An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the

perceptible shaking of the surface of the Earth, resulting from the

sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic
waves. Earthquakes can be violent enough to toss people around and
destroy whole cities. The seismicity or seismic activity of an area
refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over
a period of time.
Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers.
The moment magnitude is the most common scale on which
earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the entire
globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5
reported by national seismological observatories are measured mostly
on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter magnitude
scale. These two scales are numerically similar over their range of
validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or
weak and magnitude 7 and over potentially cause serious damage over
larger areas, depending on their depth. The largest earthquakes in
historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is
no limit to the possible magnitude. Intensity of shaking is measured on
the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the more
damage to structures it causes, all else being equal
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking
and sometimes displacement of the ground. When theepicenter of a
large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced
sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also trigger landslides,
and occasionally volcanic activity.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any
seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that
generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of
geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity,
landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of
initial rupture is called itsfocus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point
at ground level directly above the hypocenter.
Naturally occurring earthquakes
Fault types
Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is
sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along
a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly
and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the
fault surface that increase the frictional resistance. Most fault surfaces
do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior.
Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates
leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the
volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has
risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding
over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy.[2] This
energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic
waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock,
thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain
and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is
referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10
percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic
energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the
earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by
friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic
potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are
negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out
from the Earth's deep interior.[3]
Earthquake fault types
Main article: Fault (geology)
There are three main types of fault, all of which may cause an interplate
earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse
faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault
is in the direction of dip and movement on them involves a vertical
component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is
being extended such as a divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in
areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent
boundary. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of
the fault slip horizontally past each other; transform boundaries are a
particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by
movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-
slip; this is known as oblique slip.
Reverse faults, particularly those along convergent plate boundaries are
associated with the most powerful earthquakes, megathrust
earthquakes, including almost all of those of magnitude 8 or more.
Strike-slip faults, particularly continental transforms, can produce major
earthquakes up to about magnitude 8. Earthquakes associated with
normal faults are generally less than magnitude 7. For every unit
increase in magnitude, there is a roughly thirtyfold increase in the
energy released. For instance, an earthquake of magnitude 6.0
releases approximately 30 times more energy than a 5.0 magnitude
earthquake and a 7.0 magnitude earthquake releases 900 times (30 ×
30) more energy than a 5.0 magnitude of earthquake. An 8.6 magnitude
earthquake releases the same amount of energy as 10,000 atomic
bombs like those used in World War II.[4]
This is so because the energy released in an earthquake, and thus its
magnitude, is proportional to the area of the fault that ruptures [5] and the
stress drop. Therefore, the longer the length and the wider the width of
the faulted area, the larger the resulting magnitude. The topmost, brittle
part of the Earth's crust, and the cool slabs of the tectonic plates that
are descending down into the hot mantle, are the only parts of our
planet which can store elastic energy and release it in fault ruptures.
Rocks hotter than about 300 degrees Celsius flow in response to stress;
they do not rupture in earthquakes.[6][7] The maximum observed lengths
of ruptures and mapped faults (which may break in a single rupture) are
approximately 1000 km. Examples are the earthquakes in Chile,
1960; Alaska, 1957; Sumatra, 2004, all in subduction zones. The
longest earthquake ruptures on strike-slip faults, like the San Andreas
Fault (1857, 1906), the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey (1939) and
the Denali Fault in Alaska (2002), are about half to one third as long as
the lengths along subducting plate margins, and those along normal
faults are even shorter.

