PLANE FIGURES-

QUADRILATERALS
WEEK ONE

Introduction
In the last lesson, you learned about how to construct polygons. In this lesson, you are going to
learn about quadrilaterals and how to construct them.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Define a quadrilateral
2. Identify at least five types of quadrilaterals
3. Construct a square
4. Construct a given rectangle
5. Construct a trapezium

Definition:
A quadrilateral may be defined as a plane figure bounded by four straight sides.

Types of Quadrilaterals
(i). Parallelogram (Rhomboid): This is a quadrilateral with a pair of opposite sides parallel and
equal. E.g.

(ii). Square: This is a quadrilateral that has all sides and angle equal. The angle is always at
right angles. E.g.
 Square

(iii). Rhombus: This is a quadrilateral that has all its sides equal. Its angles are other than right
angles. E.g.

Rhombus

(iv). Rectangle: A quadrilateral that has its opposite sides equal and all its angles are right
angles. E.g.

Rectangle

(v). Trapezium: A trapezium is a quadrilateral that has two opposite sides parallel. E.g.

Trapezium, AB//CD

(vi). Trapezoid: This is a quadrilateral that has four unequal sides and angles. E.g.

Trapezoid B≠b
(vii). Deltoid: It is sometimes referred to as a kite. It is a quadrilateral that has its adjacent pairs

of sides that are of equal lengths. E.g.

Deltoid

Construction of Quadrilaterals
1. To Construct a Square Given the Length of Sides.
(i). Draw a horizontal line and mark off AB =50mm.
(ii). Construct a right angle at B.
(iii). With B as centre and radius AB draw an arc to cut the perpendicular at C.
(iv). With B and C in turn and the same radius draw arcs to intersect at D.
(v). Join CD and DA to complete the required square. (See Demonstration @......) . E.g.

Constructed Square

2. To Construct a Square Given the Length of its Diagonal

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a horizontal and vertical lines to intersect at O.
(ii). With O as centre and radius equal to half of the given diagonal, cut the horizontal
line at A and B and the vertical line at C and D.
(iii). Join AD, DB, BC and CA to obtain the required square. (See Downloaded Video).

3. To Construct a Rectangle Given the Length its Length and Breadth

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a horizontal line and mark off AB equal to the given length
(ii). Construct a right angle at A
(iii). With B as centre and radius 45mm, cut a mark at D
 (iv). With D as centre and the given length, cut an arc parallel to AB (v).
With B as centre and given breadth, cut the previous arc at C.
(vi). Join DC and BC to obtain the required rectangle. E.g.

Constructed Rectangle

4. To Construct a Rectangle Given its Diagonal and One Side.

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a line and mark-off AB equal to the given diagonal.
(ii). Bisect AB at C, and with centre C draw a circle with AB as diameter.
(iii). With centre A and a radius equal to the given side of the rectangle, cut the circle on
any side of AB at D.
(iv). With centre B and the same radius, cut the circle on the other side of AB at E.
(v). Join AE, EB, BD and DA to obtain the required rectangle. (See Downloaded Video).

5. To Construct a Parallelogram (Rhomboid) Given the Length of the Two Sides and
One Angle at 600.
(i). Draw one side AB=80mm.
(ii). Construct the given angle at B = 600.
(iii). With B as centre and radius = 40mm, draw an arc to cut BC at C.
(iv). With A as centre and radius BC draw an arc.
(v). With C as centre and radius AB draw an arc to cut the previous one at D.
(vi). Join AD and DC. E.g. (See Downloaded Video).

Constructed Rhomboid

6. To Construction of Rhombus Given its Side and a Diagonal.

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a line and mark-off AB equal to the given diagonal.
 (ii). With centre A and a radius equal to the given side, strike arcs above and below AB.
(iii). With centre B and the same radius, cut the previous arcs at C and D.
(iv). Join AD, DB, BC and CA to obtain the required rhombus.
(See Downloaded Video).

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define a quadrilateral
2. Identify at least five types of quadrilaterals
3. Construct a square
4. Construct a given rectangle
5. Construct a trapezium

POLYGONS
WEEK 2

Introduction
Polygons are plane figures with more than four sides. They can be constructed by following a
step-by-step procedure in this lesson.
This is what you will be learning in this lesson. Make sure you have all your drawing instruments
with you.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Construct a regular pentagon using the External 3600/N rule.
2. Construct a regular hexagon using a set square.
3. Construct a regular hexagon using the circle method.
4. Construct a regular octagon using a set square.
5. Construct a regular octagon using across flat method.
6. Construct a regular octagon using the circle method.
7. Constructing a number of regular polygons using the General Method.

