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Durability properties and steel corrosion resistance of reinforced concrete

using fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag as partial replacements
for sand and cement

Article in Innovative Infrastructure Solutions · May 2024

DOI: 10.1007/s41062-024-01499-1

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Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-024-01499-1

TECHNICAL PAPER

Durability properties and steel corrosion resistance of reinforced

concrete using fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag
as partial replacements for sand and cement
Quan Van Ho1 · Phuong N. Pham2

Received: 4 October 2023 / Accepted: 17 April 2024

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

Abstract
Highly corrosion-resistant concretes are required to enhance the durability of civil structures in coastal regions. Also, reusing by-
products as sand or cement replacement in cement composites is urgent due to demands and shortage of river sand, ­CO2 emission
from the cement industry, and increasing FA or GBFS amount in thermal power plants, detrimental to environments and requiring
disposal solutions. Hence, this paper investigated the effects of incorporating FA as a partial replacement for river sand from 20
to 60% and utilizing GBFS to replace 30% of cement on the corrosion resistance of steel in concrete. The experimental findings
showed that the by-products reduced the pH value of fresh cementitious mixtures, increased compressive strength, lowered water
absorption, and densified the microstructure of FA/GBFS-modified concrete. In particular, the resulting cement composites dem-
onstrated a significant reduction in Chloride ion penetration and corrosion current, increasing the deterioration occurrence time
due to steel corrosion by around 2.29–2.43 times compared to control concrete. Also, corrosion cracking on concrete surfaces
and around steel bars of the modified concrete was significantly reduced. Pearson correlation finally emphasized the positive
impact of FA and GBFS as sand and cement replacements on the durability of reinforced concrete exposed to Chloride-rich
environments. Concrete with 20–60% FA and 30% GBFS exhibited excellent corrosion resistance, ideal for coastal construction.

Keywords Fly ash · Ground granulated blast furnace slag · Chloride permeability · Corrosion cracking · Corrosion
resistance · Durability properties

Introduction the steel bar surface as a passive barrier against direct con-
tact with aggressive substances or oxygen [1, 2]. However,
Steel corrosion in concrete is one of the critical causes of this protective layer can be compromised due to the penetra-
early deterioration of reinforced concrete structures, lead- tion of chloride ions or when the pH in concrete decreases
ing to construction damage [1]. The durability of reinforced owing to carbonation.
concrete primarily depends on the concrete cover, which pre- Once the chloride ion concentration on the steel sur-
vents steel corrosion from aggressive environmental attacks. face surpasses the corrosion initiation threshold, it disrupts
Besides, the high alkalinity in the concrete, with a pH varia- the passive oxide layer on the steel, triggering the corro-
tion from 12 to 13, forms a passive iron oxide membrane on sion process of the steel reinforcement. The location where
the passive membrane is disrupted behaves as an anode.
* Phuong N. Pham At the same time, the remaining surface works as a cath-
pnphuong@dut.udn.vn ode, accelerating the corrosion process owing to the larger
Quan Van Ho anode-to-cathode ratio [2]. According to Richardson [3],
hvquan@ute.udn.vn the mechanisms of steel reinforcement corrosion induced
1
by chloride ion penetration include (i) the oxidation of iron
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Danang to form ferrous ions (­ Fe2+), (ii) the combination of F ­ e2+
- University of Technology and Education, 48 Cao Thang
Str., Danang, Vietnam with chloride ions to generate chloride or oxychloride com-
2 pounds such as ­FeCl2 and FeOCl, (iii) the hydrolysis of chlo-
Faculty of Road and Bridge Engineering, The University
of Danang - University of Science and Technology, 54 ride compounds to produce Ferrous hydroxide, and (iv) the
Nguyen Luong Bang Str., Danang, Vietnam oxidation of Ferrous hydroxide leading to rust formation.

Vol.:(0123456789)
178 Page 2 of 18 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178

