of thylakoid
membranous organelles in which specialized biochemical membranous structures with bound light-capturing pigments.
reactions occur. Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells These absorb light of specific wavelengths, capturing light
and some protists, whereas mitochondria are found in all energy, which is then used to fix carbon into carbohydrates.
eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria contain proteins (including Enzymes and substrates are compartmentalized within the
ATP synthase) involved in the production of ATP, the energy stroma, where the Calvin cycle occurs.

Adaptations in mitochondrion Mitochondria are much smaller than

chloroplasts, ranging from about 0.75 to 3 µm.
The space enclosed by the
The inward foldings are called inner membrane is called the
cristae. Due to invagination (folding matrix. It contains enzymes and
in), they form a large surface area a pH stabilized solution to allow
for reactions to occur. The electron the Krebs cycle (part of cellular
transport chain and ATP synthesis respiration) to
occur on the inner membrane, occur effectively.
catalyzed by the enzyme
ATP synthase.

Intermembrane space is small and allows a

difference in proton concentration to accumulate
on either side of the inner membrane. This is used
to drive ATP synthesis.

Mitochondria are enclosed by a double Like chloroplasts, mitochondria

membrane envelope (inner and outer have their own circular DNA
membrane). The inner membrane is (plasmids), containing their own
highly folded. Pyruvate moves from the 70S ribosomes (similar to
cytoplasm into the mitochondria through bacterial ribosomes).
the membrane.

ATP is produced in the

mitochondria. It is an
energy carrying molecule
used to drive chemical
reactions in the body. False color TEM showing cross-sectioned muscle
myofibrils (yellow) and many mitochondria (green).

1. What adaptations of the cristae make cellular respiration more efficient?

The inward foldings are called cristae. Due to invagination (folding in), they form
a large surface area for reactions to occur. The electron transport chain and ATP
synthesis occur on the inner membrane, catalyzed by the enzyme ATP synthase.

2. What is found in the matrix, and how do these substances contribute to cellular respiration?

The space enclosed by the inner membrane is called the matrix. It contains enzymes and a pH
stabilized solution to allow the Krebs cycle (part of cellular respiration) to occur effectively.

3. How does the intermembrane space enable ATP production during aerobic cell respiration?

Intermembrane space is small and allows a difference in proton concentration to accumulate

on either side of the inner membrane. This is used to drive ATP synthesis.

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Adaptations in chloroplasts

The internal structure of chloroplasts Liquid stroma contains the

is characterized by a system of enzymes for the light independent
membranous structures called thylakoids phase (Calvin cycle) as well as the
arranged into stacks called grana. chloroplast's DNA.

3D model of a chloroplast.
Stroma lamellae connect the
Size ranges from 4-6 µm.
grana. They account for 20%
Lipid droplet
of the thylakoid membrane.

Chloroplasts

Cell wall

Kristian Peters
A double membrane Grana are stacks of Thylakoid membranes are the Chloroplasts visible in leaf cells. They appear
envelope (inner and thylakoids. Contains site of the light absorption and green because they absorb blue and red light,
outer membrane) small pockets of provide a large surface area, reflecting green light. The chloroplasts are
encloses the chloroplast. concentrated enzymes. organized so as not to shade generally aligned so that their broad surface
each other. runs parallel to the cell wall to maximize the
False colour TEM image of a single chloroplast surface area available for light absorption.

4. Label the transmission electron microscope image of a chloroplast below:

(a) (d)
Granum Thylakoid

(b)
Stroma
(e)
(e) Intergranal lamella

(c) (c) Outer (f)

membrane Inner membrane
Image: Dartmouth College

5. Explain how the adaptations of the thylakoid membranes help absorb the maximum amount of light:
The thylakoid membranes are stacked into grana, increasing the surface area for light
absorption. They contain photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll, which are organized
into photosystems to efficiently capture and transfer light energy. This maximizes the
rate of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

6. Describe the difference in functions of the stroma and the thylakoid membranes:

Thylakoid membranes carry out the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, where

light energy is used to produce ATP and NADPH.

The stroma is the site of the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle), where CO₂ is fixed
into glucose using ATP and NADPH.

7. How does the stroma compartmentalization of enzymes and substrates assist the Calvin cycle?

The stroma keeps the necessary enzymes and substrates close together, allowing
the Calvin cycle to occur efficiently. Its compartmentalization allows optimal pH
and conditions for the cycle’s enzymes (like RuBisCO) to function.It also
separates the Calvin cycle from the light-dependent reactions, preventing
interference and maintaining efficiency.
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