1. PENTAGON.
Construct a Pentagon With Side 40mm Using the 3600/N Rule.
 PROCEDURE:
(i). Divide 3600/5 = 720 .
(ii). Draw a horizontal line and mark off AB = 40mm.
(iii). With the aid of a protractor, locate angle 720 at A and B respectively.
(iv). Draw lines from A and B in turns to meet the located angles.
(v). With A and B centres and radius AB, cut arcs along the lines at C and D.
(vi). With C and D as centres and the same radius, cut arcs to intersect at E.
(vii). Draw lines from C and D in turn to meet at E to complete the Pentagon.
(See Demonstration Video at…..) e.g.

See Downloaded Video

2. HEXAGON (I)
Construct a Regular Hexagon With Side 40mm Using the 300/600 Set Square.
PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a horizontal line and mark-off AB = 40mm
(ii). With the aid of the set square, draw lines and mark-off C and D in turn = AB (iii).
At C and D, use the set square to draw lines and mark-off E and F = AB
(iv). Join EF to complete the required Hexagon. (See Video for Demonstration at…) e.g.

See Downloaded Video

3. HEXAGON (II)
Construct a Regular Hexagon With Side 40mm Using the Circle Method.
PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a horizontal and vertical diagonals with centre O.
(ii). With O as centre and radius 40mm, draw a circle.
(iii). Label the horizontal diameter AB.
 (iv). With A and B as centres in turn cut arcs above and below the circle at 1, 2, 3 and 4.
(v). Join 2-3, 3-A, A-4, 4-1, 1-B, B-2 to complete the required hexagon.
(See Demonstration at …..) e.g.

See Downloaded Video

4. OCTAGON
Construct a Regular Octagon With Side 60mm Using the 450 Set Square.
PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a horizontal and mark off AB = 40mm
(ii). At A and B, draw lines, using the 450 set square
(iii). With the pair of compasses, cut off CD = 40mm
(iv). Draw vertical lines at C and D respectively and mark off EF
(v). At E and F, draw lines with 450 set square again (vi). Mark
off GH = 40mm.
(vii). Join G to H to complete the required Octagon. (See Demonstration at ………….)
E.g.

See Downloaded Video

5. To Construct a Regular Octagon Given the Distance Across Flats.

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a horizontal and vertical diameters AB and CD respectively.
(ii). Draw a circle whose diameter is equal to the distance across flat.
(iii). Draw diameters EF and GH at 450.
(iv). Draw vertical tangents through A and B and horizontal tangents through C and D.
(v). Draw tangents through E, F, G and H to complete the required octagon.
 (See Demonstration @.....). e.g.

See Downloaded Video

6. To Construct a Regular Octagon Using The Circle Method.

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a horizontal and a vertical diameters with centre O.
(ii). With O as centre and the given radius, draw a circle.
(iii). With the aid of the 450 set square, divide the circle into 8-equal parts.
(iv). Join all the divisions to acquire the required octagon. (See
Demonstration @......). e.g.

See Downloaded Video

7. To Construct a Number of Polygons on a Base Using the General Method.

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw a horizontal line and mark-off AB equal to the given side.
(ii). Bisect line AB at O produced.
(iii). At A, use the 450 set square to draw a line to touch the bisector at 4.
(iv). At B, use the 300/600 set square to draw a line to meet the bisector at 6.
(v). Bisect points 4-6 to derive a point at 5.
(vi). To draw a Pentagon, get radius 5A and draw a circle with 5 as centre.
(vii). Take radius AB and step-off to cut the circle into 5-equal parts.
(viii). Join the divisions to acquire the pentagon.
(ix). To draw a hexagon, take point 6 as centre and with radius 6A, draw a circle.
(x). Take radius AB again and step-off to divide the new circle into 6-equal parts.
(xi). Join all the divisions to complete the hexagon.
 For any other polygon you want to draw, repeat the same process. (See Demonstration
@....). e.g.

See Downloaded Video

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Construct a regular pentagon with side 6cm using the External 3600/N rule.
2. Construct a regular hexagon with side 35mm using a set square.
3. Construct a regular hexagon with side 40mm using the circle method.
4. Construct a regular octagon with side 52mm using a set square.
5. Construct a regular octagon with side 50mm using across flat method.
6. Construct a regular octagon with side 58mm using the circle method.
7. Constructing a number of regular polygons up to nonagon using the General
Method.

PLANE FIGURES-
ENLARGEMENT
AND REDUCTION
WEEK 3 – 4
Introduction
Plane figures involves a lot of constructions from what you may have observed from the earlier
lessons. Interestingly, in this lesson, you will be learning about enlargement and reduction of
plane figures.
Cameras and other appliances used for capturing images make use of the principle of reduction
and enlargement.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Define enlargement of plane figure.
2. Define reduction of plane figure.
3. Enlarge plane figures in any given proportion.
4. Reduce plane figures into any given ratio.