The hydrolysis of chloride compounds releases ­Cl− ions, time and corrosion rate. Substituting cement with FA or
decreasing pH at the positive pole, thereby increasing the GBFS or both reduced the pH level, and the higher the min-
corrosion rate as the iron oxidation process is promoted in eral content, the lower the pH of the fresh concrete mix [23,
an acidic environment. The regeneration of chloride ions 26, 27]. The reduction in pH could be attributed to Ca(OH)2
restarts the corrosion cycle. The corrosion products, includ- absorption by the mineral admixtures during the pozzolana
ing Ferrous hydroxide Fe(OH)2, Ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3, reaction process [27]. However, with a given amount of min-
and Hydrated ferric oxide (­ Fe2O3.H2O) (rust), cause volu- eral admixture substitution, the pH chance could not affect
metric expansion about 2.5–6 times larger than the original the resistance of reinforced concrete to corrosion because
steel. As a result, expansion and tensile stress were induced pH values were still higher than the threshold breakage pH
within the concrete, resulting in delamination or cracking of of 11.5, which induced passive film on the surface of steel
the protective concrete cover. Therefore, the load-carrying bars in concrete [26]. Hence, incorporating FA and GBFS
capacity of reinforced concrete structures was reduced due as cement replacements in concrete demonstrated promis-
to the reduced cross-sectional area of the steel [1, 2, 4]. ing solutions in improving concrete durability and corrosion
For steel corrosion prevention in reinforced concrete, var- resistance [28], making them an environmentally friendly
ious methods are recommended to enhance the strength and and economically beneficial approach.
durability of concrete structures exposed to aggressive envi- In recent decades, rapid industrialization and booming
ronments. Currently, the most common approach is using infrastructure development have significantly increased the
mineral additives such as fly ash (FA), ground granulated demand for concrete and aggregates [29, 30], leading to a
blast furnace slag (GBFS), silica fume, micro silica, metaka- shortage and rising prices of natural aggregates, mainly river
olin, drinking water treatment sludge etc., to replace cement sand used as fine aggregates [29, 31]. Approximately 30 bil-
in concrete [5–15]. This solution improves the quality of lion tons of natural sand are extracted annually worldwide,
concrete, creating a protective layer with a high imperme- mainly for construction [32]. Overexploitation of river sand
ability, mitigating the infiltration of harmful substances from exacerbates environmental degradation. Therefore, search-
the external environment into the concrete that could cause ing for alternative materials to replace river sand is crucial
steel corrosion [16–18]. As for the use of FA, its replace- to reduce natural resource consumption and ensure sustain-
ment for cement could reach up to 45–50% [1, 19], and the able development [29, 31–36]. To address this urgent issue,
majority suggested that 15–30% replacement yielded effec- researchers have utilized industrial by-products such as FA,
tive results in terms of the resistance of steel reinforcement bottom ash, etc., as fine aggregates in concrete. In Vietnam,
to Chloride-induced corrosion [1, 19–22]. Similarly, GBFS, the Government is urgently required to study and use by-
when used to replace cement, was also proven to resist steel products as aggregates in cement-based composites for sus-
corrosion. It was possible to use up to 60% of GBFS for tainable development due to the current annual disposal of
cement replacement [23]. Combining FA and GBFS as 25 million tons of FA [37] and 2.35 million tons of GBFS
cement replacements was also studied to enhance steel cor- [31] into landfills. As demonstrated from previous studies
rosion resistance. Sengul et al. [10] investigated the impact [29, 32, 38–44], the use of FA as fine aggregates helped
of replacing 50% FA, 50% GGBS, and a combination of 25% enhance the compressive strength. Surangi et al. [38] inves-
FA and 25% GGBS in cement on the chloride resistance of tigated the mechanical properties and Chloride permeabil-
concrete. Their findings suggested that the 25% FA and 25% ity of the concrete mixtures where FA replaced 20–40% of
GGBS combination yielded optimal results. Aperador et al. river sand. The authors observed an increase in compressive
[24] explored the influence of binder mixtures comprising strength at all ages while a significant reduction in Chloride
Portland cement, FA, and GGBS on chloride permeability permeability.
and steel reinforcement corrosion resistance in concrete. The As briefly summarized above, most studies focused on
authors revealed that a combination of 20% FA + 40% GGBS the influence of using FA and GBFS as cement replacements
or 40% FA + 20% GGBS led to the lowest chloride perme- on Chloride permeability and steel corrosion resistance of
ability and highest steel reinforcement corrosion resistance. reinforced concrete. When FA was used as a partial replace-
Sanjuán et al. [25] analyzed the combined effect of FA and ment for fine aggregates, researchers mainly investigated
GGBS on the chloride diffusion coefficient of concrete, esti- the mechanical properties of concrete, and only Surangi
mated the service life of concrete structures, and concluded et al. [38] evaluated its Chloride permeability. Currently,
that incorporating 40% GGBS and 25% FA in concrete no publications are found on the influence of FA as a partial
resulted in the lowest chloride diffusion coefficient and the replacement for fine aggregates on the corrosion resistance
most extended service life. Sun et al. [26] investigated the of steel in concrete. Hence, this research paper investigates
effects of FA and GBFS replacing 10–30% of cement on the such property for concrete using 20–60% FA as a partial
corrosion resistance of reinforced high-performance con- replacement for river sand and simultaneously utilizing 30%
crete. The replacements helped to reduce corrosion initiation GBFS to replace a portion of cement. The study is crucial
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178 Page 3 of 18 178

for developing environmentally friendly and durable con- serving as the main binder, while GBFS (type S95) was
crete using industrial by-products, particularly its use for also incorporated as a partial substitution for cement. It is
construction in coastal and marine areas. Its significance important to note that the chemical composition, physical
is amplified in developing countries like Vietnam, which and chemical properties of the cement, FA, and GBFS, as
faces significant degradation of reinforced concrete struc- compared in Tables 1 and 2, met the requirements of TCVN
tures along a 3260 km coastline. This paper helps to confirm 6260:2020 [46], TCVN 10302:2014 [47], and TCVN
the possibility of replacing up to 60% of sand by FA with 11586:2016 [48], respectively. These standards ensured the
30% GBFS as cement replacement to improve the steel cor- quality and suitability of the input materials for designing
rosion resistance of FA/GBGS-modified concrete exposed concrete mixtures.
to aggressive environments along the coastline and marine
areas. Concrete mixture design