Aerial photo of the San Andreas Fault in the Carrizo Plain, northwest of
Los Angeles
The most important parameter controlling the maximum earthquake
magnitude on a fault is however not the maximum available length, but
the available width because the latter varies by a factor of 20. Along
converging plate margins, the dip angle of the rupture plane is very
shallow, typically about 10 degrees.[8] Thus the width of the plane within
the top brittle crust of the Earth can become 50 to 100 km (Japan,
2011; Alaska, 1964), making the most powerful earthquakes possible.
Strike-slip faults tend to be oriented near vertically, resulting in an
approximate width of 10 km within the brittle crust,[9] thus earthquakes
with magnitudes much larger than 8 are not possible. Maximum
magnitudes along many normal faults are even more limited because
many of them are located along spreading centers, as in Iceland, where
the thickness of the brittle layer is only about 6 km.[10][11]
In addition, there exists a hierarchy of stress level in the three fault
types. Thrust faults are generated by the highest, strike slip by
intermediate, and normal faults by the lowest stress levels. [12] This can
easily be understood by considering the direction of the greatest
principal stress, the direction of the force that 'pushes' the rock mass
during the faulting. In the case of normal faults, the rock mass is pushed
down in a vertical direction, thus the pushing force (greatest principal
stress) equals the weight of the rock mass itself. In the case of
thrusting, the rock mass 'escapes' in the direction of the least principal
stress, namely upward, lifting the rock mass up, thus the overburden
equals the least principal stress. Strike-slip faulting is intermediate
between the other two types described above. This difference in stress
regime in the three faulting environments can contribute to differences
in stress drop during faulting, which contributes to differences in the
radiated energy, regardless of fault dimensions.
Earthquakes away from plate boundaries
Main article: Intraplate earthquake
Where plate boundaries occur within the continental lithosphere,
deformation is spread out over a much larger area than the plate
boundary itself. In the case of the San Andreas fault continental
transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and
are related to strains developed within the broader zone of deformation
caused by major irregularities in the fault trace (e.g., the "Big bend"
region). The Northridge earthquake was associated with movement on
a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly
oblique convergent plate boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian
plates where it runs through the northwestern part of the Zagros
Mountains. The deformation associated with this plate boundary is
partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to
the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-
slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate
boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquake focal mechanisms.
[13]

All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions
with neighboring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e.g.
deglaciation).[14] These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along
existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes.[15]
Shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes
Main article: Depth of focus (tectonics)
Collapsed Gran Hotel building in the San Salvador metropolis, after the
shallow 1986 San Salvador earthquake.
The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in
depths not exceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a
depth of less than 70 km are classified as 'shallow-focus' earthquakes,
while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300 km are commonly
termed 'mid-focus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes. In subduction
zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another
tectonic plate, Deep-focus earthquakes may occur at much greater
depths (ranging from 300 up to 700 kilometers).[16]These seismically
active areas of subduction are known as Wadati–Benioff zones. Deep-
focus earthquakes occur at a depth where the
subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high
temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of
deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine undergoing
a phase transition into a spinel structure.[17]
Earthquakes and volcanic activity
Main article: Volcano tectonic earthquake
Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both
by tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes. Such
earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, as
during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.[18] Earthquake swarms
can serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout
the volcanoes. These swarms can be recorded by seismometers
and tiltmeters (a device that measures ground slope) and used as
sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions.[19]
Rupture dynamics
A tectonic earthquake begins by an initial rupture at a point on the fault
surface, a process known as nucleation. The scale of the nucleation
zone is uncertain, with some evidence, such as the rupture dimensions
of the smallest earthquakes, suggesting that it is smaller than 100 m
while other evidence, such as a slow component revealed by low-
frequency spectra of some earthquakes, suggest that it is larger. The
possibility that the nucleation involves some sort of preparation process
is supported by the observation that about 40% of earthquakes are
preceded by foreshocks. Once the rupture has initiated, it begins to
propagate along the fault surface. The mechanics of this process are
poorly understood, partly because it is difficult to recreate the high
sliding velocities in a laboratory. Also the effects of strong ground
motion make it very difficult to record information close to a nucleation
zone.[20]
Rupture propagation is generally modeled using a fracture
mechanics approach, likening the rupture to a propagating mixed mode
shear crack. The rupture velocity is a function of the fracture energy in
the volume around the crack tip, increasing with decreasing fracture
energy. The velocity of rupture propagation is orders of magnitude
faster than the displacement velocity across the fault. Earthquake
ruptures typically propagate at velocities that are in the range 70–90%
of the S-wave velocity, and this is independent of earthquake size. A
small subset of earthquake ruptures appear to have propagated at
speeds greater than the S-wave velocity. These supershear
earthquakes have all been observed during large strike-slip events. The
unusually wide zone of coseismic damage caused by the 2001 Kunlun
earthquake has been attributed to the effects of the sonic
boom developed in such earthquakes. Some earthquake ruptures travel
at unusually low velocities and are referred to as slow earthquakes. A
particularly dangerous form of slow earthquake is the tsunami
earthquake, observed where the relatively low felt intensities, caused by
the slow propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert the
population of the neighboring coast, as in the 1896 Sanriku earthquake.
[20]

Tidal forces
Tides may induce some seismicity, see tidal triggering of
earthquakes for details.
Earthquake clusters
Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in
terms of location and time.[21] Most earthquake clusters consist of small
tremors that cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that
earthquakes can recur in a regular pattern.[22]
Aftershocks
Main article: Aftershock