Enlargement
Definition: Enlargement of regular plane figures can be defined as the technique of representing
figures in a similar but larger shape using a given proportion.

Example 1:
To Construct a Figure Similar to the Given Figure ABCDEF Shown Below With Sides in
the Ratio of 7:4.

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw the given figure ABCDEF.
(ii). Produce AB at B and AF at F.
(iii). Radiate lines at AC, AD, and AE.
(iv). Draw a convenient angle at AG and divide it into 7-equal parts.
(v). Join the point 4 to B and draw 7B1 parallel to 4B.
(vi). B1C1, C1D1,and D1E1 parallel to BC, CD and DE respectively to complete the required
figure. E.g.
 See Downloaded Video on Enlargement

Reduction
Definition: Reduction of regular plane figures can be defined as the technique of representing
figures in a similar but in a smaller shape using a given proportion.

Example 2:
To Reduce the Size of a Given Rectangle ABCD Shown Below by a Given Proportion of
3:5.

PROCEDURE:
(i). Draw the given rectangle ABCD.
(ii). Choose a point P at any convenient distance from the rectangle, and from it radiate line to A,
B, C and D.
(iii). Draw any convenient angle at PE and divide into 5-equal parts.
(iv). Draw point 5 to A and draw point 3 to B1 parallel to 5A.
(v). Draw A1D1, D1C1, C1B1 and B1A1 parallel to AD, DC, CB and BA respectively to complete
the required reduction. E.g. (See Demonstration @.......)
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Define enlargement of plane figure.
2. Define reduction of plane figure.
3. Enlarge the plane figure (i) shown below in the proportion of 7:4.
4. Reduce the plane figure (ii) shown below into the ratio 3:7.

Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)

WOODWORK MACHINES (I)

WEEK 5

Introduction
In the last lesson, you learned about basic geometric construction of plane figures. In this lesson,
you will learn about woodwork machines, the difference between portable and heavy woodwork
machines and their uses.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define woodwork machine.
2. Identify five portable power hand tools.
3. Identify four machine tools.
4. State the uses of wood working machines.

Definition: Woodwork machines are specially designed machines used for wood operations in
furniture work. There are two basic classes of wood working machines in use. They are:

1.Portable Power Hand Tool Machines (Electrically powered)

2. Stationary / Heavy Woodwork Machines.

1. Portable Power Hand Tool Machines include the following:

(i).Hand Drill: This is an electrically powered tool used for boring holes in wood. It contains the
chuck which turns the drill bit clockwise and anti-clockwise. E.g.

Portable drilling machine

(ii).Belt Sander: This machine is used for sanding (smoothening) the surface of wood. Abrasive
is used to coat the rollers in this electrically powered tool. E.g.
 Belt sander

(iii).Circular Saw: The circular saw is used for cross-cutting timber, for cutting depth and for
forming grooves on timber. It is electrically powered also. It can be adjusted to any desired
position. E.g.

Circular saw

(iv). Saber Saw: This is a flexible saw used for cutting complex shapes like curves on plywood.
Like the curves found on loudspeakers. E.g.

Saber saw

(v).Nailing Gun: As the name implies, this machine is used instead of the hammer, in sticking
nails into wood. E.g.

Nailing gun
(vi). Router: This portable machine can be used instead of a jigsaw. Since it contains a router bit
it can be used to create patterns and curved edges. You can maneuver to any shape. E.g.

(vii). Fret Saw: Although this has been discussed earlier in JSS 1, just for emphasis we will like
to state that this saw is used to cut complex shapes in veneers and plywood. E.g.

Fret Saw

2. Stationary / Heavy Woodwork Machines (Woodwork Heavy Machines)

The machines covered in this section are fixed to the floor in engineering workshops, since they
are stationary in nature. They include the following:

(i). Circular Sawing Machine: It is used for both cross-cutting and ripping operations
during wood work. E.g.

Circular sawing machine

(ii). Band Sawing Machine: This machine uses the band saw. It is used for cutting straight
lines, circular and irregular curves on timber and plywood. E.g.

Band sawing machine

(iii). Thicknessing Machine: This is the machine used for forming the required thickness for
stool and table legs. E.g.

Thicknessing machine

(vi). Surface Planer: The surface planer is designed for planning operations, especially
planks. It can also be adopted for rebating and tenoning jobs. It has a wide, flat surface for
supporting any load laid on it. E.g.