The control concrete mixture (0FA) (without using any FA

Materials and experimental program or GBFS) was designed according to ACI 211.1–91 stand-
ard [49] to achieve a 28-day compressive strength of up to
Materials 40 MPa using 100% river sand. To explore the effects of FA
as fine aggregates on concrete properties, FA was used to
The concrete mixtures were designed using crushed aggre- substitute river sand at different volume percentages, namely
gates, river sand, Portland cement, FA, and GBFS. For the 20% (20FA), 40% (40FA), and 60% (60FA). Moreover, the
crushed aggregates, a type with a size range of 4.75–19 mm study also examined the impact of GBFS on concrete prop-
was selected, possessing a specific gravity of 2.72 g/cm3, a erties when it partially replaced cement in mixtures con-
water absorption of 0.56%, and a Los Angeles abrasion value taining 20% to 60% FA. For this purpose, a fixed propor-
of 26.0%. Meanwhile, the river sand had a fineness modulus tion of 30% GBFS replacement by weight was employed in
of 2.70, a specific gravity of 2.64, and a water absorption of these mixtures, leading to concrete mix designations such
0.42%. The granular gradation of the crushed aggregates as 20FA30GBFS, 40FA30GBFS, and 60FA30GBFS. The
and river sand complied with ASTM C33/C33M-18 stand- use of FA to replace 20–60% of river sand was based on
ard [45]. previous studies [38–40]. Also, 30% of the cement replaced
This study introduced FA (type F) as a partial replace- by GBFS was in the range of the optimal amount of GBFS,
ment for river sand. The cement used was Portland PCB30, around 30–40% [26, 31, 50, 51].

Table 1  Chemical composition Chemical composition (wt%)

of PCB30, FA, and GBFS
CaO SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO K2O Na2O SO3 Cl- LOI Others

PCB30 50.63 27.49 3.41 8.12 3.7 0.78 0.07 2.89 0.013 1.48 1.42
FA 3.78 54.64 5.85 23.01 0.84 3.28 0.49 0.17 0.015 6.3 1.63
GBFS 39.2 35.18 0.32 12.36 7.5 0.68 0.39 1.18 0.017 0.88 2.30

Table 2  Properties of PCB30, Properties PCB 30 FA GBFS

FA, and GBFS
Testing TCVN Testing TCVN Testing TCVN
6260:2020 10302:2014 11586:2016
[46] [47] [48]

28-day compressive strength (MPa) 35.5 ≥ 30 – – – –

28-day strength activity index (%) – – 95.6 ≥ 75 101 ≥ 95
Specific gravity (g/cm3) 3.08 – 2.18 – 2.89 ≥ 2.8
Blaine fineness ­(cm2/g) 3710 ≥ 2800 3685 – 5250 ≥ 5000
SO3 2.89 ≤ 3.5 0.17 ≤ 3.0 1.18 ≤ 4.0
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3, % – – 83.5 ≥ 70 – –
KMN (%) 1.48 ≤ 4.0 6.3 ≤ 12 0.88 ≤ 3.0
Cl− (%) – – 0.015 ≤ 0.1 0.017 ≤ 0.02
MgO (%) – – – – 7.5 ≤ 10
178 Page 4 of 18 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178

The mass of FA used in each mixture is calculated as The casting and curing of concrete mixtures were car-
Eq. 1. ried out according to ASTM C192/C192M-19 standard [53].
Cylindrical molds with dimensions of 100 × 200 mm were
p ⋅ S ⋅ 𝜌FA
FA = (kg) (1) utilized to cast the samples intended for water absorption
𝜌S and Chloride permeability tests. After the sample casting,
where p is the proportion of FA replacing sand (%), S is the they remained in the molds for 24 h. Subsequently, the molds
mass of sand (kg), and ρFA and ρS are the densities of FA and were removed, and the concrete samples were submerged
sand (g/cm3), respectively. in water at a temperature of 25 ± 2 °C until the designated
All concrete mixtures were prepared using a constant days of testing the water absorption and the Chloride ion
water-cement ratio of 0.40. When replacing sand with penertration (28 days and 56 days).
20–60% FA and using GBFS as a partial substitution for As for assessing the corrosion resistance of steel bars
cement, the superplasticizer dosage was adjusted to ensure a in cement composites, two cylindrical reinforced concrete
4–6 cm slump. Note that the superplasticizer admixture used samples (100 × 200 mm) were prepared. A 12-mm diameter
was 8713 from the BASF brand, with a specific gravity of and 250 mm-length steel rod was centrally fixed in these
1.06. The proportions of the different concrete mixtures are specimens. Note that, before casting, the steel bar is placed
compared in Table 3. The compressive strength of concrete 50 mm away from the bottom of the mold (Fig. 1a). The
was determined according to ASTM C39/C39M-21 stand- sample-making process involved (i) pouring the fresh con-
ard [52] at 28 and 56 curing days and reported in Table 3. crete mixture into the cylindrical mold twice, (ii) compact-
It can be seen clearly that replacements of sand by FA and ing it using a vibrating table, and (iii) leveling the surface
cement by GBFS helped significantly increase the compres- of the casted sample (Fig. 1b). Careful adjustments were
sive strength of the resulting composites. The observation conducted throughout the casting process to ensure that the
was consistent with the investigation from Zhang et al. [29], steel rod remained centered and upright within the sample.
where 25% FA was used to replace river sand, and with the After demolding, the specimens were immersed in water
results of Huynh et al. [31], who used up to 35% GBFS to for 13 days and then subject to a subsequent 14-day dry-
substitute cement. ing period in a curing room controlled at a temperature of
25 ± 2 °C before the corrosion test.