Magnitude of the Central Italy earthquake of August 2016 (red dot) and
aftershocks (which continued to occur after the period shown here)
An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake,
the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock
but always of a smaller magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the
main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the
original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock. Aftershocks are
formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the
effects of the main shock.[21]
Earthquake swarms
Main article: Earthquake swarm
Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific
area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes
followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake
in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have
notable higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake
swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park.[23] In August
2012, a swarm of earthquakes shook Southern California's Imperial
Valley, showing the most recorded activity in the area since the 1970s.
[24]

Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in what has been called

an earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters,
each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous
earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault,
these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later
earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was
observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck
the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century and has been
inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle
East.[25][26]
Size and frequency of occurrence
It is estimated that around 500,000 earthquakes occur each year,
detectable with current instrumentation. About 100,000 of these can be
felt.[27][28] Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in
places like California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as in El
Salvador, Mexico, Guatemala, Chile, Peru, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan,
the Azoresin Portugal, Turkey, New
Zealand, Greece, Italy, India, Nepal and Japan, but earthquakes can
occur almost anywhere, including Downstate New York, England,
and Australia.[29]Larger earthquakes occur less frequently, the
relationship being exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many
earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period
than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5.[30] In the (low
seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the
average recurrences are: an earthquake of 3.7–4.6 every year, an
earthquake of 4.7–5.5 every 10 years, and an earthquake of 5.6 or
larger every 100 years.[31] This is an example of the Gutenberg–Richter
law.

The Messina earthquake and tsunami took as many as 200,000 lives on

December 28, 1908 in Sicily andCalabria.[32]
The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931
to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are
reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in
instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes.
The United States Geological Survey estimates that, since 1900, there
have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0–7.9)
and one great earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that
this average has been relatively stable.[33] In recent years, the number of
major earthquakes per year has decreased, though this is probably a
statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. [34] More detailed
statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from
the United States Geological Survey (USGS).[35] A recent increase in the
number of major earthquakes has been noted, which could be
explained by a cyclical pattern of periods of intense tectonic activity,
interspersed with longer periods of low-intensity. However, accurate
recordings of earthquakes only began in the early 1900s, so it is too
early to categorically state that this is the case.[36]
Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take
place in the 40,000 km long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-
Pacific seismic belt, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the
most part bounds the Pacific Plate.[37][38] Massive earthquakes tend to
occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalayan
Mountains.[39]
With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico
City, Tokyo and Tehran, in areas of high seismic risk, some
seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up
to 3 million people.[40]
Induced seismicity
Main article: Induced seismicity
While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the
Earth's tectonic plates, human activity can also produce earthquakes.
Four main activities contribute to this phenomenon: storing large
amounts of water behind a dam (and possibly building an extremely
heavy building), drilling and injecting liquid into wells, and by coal
mining and oil drilling.[41] Perhaps the best known example is the 2008
Sichuan earthquake in China's Sichuan Province in May; this tremor
resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is the 19th deadliest earthquake of all
time. The Zipingpu Dam is believed to have fluctuated the pressure of
the fault 1,650 feet (503 m) away; this pressure probably increased the
power of the earthquake and accelerated the rate of movement for the
fault.[42] The greatest earthquake in Australia's history is also claimed to
be induced by humanity, through coal mining.The city of Newcastle was
built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The earthquake has been
reported to be spawned from a fault that reactivated due to the millions
of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process.[43]
Measuring and locating earthquakes
Main article: Seismology
Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances,
because seismic waves travel through the whole Earth's interior. The
absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers
on the moment magnitude scale (formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7
causing serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude
is reported using the modified Mercalli intensity scale (intensity II–XII).
Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves, which travel
through rock with different velocities:

 Longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves)