Surface planers

(v). Drill Press: This machine has multiple applications. It is primarily used for drilling
operations, for boring holes on wood and metals. It can also be used for sanding, shaping and
mortising. E.g.

Drill press
 (vi). Wood Lathe: This is the father of all machines. Primarily, it is used for turning
operations to form table legs and lamp stands or stool stands. It is used also for scraping,
sanding, grooving, etc. E.g.

Wood Lathe

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define a woodwork machine.

2. Identify at least five portable power hand tools.
3. Identify at least four stationary machines.
4. Explain the uses of the following wood working machines.
i. Band saw ii. Fret saw
iii. Thicknessing
machine iv. Surface
planner v. Nailing gun

WOODWORK MACHINES (II)

WEEK 6

Introduction:
In the last lesson, woodwork portable and heavy machines and their functions was discussed.
In this lesson, attention will be focused on turning operations using the wood lathe. You
will be exposed to the different types of wood lathe operations, wood turning and the
functions of the various cutting tools when turning operation is in progress.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. State at least two major methods of turning wood.
2. List at least five turning operations.
3. State the use of gouges, skew chisel and scrapper tools in wood lathe operations.
4. State at least five ways of caring for woodwork machines.

Definition of Wood Turning

Turning is a cutting process. The workpiece encompasses a turn. Chips are removed by the
handwielded tool during turning. This process is also called turning and is one of the oldest wood
processing techniques.

Steps Involved in Wood-Turning Operation

i. Select a Lathe Suitable for your Project. Bench top lathes can be ideal for turning
small projects like ink pens and yo-yos while larger machines may be used for
making spindles used in furniture and handrail styles.

ii. Choose the Lathe Operation you are Going to Begin With. A simple task might be
to turn a square or irregularly shaped piece of wood to a true cylindrical shape, this
often the first step to forming a spindle or other round items.

iii. Select the Correct Cutting Tools for your Project. Lathe tools are called chisels.
They feature long, round, curved handles to afford a solid grip and sufficient leverage
to enable the turner to control the cutting edge accurately with minimal fatigue.

Set of Cutting Tools

Tools for Turning Operation

1. Wood Lathe: The wood lathes is the primary tool used to create functional furniture
components, beautiful decorative wood projects such as candlesticks and bowls, or even toys
such as tops.

These machines range in size from hobby models that fit on a work bench to large industrialsized
machines.

Some turning operations on a wood lathe include the following:

i. turning a cylindrical shape ii. parting off with a parting toolo
iii. turning a bowl shape iv. turning a hollow with a gouge. E.g.

Wood Lathe

2. Gouges. These are cutting tools with specially shaped cutting edges for performing
particular cuts, such as bowl gouges, with concave, curved cutting edges to form the smooth,
curved surface of a bowl, or vee, or knurling gouges for cutting grooves or knurls in wooden
spindles. E.g.

A Vee-Gouge Spindle Gouge

3.Scrapers. These are often flat or slightly curved chisels for removing wood from flat or
cylindrical shapes, or for roughing out a shape.

4. Parting tools: These are thin, vee tipped tools for cutting off work pieces.
5.Spoon cutters: These are cutting tools that have a spoon shaped cutting edge and are also
often used for shaping bowls.

6. Skew chisels: Skew chisels are used for making square-grooves, it can also plane and shape
many other profiles during turning operations. E.g.

Skew Chisel

Care/Maintenance of Woodwork Tools

Turning tools are subject to considerable albeit varying strain when processing differing wood
types. Thus, certain basic requirements must be met by sound tools.

i. It must be of high-grade steel which is sufficiently hard and elastic.

ii. The most suitable taper angle must be ground for the respective wood type.
iv. The tool must possess sufficient heat conductivity capacity. The subsequently arising
frictional heat can cause structural changes to the tool cutting edge. This would
denote a softening of the tool.
v. The tool must be extremely sharp.
vi. The tool must be easy to handle as regards its form and size.
 vii. Clean and properly sharpen tools. Thes are an essential precondition for sound
quality of the workpieces being processed and for accident-free operations. viii.
Tools subject to considerable wear and tear are ground on the abrasive wheel.
When grinding by means of dry-operating abrasive wheels the tools should be placed
in water at short intervals otherwise they can easily anneal.
ix. Tools are only ground anew once resharpening by means of oilstoning is no longer
possible.
x. Blunt tools require considerable cutting forces. This increases the risk of accidents
and inferior surface quality results.

REVIEW QUESTION
1. State at least two major methods of turning wood.
2. List at least five turning operations.
3. State the use of gouges, skew chisel and scrapper tools in wood lathe operations.
4. State at least five ways of caring for woodwork cutting tools.