Sample preparations Experimental methods

Concrete mixtures were prepared by proportioning the The pH level of the fresh concrete mixture was determined
materials for each batch according to the mass specified through experimental measurements using the HANNA
in Table 2. Initially, the ingredients were placed into the HI98194 handheld device equipped with a display screen.
mixer and dry mixed for 2 min to ensure proper blending. The device has a measurement range from 0 to 14 pH units
The superplasticizer was then mixed thoroughly with water and an impressive accuracy level of ± 0.002 pH. For the pH
and added to the dry mixture, after which wet mixing con- measurement, a device probe was carefully inserted into a
tinued for an additional 4 min to achieve a homogeneous 100 × 200 mm cylindrical mold during the casting of con-
fresh mixture. However, for blends incorporating FA, where crete samples (Fig. 2). Once the probe was appropriately
40–60% of river sand was replaced, the wet mixing time positioned within the mold, the fresh concrete mixture was
was extended to 6 min to ensure uniform distribution of the poured into the cylinder, ensuring that the probe was fully
materials. submerged in the fresh mix. Subsequently, the mixture was

Table 3  The proportions of Concrete ID Cement Water FA GBFS Sand Coarse Super-plasti- Compressive
different concrete mixtures (kg/ aggregates cizer strength (MPa)
m3)
28 day 56 day

0FA 450 180 0 0 641.39 1166.4 2.25 42.96 46.57

20FA 450 180 105.93 0 511.99 1166.4 2.70 51.25 57.49
40FA 450 180 211.85 0 380.35 1166.4 4.05 54.14 62.61
60FA 450 180 317.78 0 247.59 1166.4 5.85 59.27 66.62
20FA30GBFS 315 180 105.93 135 506.06 1166.4 2.03 53.48 60.38
40FA30GBFS 315 180 211.85 135 374.09 1166.4 3.51 58.60 66.40
60FA30GBFS 315 180 317.78 135 241.33 1166.4 5.31 61.72 70.19
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178 Page 5 of 18 178

Fig. 1  Specimen preparation for steel corrosion resistance testing: a mold setting and b sample casting

The water absorption and Rapid Chloride Permeability

Test (RCPT) tests were carried out per ASTM C642-21 [54]
and ASTM C1202-22e1 [55] standards, respectively. The
RCPT is a reliable approach to assessing the permeability
of chloride ions in cement composites using supplementary
cementitious materials [56]. The casted cylindrical speci-
mens (100 × 200 mm) were sectioned to obtain the tested
ones with sizes of 100 mm in diameter and 50 mm in height.
The values of water absorption and Chloride permeability
of each concrete type are reported from the average of three
samples.
The corrosion resistance of reinforced concrete sam-
ples was assessed according to NT Build 356 standard
[57]. The specimens were immersed in a container filled
with a 3% NaCl solution to initiate the testing process.
Throughout the experiment, the water level in the con-
tainer was maintained 30 mm below the top of the cylin-
drical concrete specimens to ensure consistent exposure
conditions. The electrical circuit setup employed for the
concrete samples is depicted in Fig. 3 and involves using
10 Ω resistors. A constant voltage of 10 V, which 5 V
higher than guidance from NT Build 356 standard [57],
was applied throughout the entire experimental period to
accelerate the corrosion process. To accurately measure
the current passing through the concrete samples, a highly
Fig. 2  pH measurement of fresh concrete using HANNA HI98194
handheld device precise 0.1 μA ammeter was connected to the two ends of
the resistors. The initial current intensity was recorded
upon connecting the concrete specimens to the electrical
compacted using vibration techniques to ensure proper circuit. Subsequently, measurements were taken at 12-h
encapsulation of the probe and uniform distribution of the intervals until the final concrete samples exhibited signs
concrete components. After approximately 40 min, the pH of cracking due to corrosion. The corrosion test was con-
reading on the handheld device stabilized, and at this point, ducted until the last reinforced concrete specimen initiated
the pH value of the fresh concrete mixture was recorded. cracking, extending it for approximately 20 additional days
 178 Page 6 of 18 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178

Fig. 3  Corrosion resistance test of reinforced concrete

Fig. 4  Slight decrease in pH of different fresh cementitious mixtures
as incorporated FA and GBFS
to enable crack widening and the formation of iron oxide
(rust) along the fissures. This timeframe adequately encap-
sulated the entirety of the corrosion process, encompass- commencement) into reinforced concrete samples to the first
ing both initiation and propagation stages. Two cylinders cracking observed on the tested specimen surface).
of each concrete were subjected to this corrosion resist- After 64 days of the corrosion test, cracks on the surface
ance experiment. This rigorous testing process evaluates of different concrete were observed. Interior defects along
and compares the corrosion behavior of steel in the differ- the steel bar and its concrete integrity were also captured by
ent concrete mixtures, shedding light on the effectiveness splitting samples along the cracking tracks into two hafts.
of incorporating FA and GBFS in enhancing the resistance For specimens without significant damage, saw-cutting
of resulting concrete to Chloride-induced corrosion. was applied before this observation. Furthermore, to partly
The corrosion test involved determining the duration explain the change in durability properties of concrete using
of time for chloride ions to penetrate and reach a steel FA and GBFS, a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) was
bar, de-passivate the protective film on reinforcements, used to visualize any variations in microstructures on dif-
and finally cause reinforced concrete sample cracking. The ferent concretes at 28 days. Note that the microscopy was
time that deterioration occurred due to steel corrosion, conducted on concrete pieces sized roughly 5 mm collected
called deterioration occurrence time [1], was established from the compressive strength test. The samples were soaked
by analyzing a graph depicting the current intensity over in isopropanol to stop hydration and coated with platinum
time and the visual observation of crack formation on the before any microstructural observation using an accelerating
concrete samples. Notably, the period is calculated from voltage of 10 kV at 1000 × magnification.
the commencement of the experiment until the concrete
specimen displays cracks resulting from steel corrosion,
indicated by a sharp increase in current intensity. Results and discussions
To assess the durability of the concrete samples utiliz-
ing FA and GBFS, Eq. 2 is employed: pH content
ttni
Qi = (2) The pH values of fresh concrete mixes are illustrated in
ttn0FA
Fig. 4. The results revealed that including 20–60% FA as
where ­ttn0FA and t­tni are the deterioration occurrence time a substitute for river sand in the concrete mixes tended to
of control concrete (0FA) and those using FA and GBFS, cause a slight decrease in pH, with values ranging from
respectively (days). It is worth recalling that the corrosion 12.51 to 12.54. At the same time, that of the control mixture
process includes the initiation and propagation phases. It without any FA was measured at 12.56. However, this minor
starts from the penetration of chloride ions (experiment reduction in pH was deemed insignificant and attributed to
the unchanged cement content in these fresh FA mixtures.
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178 Page 7 of 18 178