 Transverse S-waves (both body waves)
 Surface waves — (Rayleigh and Love waves)
Propagation velocity of the seismic waves ranges from approx. 3 km/s
up to 13 km/s, depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In
the Earth's interior the shock- or P waves travel much faster than the S
waves (approx. relation 1.7 : 1). The differences in travel time from
the epicenter to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can
be used to image both sources of quakes and structures within the
Earth. Also the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly.
In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7 km per second; the velocity
increases within the deep mantle to ~13 km/s. The velocity of S-waves
ranges from 2–3 km/s in light sediments and 4–5 km/s in the Earth's
crust up to 7 km/s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first
waves of a distant earthquake arrive at an observatory via the Earth's
mantle.
On average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of
seconds between the P and S wave times 8.[44] Slight deviations are
caused by inhomogeneities of subsurface structure. By such analyses
of seismograms the Earth's core was located in 1913 by Beno
Gutenberg.
Earthquakes are not only categorized by their magnitude but also by the
place where they occur. The world is divided into 754 Flinn–Engdahl
regions (F-E regions), which are based on political and geographical
boundaries as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided
into smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong to larger F-E
regions.
Standard reporting of earthquakes includes its magnitude, date and
time of occurrence, geographic coordinates of its epicenter, depth of the
epicenter, geographical region, distances to population centers, location
uncertainty, a number of parameters that are included in USGS
earthquake reports (number of stations reporting, number of
observations, etc.), and a unique event ID.[45]
Effects of earthquakes

1755 copper engraving depictingLisbon in ruins and in flames after

the1755 Lisbon earthquake, which killed an estimated 60,000 people.
A tsunamioverwhelms the ships in the harbor.
The effects of earthquakes include, but are not limited to, the following:
Shaking and ground rupture

Damaged buildings in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, January 2010.

Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by
earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to
buildings and other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects
depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the
distance from the epicenter, and the local geological and
geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave
propagation.[46]The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration.
Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features
can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-
intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is
principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils
to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization
owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits.
Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's
surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several
meters in the case of major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk
for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear
power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify
any which are likely to break the ground surface within the life of the
structure.[47]
Landslides and avalanches
Main article: Landslide
Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave
attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides,
a major geological hazard. Landslide danger may persist while
emergency personnel are attempting rescue.[48]
Fires

Fires of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake

Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines.
In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also
become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For
example, more deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquakewere
caused by fire than by the earthquake itself.[49]
Soil liquefaction
Main article: Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-
saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength
and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid
structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied
deposits. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, soil liquefaction
caused many buildings to sink into the ground, eventually collapsing
upon themselves.[50]
Tsunami

The tsunami of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

Main article: Tsunami
Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by the
sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open
ocean the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers
(62 mi), and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour.
Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers per hour (373–497 miles per
hour), depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an
earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas
in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of
kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores
hours after the earthquake that generated them.[51]
Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter
scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have
been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes
of magnitude 7.5 or more.[51]
Floods
Main article: Flood
A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land.
[52]
Floods occur usually when the volume of water within a body of
water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the
formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the
normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary
effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause
landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause floods.[53]
The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of
catastrophic flood if the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known
as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact
projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5 million people.[54]
Human impacts

Ruins of the Għajn Ħadid Tower, which collapsed in an earthquake in

1856
An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, road and bridge
damage, general property damage, and collapse or destabilization
(potentially leading to future collapse) of buildings. The aftermath may
bring disease, lack of basic necessities, mental consequences such as
panic attacks, depression to survivors,[55] and higher insurance
premiums.
Major earthquakes

Earthquakes of magnitude 8.0 and greater since 1900. The apparent 3D

volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their respective
fatalities.[56]
Main article: Lists of earthquakes
One of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history was
the 1556 Shaanxi earthquake, which occurred on 23 January 1556
inShaanxi province, China. More than 830,000 people died. [57] Most
houses in the area were yaodongs—dwellings carved out
of loesshillsides—and many victims were killed when these structures
collapsed. The 1976 Tangshan earthquake, which killed between
240,000 and 655,000 people, was the deadliest of the 20th century.[58]
The 1960 Chilean earthquake is the largest earthquake that has been
measured on a seismograph, reaching 9.5 magnitude on 22 May 1960.
[27][28]
Its epicenter was near Cañete, Chile. The energy released was
approximately twice that of the next most powerful earthquake,
the Good Friday earthquake (March 27, 1964) which was centered
in Prince William Sound, Alaska.[59][60] The ten largest recorded
earthquakes have all been megathrust earthquakes; however, of these
ten, only the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is simultaneously one of
the deadliest earthquakes in history.
Earthquakes that caused the greatest loss of life, while powerful, were
deadly because of their proximity to either heavily populated areas or
the ocean, where earthquakes often create tsunamis that can devastate
communities thousands of kilometers away. Regions most at risk for
great loss of life include those where earthquakes are relatively rare but
powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced, or nonexistent seismic
building codes.
Prediction
Main article: Earthquake prediction
Many methods have been developed for predicting the time and place
in which earthquakes will occur. Despite considerable research efforts
by seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be
made to a specific day or month. [61] However, for well-understood faults
the probability that a segment may rupture during the next few decades
can be estimated.[62]
Earthquake warning systems have been developed that can provide
regional notification of an earthquake in progress, but before the ground
surface has begun to move, potentially allowing people within the
system's range to seek shelter before the earthquake's impact is felt.
Preparedness
The objective of earthquake engineering is to foresee the impact of
earthquakes on buildings and other structures and to design such
structures to minimize the risk of damage. Existing structures can be
modified by seismic retrofitting to improve their resistance to
earthquakes. Earthquake insurance can provide building owners with
financial protection against losses resulting from earthquakes.
Emergency management strategies can be employed by a government
or organization to mitigate risks and prepare for consequences.
Historical views