METALWORK MACHINES
WEEK 7

Introduction
With the review on some lessons completed in the last lesson, let us now pay attention to
metalwork machines.
In this lesson, you are going to learn about what metalwork machines are, types of metalwork
machines and their functions. You will also learn how to sketch these machines.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Define metalwork machines.
2. State at least identify five types of metalwork machines.
3. State at least one function of metalwork machines identified.
4. Sketch metalwork machines.

Definition:
Metalwork machines are devices that are driven by electricity to perform different operations on
metals.
The machines used in metalwork operations are generally referred to as metalwork machines.
They are of different types and sizes.

Types of Metalwork Machines

1.Milling machine: This machine is used for cutting gears, grooves slots and to cut splines in
shafts of metal rods. e.g.

Horizontal milling machine

2.Shaper and Planers: The shaper is used to generate flat surfaces while the planner is used for
producing flat surfaces which the milling machine cannot achieve. E.g.

A Shaping machine

3.Power Sawing machine: This is an electrically powered sawing machine used in cutting soft
metal materials, by using hack-saw blade with coarse tooth. The coarse blade is used so as to
avoid clogging of the teeth by metal chips. E.g.
 power sawing machine

4.Pedestal grinder: This machine is used for grinding (sharpening) the cutting edges of cutting
tools. It can also be used to grind scribers, cold chisels and drills. They are of two types, namely,
the floor type and the bench type. E.g.

Pedestal grinders

5.Drill press: The drill press is used for boring holes in thick metals. Drill bits are fitted into its
chuck that has different sizes. E.g.

Drill press

6.Centre Lathe Machine: As mentioned earlier, the lathe machine is an all-purpose machine,
used for the following operations:
(i).generate cylindrical, flat and conical surfaces;
(ii).cut holes in geometrical shapes; (iii).cut
threads on screws, bolts and nuts;
(iv).reduce the size of geometrical shapes.
(v).used for milling, turning, shaping and planing. E.g.

Centre

Lathe

Work-Holding Methods on the Lathe

In metal work involving the use of the lathe machine, work pieces are held firmly in place
through the use of the following tools:

(i).The chuck: The 3-jaw chuck is used to hold triangular and round work pieces while the 4-jaw
chuck is used for holding square-shaped work pieces. E.g.

3-Jaw Chuck 4-Jaw Chuck

(ii).Driving plates: The driving plate is used when a slender work piece is to be machined and
held between two centers. E.g.

A Driving Plate
(iii).Face plates: When a work piece has an awkward or irregular shape, the work plate is used
for turning the work piece. However, if the work piece is to be turned at parallel or right angle to
a flat surface, the face plate is applied for turning. E.g.

A Face Plate

Operations on the Lathe Machine

The lathe machine is used to carry out four major operations, namely:

(i).Facing: This the generation of a plane or flat surface by the lathe machine.

(ii).Plain turning: This is the method of producing cylindrical surfaces by the lathe machine.

(iii).Stepped: This operation is similar to the plain turning operation. In the stepped operation, a
different cutting tool is applied when a different shape is desired.

(iv).Taper turning: This is the method of reducing the diameter along the length of any round
work piece.

Care of the Lathe Machine

(i).The moving parts of the lathe machine must be oiled or greased regularly.
(ii).Coolant lubricant should be directed at the cutting spot during cutting operations.
(iii).The work piece must always be held or clamped rigidly before it is turned on the lathe.
(iv).Appropriate speed must be applied to any of the operations so as to avoid damage to both
work pieces and the lathe machine.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define metalwork machines.
2. State at least two classes of metalwork machines.
3. Identify and state the different types of metalwork machines.
4. State the uses of metalwork machines.
5. State at least eight parts of a centre lathe machine.
6. Explain the following terms:
(a). Facing
(b). Stepped
(c). Taper turning
(d). Plain turning
7. State five ways you may care for a lathe machine.

CARE AND
MAINTENANCE OF
METALWORK
MACHINES
WEEK 8

Introduction
You have been exposed to metalwork tools and machines and their functions in the last couple of
lessons.
In this lesson, you are going to learn about how to care and maintain these metalwork machines
and tools. This knowledge will aid you on how you can be careful before and after using a
metalwork machine or tool.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Define maintenance of metalwork machines.
2. Carry out simple maintenance of metalwork machines.
3. Carry out cutting, drilling and facing operations.

Definition: Metalwork maintenance simply refers to the care of machines and machine tools so
as to prolong their efficiency and ease of use.