Specifically, a small amount of Ca(OH)2 produced from the

hydration was reacted with S ­ iO2 in FA, leading to a slight
decrease in alkalinity.
As incorporating 30% GBFS as a replacement for cement,
the pH of fresh concrete mixes exhibited a more noticeable
decrease; however, such reduction was still insignificant. The
pH of distinct concretes 20FA30GBFS, 40FA30GBFS, and
60FA30GBFS were 12.38, 12.34, and 12.32, respectively,
indicating approximately 1.43%, 1.75%, and 1.91%-reduc-
tions compared to that of the fresh control mix (0FA). The
decrease in pH can be explained by the decline in cement
content due to its replacement by 0% GBFS. It is worth to
recall that GBFS contains less CaO (39.2%) than cement
(50.63%). Less cement content led to decreased alkalinity,
decreasing the resulting pH. These findings were consistent
with previous studies [23, 26, 27].
However, it is essential to note that despite the slight
variations in pH, all the fresh cementitious mixes exhibited
pH values higher than 12, which surpassed the pH range
(11.5–12) where the passive oxide film on the steel surface
began to break down [26]. According to ACI 222R-19 [58],
the passive film on embedded steel reinforcements appears
unstable as the pH of concrete reduces to 8.5. Hence, these
pH values did not adversely affect the formation of the pas-
sive oxide film on the surface of the steel embedded in the
concrete specimens, contributing to the corrosion resistance
of steel bars within the concrete samples using 20–60% FA
as a replacement for river sand, along with the addition of
30% GBFS as a substitute for cement.

Water absorption

Figure 5 demonstrates the gradual decline in water absorp-

tion of various concretes over the curing period and its
correlation with compressive strength. The utilization of
increasing amounts of FA as a sand replacement in concrete
Fig. 5  Water absorption (a) and its correlation to compressive
corresponded to a proportional reduction in water absorp- strength (b)
tion. The substitution of 30% cement by GBFS continued to
mitigate water absorption. In the case of the 20FA, 40FA,
60FA, 20FA30GBFS, 40FA30GBFS, and 60FA30GBFS confirmed by Zhang et al. [14], such a reduction in porosity
concretes, their water absorption rates experienced a decre- also contributed to increased compressive strength. Hence,
ment of 0.18%, 0.54%, 5.54%, 3.04%, 8.04%, and 9.29% Fig. 5b presents a good correlation between compressive
at the 7-day curing; at 28 days, the reduction rates became strength and water absorption with a high coefficient of
1.84%, 5.71%, 17.13%, 7.92%, 20.63%, and 26.15%; while at determination ­(R2 = 0.88). Higher compressive strength
56 days, the rates of reduction amounted to 4.89%, 12.22%, resulted in lower water absorption.
26.69%, 14.85%, 30.45%, and 37.41%, all in comparison to
the control concrete 0FA. Notably, at the 28-day and 56-day Chloride ion penetration
intervals, the water absorption levels of the concrete incor-
porating FA and GBFS were significantly decreased com- The Chloride ion penetration of the various concrete
pared to the 7-day results. This decline in water absorption samples at 28 and 56 days and its relation to compressive
was attributed to the mechanism of pore infilling and the strength and water absorption are presented in Fig. 6. The
pozzolanic reactions facilitated by FA and GBFS, which findings indicated that the Chloride permeability of dif-
both contributed to the reduction of porosity. Previously ferent concrete gradually decreased over the maintenance
178 Page 8 of 18 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178

Fig. 6  Chloride permeability (a) and its correlation to compressive strength (b) and water absorption (c)

period, and higher proportions of FA led to lower Chloride The resistance of concrete to Chloride penetration was
permeability. The results were in good agreement with the classified based on the charge passed according to the
conclusions of Surangi et al. [38], who used FA to replace ASTM C1202-22e1 standard [55]. After 28 days of curing,
up to 40% of river sand and 20% of cement and observed the Chloride permeabilities of 0FA and 20FA were 4371
a decrease in Chloride permeability, around 87%. At 28 and 1506 Coulombs and fell under the “High” and "Low"
and 56 days, the Chloride permeability of the control con- categories, respectively. As for the remaining concrete
crete (0FA) was 4371 and 3257 Coulombs, respectively. types, including 40FA, 60FA, 20FA30GBFS, 40FA30G-
When incorporating FA and GBFS, the 28-day Chloride BFS, and 60FA30GBFS, their Chloride permeabilities
permeability of the 20FA, 40FA, 60FA, 20FA30GBFS, ranged from 784 to 443 Coulombs, all classified as "Very
40FA30GBFS, and 60FA30GBFS samples showed a sig- low". At 56 days, the Chloride permeability of the control
nificant reduction, ranging from 65.5% to 88.9% lower concrete was 3257 Coulombs, categorized as "Medium",
than 0FA. Similarly, at 56 days, these concrete samples while the remaining concrete types showed Chloride per-
still exhibited a decline in Chloride permeability compared meabilities ranging from 876 to 237 Coulombs, all still
to 0FA, with percentages ranging from 73.1 to 92.7%. stayed in "Very low" category [35]. These results were
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178 Page 9 of 18 178

