Pharmaceutical Analysis Assignment
Nephelometry
Introduction
Nephelometry is an analytical technique used to measure the concentration of
suspended particles in a liquid by detecting the light scattered by the particles. It is
commonly used in clinical laboratories and pharmaceutical analysis for determining
protein levels and turbidity.
Principle
Nephelometry is based on the principle that suspended particles in a solution
scatter light. The amount of light scattered at a particular angle (usually 90°) is
proportional to the concentration of the particles present.
Instrumentation
1. Light source (usually a tungsten or laser light)
2. Sample holder (cuvette)
3. Detector placed at an angle to measure scattered light
4. Amplifier and processor to quantify signal
5. Display or output unit
Procedure
1. The sample solution is placed in a cuvette.
2. A light beam passes through the sample.
3. The suspended particles scatter the light.
4. The detector placed at 90° records the intensity of the scattered light.
5. The signal is processed to calculate the concentration.
Applications
• Quantification of proteins in biological fluids
• Measuring turbidity in water samples
• Determining immune complex levels in immunoassays
• Monitoring clarity of injectable drugs
Coulter Counter Method
Introduction
The Coulter counter is a particle analysis method used to count and size microscopic
particles suspended in electrolytes. It is widely applied in blood cell counting and
particle characterization in pharmaceutical suspensions.
Principle
The Coulter principle states that particles suspended in a conductive liquid cause a
change in electrical resistance as they pass through a small aperture. This change is
proportional to the particle size and number.
Instrumentation
1. Aperture tube with an orifice
2. Electrolyte solution
3. Electrodes on both sides of the aperture
4. Current supply
5. Amplifier and counter unit
Procedure
1. The suspension is placed in the chamber with electrolyte.
2. Particles pass one by one through the small aperture.
3. Each particle displaces electrolyte, causing a brief change in resistance.
4. The changes are amplified and recorded.
5. Data is used to determine particle count and size.
Applications
• Blood cell counting (RBCs, WBCs, platelets)
• Particle sizing in pharmaceuticals
• Quality control in industrial processes
• Counting yeast and bacteria in fermentation
Laser Beam Particle Analyzer
Introduction
Laser diffraction (or laser beam particle analysis) is a modern method used to
determine particle size distribution by analyzing the scattering pattern of a laser
beam passing through a particle sample.
Principle
When a laser beam strikes particles, they scatter light at angles inversely
proportional to their size. Smaller particles scatter light at wider angles, while larger
ones scatter at narrower angles. The scattering pattern is analyzed using
mathematical models like Mie theory.
Instrumentation
1. Laser source
2. Sample cell (dry or wet dispersion)
3. Detector array around the beam path
4. Data processor and software
Procedure
1. The sample is dispersed in a medium (air or liquid).
2. The laser beam is passed through the dispersed sample.
3. Particles scatter the light at various angles.
4. Detectors record the light intensity at different angles.
5. Data is processed to calculate particle size distribution.
Applications
• Measuring particle sizes in inhalation drugs
• Quality control in tablet manufacturing
• Analysis of emulsions and suspensions
• Research in nanotechnology and materials science