Tips on How to Care for metalwork Machines

1. Always disconnect machines and tools from an electrical power source after use.
 2. All metalwork machines and tools must be cleaned and lubricated regularly using metal
brush, air jet or gas jet.
3. Do not carry portable power tools by the cables. Again, power cables should be kept
away from heat, oil and sharp objects.
4. Blades and other cutting tools should be checked regularly for damage or any defects. If
any defect is found, replacement should be done immediately. Cutting tools should be
sharpened regularly.
5. The personnel operating the machine must be safety conscious, by wearing personal
protective gears.
6. All machines must be operated according to the manufacturer‘s instruction manual.
7. When drilling or sanding, it is necessary to firmly secure the work piece. This gives you
room to manipulate the machine.
8. Do not wear overflowing clothing or a necktie when operating a machine.

NOTE: It should be noted that apart from the tips enumerated above, the earlier lesson on
woodwork hand tool maintenance applies inn this case also.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define maintenance of metalwork machines.
2. State five maintenance tips of metalwork machines.

FRICTION
WEEK 9 - 10

Period one: Friction

Content; - Definition of friction

- Nature/characteristics of friction

- Types of frictional force

 - Effect of friction

- Advantages of friction

- Disadvantages of friction

- Methods of reducing friction

Definition of friction

Friction can be defined as a force which opposes motion.

It is a force which stops/prevents motion. It acts whenever there is

motion or tendency for something to move. i.e friction (or frictional
force) is absent if there is no motion or if there is no force intending to
cause motion. It stops your car when the brake is applied. It prevents
your foot from slipping backward when you walk.

Friction can also be defined as a force of attraction between the

molecules of two bodies in contact which prevents relative motion
between the two bodies.

friction is preventing this box from moving.

Nature/characteristics of friction

 It always opposes motion

 It depends on the nature of surfaces in contact. Friction

between rough surfaces is greater than the frictional force
between smooth surfaces.

 It does not depend on the relative speed between the two

surfaces.

 It is directly proportional to the perpendicular force (normal

reaction) between the two surfaces. (R is the perpendicular
force between the two surfaces in contact)

FαR

F = µR

F – Frictional force, R – normal reaction, µ - coefficient of friction

W

Note that R = W for bodies on horizontal surfaces

Questions: A crate slid down an inclined plane such that the frictional
force opposing its motion is 40N. If the normal reaction of the plane on
the crate is 50N, calculate the coefficient of dynamic friction.

Solution: Frictional force F = 40N

Normal reaction R = 50N

Coefficient of friction µ = ?

F=µR

40 = µ x 50 (dividing both sides by 50)

40
/50 = µ

µ = 0.8

Types of friction

There are two types of frictional force

1. Static friction. This occurs between two bodies that are not moving
or at rest.

2. Dynamic friction. This occurs between two bodies in relative

motion.

Effects of friction
Friction can best be imagined whenever there is motion or likelihood of
motion. Friction exists in all machines or systems with moving parts.
Friction also applies in many day to day phenomena such as; walking on
a pavement, pulling the rope of a pulley system, dragging a crate on the
floor, using a grinding stone for blending, loosing or tightening a nut and
bolt,… . Effects of friction can be classified as desirable or undesirable.

Advantages of friction (or desirable effects of friction)

I. Locomotion: when we walk, friction between our shoes and the

ground prevents our shoes from slipping backward.

II. Enhances fastening: friction between the bolt and the nut
enhances their fastening ability. The friction between nails and
wood also help the nail to hold woods together in firm position.

III. Blending: friction between the grinding stones helps in

grinding pepper, tomatoes, this is also true of the friction
between the two rough discs of the grinding machine.

IV. Stops motion: friction between the car tyre and the road helps
to stop the motion of a moving car when the brake is applied.

V. Production of electric charge: when certain materials are

robbed against each other, static electric charges is produced.
This principle is applied in the Van de Graff generator.

VI. Use of Ladder: when a ladder to be used to climb over a wall

rest on the wall, friction between the foot of the ladder and
floor prevent the foot of the ladder from slipping.
 VII. Making of fire: matches sticks are ignited when they are
robbed against the side of the matches’ box. Fire can also be
made by striking two stones together.

Disadvantages of friction (or undesirable effects of friction)

- Wearing: The thread pattern under your footwear soon wear

out after a prolong use due to friction. This is also true of the
thread on the tyre of cars and other automobile.

- Tearing/cutting: you can easily cut a piece of rope or cloth by

robbing it repeatedly against the edge of the wall.

- Reduces efficiency of machines: all machines have efficiency

less than 100% due to friction between their moving parts.
Friction causes waste of useful energy , therefore it reduces the
output of the machine.

- Generation of undesirable heat: moving machine parts/machine

itself soon becomes hot due friction and this may necessitate
cooling of machine parts.