consistent with findings from similar previous studies [23, developing durable and sustainable concrete structures in
31, 50], further confirming the beneficial impact of incor- Chloride-rich environments.
porating FA and GBFS in reducing Chloride permeabil-
ity and enhancing the resistance of concrete to Chloride Reinforced concrete corrosion
penetration.
The influence of FA and GBFS on the Chloride perme- Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the current intensity through the
ability of concrete was indeed significant. The reduced Chlo- concrete samples versus the time of the experiment. The
ride permeability observed in the FA concrete is primarily figures helped to determine the deterioration occurrence
attributed to the pozzolanic reaction of FA with the Ca(OH)2 time, a moment with a sudden increase in current, and the
produced from cement hydration. This reaction increased results were presented in Fig. 9. The highest average stable
CSH's content (Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate) over time, reduc- current intensity observed for the control concrete (0FA)
ing porosity [32], and decreasing Chloride permeability [59, was approximately 12 mA, with the quick time to crack-
60]. Additionally, FA contained a higher amount of A ­ l 2O 3 ing about 432 h (18 days). In the case of the 20FA, 40FA,
compared to cement (as shown in Table 1), enabling an and 60FA samples, as FA content rose, the current intensity
enhanced Chloride binding capacity to form Friedel's salt fell, and the corrosion process lengthened. The 20FA, 40FA,
(3CaO.Al2O3.CaCl2.10H2O) than cement. This phenom- and 60FA concrete exhibited an average current intensity of
enon also contributed to reducing Chloride permeability approximately 7 mA, 6 mA, and 4 mA, respectively. Also,
[61–68]. the average deterioration occurrence time for these test-
Moreover, when incorporating an additional 30% GBFS ing specimens was longer, namely 576 h (24 days), 612 h
as a replacement for cement, the Chloride permeability of (25.5 days), and 636 h (26.5 days).
the concrete experienced a substantial decrease. Compared The current intensity through the specimen in Fig. 8
to 20FA, 40FA, and 60FA, the Chloride permeabilities of showed a slight decrease for the concrete samples using an
20FA30GBFS, 40FA30GBFS, and 60FA30GBFS at the additional 30% GBFS as a replacement for cement. Still,
28-day curing age were decreased by 51.1%, 33.4%, and the corrosion process of steel bars in reinforced concrete
32.3%, respectively. Similarly, these decreasing rates at took significantly longer. The average current intensity of
56 days were lower, namely 49.9%, 22.93%, and 28.4%. The around 5.5 mA, 4.0 mA, and 4.0 mA was recorded on the
finer texture of GBFS particles compared to FA and cement, 20FA30GBFS, 40FA30GBFS, and 60FA30GBFS concretes.
coupled with its higher reactivity, allowed GBFS to act as These reinforced concrete specimens exhibited a more
both a pozzolanic material and a filler. As a filler, GBFS delayed deterioration occurrence due to steel corrosion,
effectively filled the voids between particles, further reduc- namely 990 h (41.25 days), 1038 h (43.25 days), and 1050 h
ing porosity, increasing compressive strength, and decreas- (43.75 days). Compared with 20FA, 40FA, and 60FA, the
ing Chloride permeability [23, 31, 50, 69, 70]. Additionally, time to cracking for concrete mixtures incorporating 30%
the high Chloride binding capacity of GBFS contributed to
its effectiveness in lowering Chloride permeability [66–68,
70, 71]. These observations aligned with previous studies
[23, 31, 50].
As for the relationship between Chloride permeability
with compressive strength and water absorption, exponential
correlations were found with high coefficients of determina-
tion, namely ­R2 = 0.96 and 0.88. The concrete with higher
compressive strength and lower water absorption resulted
in better resistance to Chloride penetration. Figure 6b and
c revealed a sudden decrease in total charge-passed values
with increasing compressive strength, while those seemed
unchangeable with changes in water absorption less than 5%.
When water absorption of concrete was higher than 5%, the
Chloride permeability exhibited a significant increase. For
concrete mixtures incorporating FA and GBFS, the prod-
ucts formed during the pozzolanic reaction, supported by
the SEM images (as described in Sect. "SEM observations"),
helped reduce porosity. Hence, combining these mineral
admixtures enhanced the Chloride penetration resistance Fig. 7  Current intensity passes through concrete exposed to 14 day
of cement composites, making it a promising approach for wet and 14 day dry curing
178 Page 10 of 18 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178

Fig. 8  Current intensity passes through FA concrete using GBFS as cement replacement

of GBFS gained longer, namely 71.9%, 69.6%, and 65.1%. Figure 9b displays the relationship between the Chloride
These findings are consistent with those of Aperador et al. permeability at 28 days and the deterioration occurrence
[24]. The corrosion on steel reinforcement is inversely cor- time in each group of reinforced concrete specimens. Nota-
related with water absorption and chloride permeability, bly, these relationships exhibited a linear correlation, with
and lower water absorption and chloride permeability result determination coefficients (­ R2) of 0.99 for two groups such
in more delayed onset of corrosion. Also, though the con- as the 0FA, 20FA, 40FA, and 60FA group and the 20FA30G-
crete mixtures using FA and GBFS had lower pH values, BFS, 40FA30GBFS, and 60FA30GBFS group. The high R ­ 2
steel bars embedded in such modified concrete exhibited values indicate that the Chloride permeability at 28 days
improved resistance to corrosion. Hence, a pH value higher is a reliable indicator of the deterioration time due to steel
than 12 ensured the formation of a passive film on the steel corrosion in the reinforced concrete specimens. Moreover,
reinforcement surface, and such pH had no significant influ- this correlation holds consistently for conventional concretes
ence on the corrosion resistance of reinforced concrete. The with varying proportions of FA and the FA concrete mix-
prolonged steel corrosion process of the concretes could be tures containing an additional 30% GBFS as cement replace-
again explained by their low porosity, low Chloride perme- ment. This finding underscores the critical role of Chloride
ability, and high Chloride binding capacity. permeability as a key parameter influencing the corrosion
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178 Page 11 of 18 178