An image from a 1557 book

From the lifetime of the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras in the 5th
century BCE to the 14th century CE, earthquakes were usually
attributed to "air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth." [63] Thales of
Miletus, who lived from 625–547 (BCE) was the only documented
person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between
the earth and water.[63] Other theories existed, including the Greek
philosopher Anaxamines' (585–526 BCE) beliefs that short incline
episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity. The Greek
philosopher Democritus (460–371 BCE) blamed water in general for
earthquakes.[63] Pliny the Elder called earthquakes "underground
thunderstorms."[63]
Recent studies
In recent studies, geologists claim that global warming is one of the
reasons for increased seismic activity. According to these studies
melting glaciers and rising sea levels disturb the balance of pressure on
Earth's tectonic plates thus causing increase in the frequency and
intensity of earthquakes.[64]
Earthquakes in culture
Mythology and religion
In Norse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent
struggling of the god Loki. When Loki, god of mischief and strife,
murdered Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being
bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head
dripping venom. Loki's wife Sigyn stood by him with a bowl to catch the
poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison dripped on
Loki's face, forcing him to jerk his head away and thrash against his
bonds, which caused the earth to tremble.[65]
In Greek mythology, Poseidon was the cause and god of earthquakes.
When he was in a bad mood, he struck the ground with a trident,
causing earthquakes and other calamities. He also used earthquakes to
punish and inflict fear upon people as revenge.[66]
In Japanese mythology, Namazu ( 鯰 ) is a giant catfish who causes
earthquakes. Namazu lives in the mud beneath the earth, and is
guarded by the god Kashima who restrains the fish with a stone. When
Kashima lets his guard fall, Namazu thrashes about, causing violent
earthquakes.[citation needed]
In popular culture
In modern popular culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by
the memory of great cities laid waste, such as Kobe in 1995 or San
Francisco in 1906.[67] Fictional earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and
without warning.[67] For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally
begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate aftermath, as
in Short Walk to Daylight (1972), The Ragged Edge (1968)
or Aftershock: Earthquake in New York (1999).[67] A notable example is
Heinrich von Kleist's classic novella, The Earthquake in Chile, which
describes the destruction of Santiago in 1647. Haruki Murakami's short
fiction collection After the Quake depicts the consequences of the Kobe
earthquake of 1995.
The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical "Big
One" expected of California's San Andreas Fault someday, as depicted
in the novels Richter 10 (1996),Goodbye California (1977), 2012 (2009)
and San Andreas (2015) among other works.[67] Jacob M. Appel's widely
anthologized short story, A Comparative Seismology, features a con
artist who convinces an elderly woman that an apocalyptic earthquake
is imminent.[68]
Contemporary depictions of earthquakes in film are variable in the
manner in which they reflect human psychological reactions to the
actual trauma that can be caused to directly afflicted families and their
loved ones.[69] Disaster mental health response research emphasizes
the need to be aware of the different roles of loss of family and key
community members, loss of home and familiar surroundings, loss of
essential supplies and services to maintain survival.[70][71] Particularly for
children, the clear availability of caregiving adults who are able to
protect, nourish, and clothe them in the aftermath of the earthquake,
and to help them make sense of what has befallen them has been
shown even more important to their emotional and physical health than
the simple giving of provisions.[72] As was observed after other disasters
involving destruction and loss of life and their media depictions, such as
those of the 2001 World Trade Center Attacks or Hurricane Katrina—
and has been recently observed in the 2010 Haiti earthquake, it is also
important not to pathologize the reactions to loss and displacement or
disruption of governmental administration and services, but rather to
validate these reactions, to support constructive problem-solving and
reflection as to how one might improve the conditions of those affected.
[73]