Methods of reducing friction

Due to the disadvantages of friction mentioned above, it is often

necessary to reduce friction in machines. This is possible through any of
the following methods:

1. Lubrication: this is the use of certain substances (called

lubricants) to reduce the effects of friction. Examples of
 lubricants includes, grease, oil,… many of which are petroleum
products.

2. Use of rollers

3. Use of ball bearing

4. Use of belt/chain drive

PURPOSES ONLY..

PART A GENERAL REVISION QUESTIONS JSS 2

1. In which type of triangle is no scale equal to another side?

(a) Quadrilateral triangle (b) Rhombus (c) Isosceles triangle (d) Trapezium (e)
Scalene
2. All of the following are the parts of a circle except
(a) Diameter (b) Radius (c) Segment (d) Chord (e) Vertex
3. An angle which is less than a right angle is called
(a) Obtuse angle (b) Reflex angle (c) Straight angle (d) Acute angle (e) Right
angle
4. A quadrilateral with all sides equal but has no right angle is a
(a) Cube (b) Square (c) Rectangle (d) Trapezium (d) Rhombus
5. The line use for centre lines is called
(a) Thin long chain (b) Thin continuous line (c) Thin long chain (d) Thin short
dashes
6. An angle which is greater than 180 but less than 360 is called?
(a) Acute angle (b) Obtuse angle (c) Reflex angle (d) A Revolution
7. A triangle having only two sides equal is called
(a) Equilateral triangle (b) Isosceles triangle (c) Scalene triangle (d) Rhomboid
8. The external angle of a regular polygon is 45 using the rule 360N determine the sides
of the polygon (a) 7 sides (b) 8 sides (c) 6 sides (d) 10 sides (e) 9 sides
9. A square that has its opposite sides equal and parallel but no angle is right angled is
called (a) Square (b) Rectangle (c) Rhomboid (d) Rhombus
10. A plane figure bounded by eight straight lines is called
(a) Hexagon (b) Heptagon (c) Octagon (d) Nonagon
11. A perpendicular from the top or apex of an object to its base is called
 (a) Base (b) Altitude (c) Vertex (d) Oblique
12. A figure whose opposite sides are equal and parallel is called
(a) Equilateral triangle (b) Isosceles triangle (c) Rectangle (d) Parallelogram
13. An electrical appliance is using 200 volts and 0.5 amps. Calculate the power
consumption?
(a) 200 watts (b) 100 watts (c) 12 watts (d) 140 watts
14. The line used for cutting and viewing plane is called
(a) Thick continuous line (b) Thick long chain (c) Thin continuous line (d) Thin
short dashes
15. The line used for hidden outlines and edges is called
(a) Arrowed line (b) Thin continuous line (c) Thin long chain (d) Thin short dashes.
16. An angle which is greater than 90 but less than 180 is called (a) Acute angle (b
Obtuse angle (c) Reflex angle (d) Right angle
17. A triangle which has one of its angle greater than a right angle is called?
(a) Obtuse angle (b) Right angle (c) Acute angle (d) Reflex angle
18. A plane figure bounded by ten straight lines is a
(a) Hexagon (b) Heptagon (c) Octagon (d) nonagon (e) Decagon
19. In equilateral triangle all the three angles are equal each being
(a) 90 (b) 30 (c) 60 (d) 45 (e) 180
20. A plane figure bounded by more than four straight lines is called
(a) Trapezium (b) Quadrilateral (c) Polygon (d) Square (e) Rhombus
21. All the following are examples of quadrilateral EXCEPT
(a) Square (b) Rectangle (c) Rhombus (d) Rhomboid (e) Eclipse
22. The external angle of a regular polygon is 72 using the rule 360N determine the, side
of the polygon
(a) 10 sides (b) 9 sides (c) 5 sides (d) 6 sides (e) 7 sides
23. The flow of current in one direction is called
(a) Alternating current (b) Potential difference (c) Impedance (d) Direct current (e)
Resistance
24. A bulb 100 watts is connected to a supply of 2 amps. Calculate the resistance
(a) 30 Ohms (b) 45 Ohms (c) 25 Ohms (d) 40 Ohms
25. For climbing hill motorist need a/an
(a) Lower gear (b) High gear (c) Medium gear (d) Equilibrium gear
26. The combustion of the petro inside the cylinder of the engine is caused by the
(a) Piston movement (b) Carburetor (c) Spark (d) Cylinder
27. Ohms is the unit of
(a) Voltage (b) Resistance (c) Current (d) Potential difference (e) Electromotive