reinforcement corrosion in 0FA. As observed through con-

crete specimens with varying proportions of FA (20–60%)
and those containing an additional 30% GBFS (20FA30G-
BFS, 40FA30GBFS, and 60FA30GBFS), the degree of
steel corrosion progressively decreased. Notably, the FA-
GBFS concretes exhibited the slowest steel corrosion rate
and crack formation, leading to smaller crack widths and
lengths (Fig. 10). The reduction in corrosion current and
the prolonged corrosion process of steel bars in the con-
crete using 20–60% FA and 30% GBFS could be again
attributed to the low porosity, low Chloride permeability,
and high Chloride binding capacity in resulting concrete
samples.

Durability evaluation

Figure 12 presents the durability of concrete specimens uti-

lizing FA and GBFS compared to 0FA concrete. The dura-
bility of 20FA, 40FA, 60FA, 20FA30GBFS, 40FA30GBFS,
and 60FA30GBFS was 1.33, 1.42, 1.47, 2.29, 2.40, and 2.43
times higher than that of 0FA. This observation indicated
that FA and GBFS incorporation significantly enhanced the
durability of the specimens, leading to a considerable delay
in the deterioration occurrence due to steel corrosion. The
improved durability could be explained by FA and GBFS
properties, including their ability to reduce Chloride per-
meability, increase Chloride binding capacity, and lower
porosity. These results underscored the effectiveness of FA
and GBFS in reducing the corrosion of reinforced concrete
structures, which is essential for ensuring long-term struc-
tural integrity and extending the service life.
So far, this study has reported experimental results on
Fig. 9  Deterioration occurrence time (a) and its correlation between
chloride permeability at 28 days (b)
compressive strength (­ fc), water absorption (W), Chloride
permeability (Q), deterioration occurrence time (t), and
durability (D). It would be valuable if the pair-correlation
behavior and long-term durability of reinforced concrete between these parameters were established, especially in
structures when incorporating FA and GBFS. helping to evaluate the effect of these factors and the by-
Figure 10 displays the most significant cracks that devel- products’ incorporation on the durability of reinforced con-
oped on the concrete specimen surface after the 64-day crete under Chloride penetration. Figure 13 shows the pair
experiment. These cracks provided valuable insights into correlation, which revealed a positive impact of FA and
the rate of steel corrosion and the overall reinforced concrete GBFS on durability through Pearson correlation coefficients
performance under Chloride penetration. As observed from of 0.46 and 0.96, respectively. Hence, incorporating FA and
the figure, the cracks formed on 0FA were the widest and GBFS increased compressive strength and resulted in a good
longest, while those on the 20FA, 40FA, 60FA, 20FA30G- effect on durability. The figure also exhibited the negative
BFS, 40FA30GBFS, and 60FA30GBFS samples progres- impact of the water porosity and Chloride permeability on
sively decreased in width and length. durability, confirmed with coefficients of − 0.76 and − 0.69,
In Fig. 11, concrete samples were meticulously split respectively. It means that the D value decreased when the
along the path of the largest crack to assess the condition W and Q increased. Also, the figure again confirmed the cor-
of the steel bar embedded within the concrete. This visual relation between water absorption and Chloride permeability
examination plays a crucial role in evaluating the extent with compressive strength, water absorption and Chloride
of steel corrosion and its impact on the integrity of the permeability, and Chloride permeability with the corrosion
reinforcement. The figure vividly illustrates the severity of process, as discussed previously.
178 Page 12 of 18 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178

Fig. 10  Cracks appearance on concrete sample surface after 64 testing days

SEM observations [29]. As the 30% GGBFS was used as a substitution for
cement, a significant improvement in the microstructures
Figure 14 presents the morphological features of con- was found due to additional hydration products from extra
crete samples at 28 curing days. SEM analysis indicated pozzolanic reactions and filling efffect from various sizes
that FA helped to densify the internal microstructures of of fine particles of GBFS. Notably, the synergistic effects
concretes with sand replacement by FA compared to the of FA and GGBFS resulted in increased C–S–H pres-
reference concrete 0FA. Note that 0FA exhibited porous ence and uniform distribution. Also, calcium hydroxide
microstructure with a high density of pores and availabil- appeared fully consumed by the silicate phase in GBFS.
ity of calcium hydroxide (CH) and ettringite (E) phases. Hence, the microstructure revealed compact and dense
Increasing FA content increased calcium silicate hydrates from enhanced interparticle bonding and filler effect. As
(C–S–H) and calcium aluminate hydrates (C–A–H) due to discussed previously, the microstructural changes were a
enhanced pozzolanic reactions between FA and the port- critical factor in improving the compressive strength and
landite phase, contribuiting to lowered porosity of con- durability properties of FA-GBFS concrete.
crete. This visualization was consistent with Zhang et al.
Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178 Page 13 of 18 178

Fig. 11  Steel corrosion in concrete samples after 64 testing days

Conclusions oxide layer thickness formed on the surface of steel

bars embedded in concrete samples.
This paper comprehensively investigated the Chloride – The 28-day compressive strength of the concretes using
permeability and corrosion resistance of steel in concrete FA as fine aggregates was superior to the control con-
incorporating 20–60% FA as a replacement for river sand, crete, and higher FA resulted in more improvement in
alongside utilizing 30% GBFS to replace a portion of compressive strength by 19.3–38.0%. Adding an extra
cement. From the results mainly obtained through Chlo- 30% GGBFS as a cement replacement further increased
ride ion penetration and steel corrosion resistance tests, the compressive strength of FA concretes by 4.1–8.2%.
several significant conclusions can be drawn: – The concrete specimens containing 20–60% FA exhib-
ited a noteworthy reduction in the 28-day Chloride per-
– The incorporation of FA and GBFS as sand and cement meability. As the percentage of FA replacing river sand
replacements had no discernible impact on the pH level increased, the Chloride permeability decreased, around
of the fresh concrete mixes, which remained above 65–85.5% lower than the control concrete (0FA). It led to
12.3. This pH level did not adversely affect the passive a lower corrosion current and a prolonged deterioration
occurrence time of 33.3–47.2%.
178 Page 14 of 18 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178

and mitigating corrosion damage. The synergistic effect

of FA and GBFS significantly enhanced the corrosion
resistance of steel in these concrete mixes, with a 2.29–
2.43 times increase in the deterioration occurrence time
compared to the control concrete.
– High correlations were found between water absorption
and Chloride permeability versus compressive strength
and water absorption with Chloride permeability. In par-
ticular, Chloride permeability is a good indicator of the
deterioration occurrence time of steel reinforcement in
concrete structures.
– Reinforced concrete durability showed a good correlation
with the amount of FA and GBFS, compressive strength,
water absorption, and Chloride permeability, in which
FA and GBFS positively impacted the corrosion resist-
ance of steel in concrete exposed to Chloride penetration.
– The Chloride-induced corrosion resistance of steel in
concrete was evident by damage on the sample surface
and interior defects on steel bars. Dense microstructure
Fig. 12  Reinforced concrete durability under Chloride-induced corro-
sion
also partly explained the improved durability properties
when using FA and GBFS as replacements for sand and
cement in reinforced concrete.
– The additional incorporation of 30% GBFS as a cement
replacement further reduced the 28-day Chloride per- These designed concretes using FA and GBFS demon-
meability of the FA concretes to 32.3–51.1% depending strated outstanding steel corrosion resistance to Chloride
on FA content, improving Chloride ingress resistance penetration. However, compared to conventional concrete,

Fig. 13  Pair-correlation between mechanical and durability properties of concrete at 28 days

Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178 Page 15 of 18 178

Fig. 14  Microstructures of different concretes at 28 days

 178 Page 16 of 18 Innovative Infrastructure Solutions (2024) 9:178

using FA and GBFS led to practical challenges, such as a ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete (UHP-GPC). Case
high dosage of plasticizer used, longer setting time, and Stud Constr Mater 17:e01245. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​cscm.​
2022.​e01245
reduced early compressive strength. Among these con- 11. Amaludin AE, Asrah H, Mohamad HM et al (2023) Physico-
crete mixtures, the 40FA30GBFS concrete exhibited higher chemical and microstructural characterization of Klias Peat,
strength and improved durability than others, indicating Lumadan POFA, and GGBFS for geopolymer based soil stabi-
the most suitable for coastal construction projects. How- lization. HighTech Innov J 4:327–348
12. Tayeh BA, Akeed MH, Qaidi S, Bakar BHA (2022) Ultra-high-
ever, further research is needed to assess additional prop- performance concrete: Impacts of steel fibre shape and content
erties such as sulfate resistance, carbonation, shrinkage, on flowability, compressive strength and modulus of rupture.
and freeze–thaw resistance to evaluate this type of concrete Case Stud Constr Mater 17:e01615. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
comprehensively. cscm.​2022.​e01615
13. Duan W, Zhuge Y, Pham PN et al (2022) A ternary blended
Funding The study is funded by The University of Danang – Univer- binder incorporating alum sludge to efficiently resist alkali-sil-
sity of Technology and Education under project number T2022-06-05. ica reaction of recycled glass aggregates. J Clean Prod. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jclep​ro.​2022.​131415
14. Liu Y, Zhuge Y, Chow CWK et al (2020) The potential use
Declarations of drinking water sludge ash as supplementary cementitious
material in the manufacture of concrete blocks. Resour Conserv
Conflict of interest The authors did not receive support from any or- Recycl. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​resco​nrec.​2020.​105291
ganization for the submitted work. 15. Li D, Zhuge Y, Liu Y et al (2021) Reuse of drinking water
treatment sludge in mortar as substitutions of both fly ash and
Ethical approval This article does not contain any studies with human sand based on two treatment methods. Constr Build Mater
participants or animals performed by any of the authors. 277:122330. https:// ​ d oi. ​ o rg/ ​ 1 0. ​ 1 016/j. ​ c onbu ​ i ldmat. ​ 2 021.​
122330
Informed consent For this type of study, formal consent is not required. 16. Chen X, Wang H, Najm H et al (2019) Evaluating engineering
properties and environmental impact of pervious concrete with fly
ash and slag. J Clean Prod 237:117714. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
jclep​ro.​2019.​117714
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