force
28. A boy pushes a load of mass 20kg to a distance of 30 meters in 20 second, calculate
the body power
(a) 300 watts (b) 200 watts (c) 40 watts (d) 50 watts
29. In comparing the water flow system to an electric circuit the control value represent
the
(a) Ammeter (b) Switch (c) Voltmeter (d) Variable resistor
30. Which of the following electrical instrument is capable of measuring voltage, current
and resistance?
(a) Voltmeter (b) Ammeter (c) Multi-meter (d) Ohmmeter (e) Wattmeter
31. A potential difference of 80 volts applied to a lamp 10 ohms resistance. What current
will flow in the circuit
(a) 8A (b) 0.4A (c) 0.8A (d) 0.8A (e) 1.0A
32. What is the resistance in a current of 2 amperes current flow and 24 volts voltage
supply?
(a) 12 ohms resistance (b) 18 ohms (c) 240 ohms (d) 360 ohms (e) 480 ohms
33. A bulb rated 100 watts is connected to a supply of 200 volts calculate the amount of
current flowing through the bulb
(a) 2.50 Amps (b) 2.00 Amps (c) 1.50 Amps (d) 1.00 Amps (e) 0.50 Amps
34. The primary voltage of a transformer is 10 volts and the primary winding is 20 turns. If
the secondary winding is 20 turns. What is the secondary voltage
(a) 500 volts (b) 50 volts (c) 20 volts (d) 10 volts
35. The following are application of electromagnetic EXCEPT
(a) Electric bulb (b) Relay circuit (c) Electric bells (d) Alarm circuits (e) Telephone
36. Which of the appliance do NOT have an electric motor?
(a) Electric drilling machine (b) Television (c) Blender (d) Electric grinder (e)
Electric fan
37. The meter installed in N.E.P.A to determine the amount of electrical power consumed
is known as
(a) Ammeter (b) Watt-hour meter (c) Ohmmeter (d) Multimeter (e) Watt- meter
38. The battery charging equipment is used on
(a) Dry cell batteries (b) Electric motors (c) Lead-acid accumulators (d) Generators
in motors vehicle (e) Alternators motor vehicle
39. The following are appliances used in converting electrical energy to heat Except (a)
Electric Cooker (b) Electric iron (c) Electric Cookers (d) Gas cooker (e) Electric
water heater
40. What is the instrument used for the detecting of the same of charge battery?
(a) Thermometer (b) Ammeter (c) Voltmeter (d) Hydrometer (e) Thermocouple
41. Which of these devices converts heat energy into electrical energy
(a) Electric iron (b) Electric-Heater (c) Solar cell (b) Thermocouple (e) Photocell
42. Fuel is a source of
(a) Light energy (b) Chemical energy (c) Nuclear energy (d) Heat energy (e) Solar
energy
43. Mechanical energy can be converted directly to electrical energy using the
(a) Windmill (b) Thermocouple (c) Water heater (d) Electric iron (e) Daniel cell
44. Solar energy can be converted directly to electrical energy using the
(a) Voltaic cell (b) Daniel cell (c) Photo Voltaic (d) Mercury Cell (e) Leclanche cell
45. A boy pulled a block steadily of 2 meters against a frictional force of 10 Newtons.
Calculate the work done by the boy in joules
(a) 20 (b) 8 (c) 5 (d) 0.2
46. If an electric kettle has a rating of 1000 watts and a resistance of its element is 40
Ohms, the current in the circuit then is
(a) 44,000 amperes (b) 25 amperes (c) 5 amperes (d) 0.04 amperes
47. If an electric kettle pressing iron develops a total failure the first thing to check is the
(a) Thermostat (b) Fuse (c) Sole plate (d) Element
48. Calculate the word done when a force of 50N moves a load through distance of 10mm
(a) 600KJ (b) 96KJ (c) 10.4KJ (d) 0.60KJ (e) 5000
49. If an electric fan motor is humming but refuses to rotate. The likely cause is
(a) Faulty capacitor (b) Faulty blades (c) Wrong electrical connection (d) Low
current (e) Burnt motor
50. What is the value of a kinetic energy of a ball of mass 5kg moving of a velocity of
120m/s2
(a) 0.3K/J (b) 0.6K/J (c) 6K/J (d) 345K/J (e) 360K/J

ANSWERS FOR PART A QUESTIONS

BASIC 8

1. E 26 B
2. E 27. B
3. D 28. A
4. E 29. B
5. A 30. C
6. C 31. A
7. B 32. A
8. B 33. E
9. D 34. D
10. C 35. A
11. B 36. B
12. D 37. B
13. B 38. C
14. B 39. D
15. D 40. D
16. B 41. C
17. A 42. B
18. E 43. A
19. C 44. A
20. C 45. A
21. E 46. B
22. C 47. E
23. D 48. D
24. C 49. D