2.
1 Computer organisation 2
Computer architecture (2.1.1 - 2.1.4) 2
2.1.1 Outline the architecture of the central processing unit (CPU) and the functions
of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU) and the registers within the
CPU. 2
Functions: 2
Central Processing Unit (CPU) 2
ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit 2
CU – Control Unit 2
Registers 2
Memory Address Register (MAR) 3
Memory Data Register (MDR) 3
Program Counter (PC) * extra 3
Instruction Register (IR) * extra 3
Accumulator (AC) * extra 3
Diagrams: 3
2.1.2 Describe primary memory. 4
Random Access Memory (RAM) 4
Read-Only Memory (ROM) 4
2.1.5 Identify the need for persistent storage (Secondary Memory). 5
2.1.3 Explain the use of cache memory. 5
L1 Cache * extra 6
L2 & L3 Cache * extra 6
2.1.4 Explain the machine instruction cycle. 6
Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle [short]: 7
Operating systems and application systems (2.1.6 - 2.1.8) 7
2.1.6 Describe the main functions of an operating system. 7
2.1.7 Outline the use of a range of application software. 8
2.1.8 Identify common features of applications. 8
Web browser 9
Binary representation (2.1.9 - 2.1.10) 9
2.1.9 Define the terms: bit, byte, binary, denary/decimal, hexadecimal. 9
Converting Number Systems 9
2.1.10 Outline the way in which data is represented in the computer. 10
Negative Numbers 10
Colours →Hex and RGB 10
Characters → ASCII and Unicode 10
Simple logic gates (2.1.11 - 2.1.13) 11
2.1.11 Define the Boolean operators: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR. 11
2.1.13 Construct a logic diagram using AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR gates.
11
2.1.12 Construct truth tables using the above operators. 11
2.1 Computer organisation
GCSE Computer Architecture 1 - Von Neumann Architecture
Unit 1.1.1 Structure and Function of the Processor - Wikibooks, open books for an open
world
Computer architecture (2.1.1 - 2.1.4)
2.1.1 Outline the architecture of the central processing unit (CPU) and
the functions of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU)
and the registers within the CPU.
Functions:
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
📕 [Simple] Component of a computer system which interprets/processes and executes
program instructions.
[Detailed Function]
● performs arithmetic and logic operations,
● manages data transfer between the various components,
● controls the timing of system operations
● manages computer’s resources, coordinates activities of other components
ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit
● carries out the arithmetic and logic operations such as addition, subtraction, and
multiplication of integers and Boolean operations.
● It receives control signals from the control unit telling it to carry out these operations.
CU – Control Unit
● controls movement of instructions in and out of the processor
● controls operation of ALU
● responsible for performing the instruction execution cycle
● consists of
○ decoder
○ control logic circuits
○ clock
■ to ensure everything happens at the correct time
Registers
→ a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU in order to speed up its
operations by providing quick access to commonly used values.
Types:
Memory Address Register (MAR)
● Comes first (remember A then D like in the alphabet)
● stores address of the next instruction that needs to be read from/written to the RAM
● directly connected to the RAM via the address bus
Memory Data Register (MDR)
● holds copy of contents in the memory that is to be transferred to other components
● allows processor and memory to act independently
● directly connected to the RAM via the data bus
Program Counter (PC) * extra
● holds the memory address of the next instruction that is to be executed.
Instruction Register (IR) * extra
● holds the instruction being executed by the CPU.
Accumulator (AC) * extra
● holds the result of operations performed by the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).
Diagrams:
*^Memorise this one^ *MDR –data bus→ CIR*
(You don’t need to include I/O bus or controller )
2.1.2 Describe primary memory.
📕 Primary Memory is the only storage directly accessible by CPU
● Both RAM and ROM are types of Primary memory
Difference Random Access Memory Read-Only Memory (ROM)
(RAM)
Volatility Volatile (data is lost when Non-volatile (data is retained
power is off) without power)
Use in primary memory Temporary, high speed Permanent storage for
storage for actively running firmware of a computer
programs and data system eg BIOS, which is
responsible for booting the
system and providing
low-level functions
Memory Access Read and write operations Read-only (data cannot be
modified during normal
operation)
Speed Faster Slower
Examples DRAM (Dynamic RAM), EEPROM, PROM, Mask
SRAM (Static RAM) ROM
BIOS →
Outline how the Operating System interacts with Peripheral devices [M21]:
Each peripheral device comes with a device driver, the driver acts as a translator between
the OS and the device so that the device can understand the OS commands.
OS works with device drivers and the basic input/output system (BIOS) to perform hardware
tasks. A device driver translates the OS's instructions into a language (analogue signals) that
the device can understand;
2.1.5 Identify the need for persistent storage (Secondary Memory).
Persistent storage, or secondary memory, is essential for storing data in a non-volatile
way, meaning data remains intact even when the power is off or the program is no longer
running.
Without persistent storage,
● computers would only be able to perform basic operations
● any data created or modified during program execution would be lost once the
program stops or the device powers off
○ all data re-inputted every time
● lead to data loss
Need to store processed data so we can use it again later, e.g. editing a saved file
Examples: SSD, HDD, USB, SD, magnetic tape, floppy disk
2.1.3 Explain the use of cache memory.
📕cache is a small, high-speed memory that stores frequently used data for quick access
😉
Why is it faster?
● Size (smaller the better )
○ smaller than RAM
○ can be built with faster, more efficient memory technologies (like SRAM)
○ results in lower latency
○ allowing for quicker data access.
● Proximity
○ closer to the CPU
● Data
○ stores most frequently used data and instructions
Impact?
● CPU checks cache first then RAM
● if its a "cache hit", data is accessed almost instantaneously
● therefore rely on RAM less which is more time consuming
● increased performance
L1 Cache * extra
● smallest and fastest cache level
● located directly on the CPU
● stores the most critical data and instructions for immediate access
L2 & L3 Cache * extra
● larger but slightly slower than L1 cache
● L2 cache is often located on the CPU chip or very close to it
● L3 cache is generally shared among CPU cores in multi-core processors.
● store additional data that may not be as frequently accessed as L1 data but is still
needed quickly
2.1.4 Explain the machine instruction cycle.
Fetch execute walk-through using a simplified processor model
The Fetch-Execute Cycle: What's Your Computer Actually Doing?
Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle [short]:
1. Fetch: retrieves instructions from memory.
a. PC sends address to MAR via addy bus
b. MAR sends address to RAM via addy bus
c. Result is stored in MDR via data bus
2. Decode: CU interprets the instructions and determines what operation to perform.
3. Execute: ALU performs the operation specified by the instruction. Further data
required is fetched.
4. Store: in accumulator
[long]
1: The value from the program counter is copied to the MAR
2: A request is made to retrieve the data from the memory location stipulated in the MAR,
the request is send via the address bus(one way).
3: The content of the memory location is sent via the Data Bus to the MDR
4: A copy of the MDR is made and placed in the CIR
5: The value of the CIR is decoded (A decision made on what needs to be done with the
data).
6: The data is moved to the ACC in the ALU to be executed
7: A check for interrupts is made
8: The program counter is iterated.
Note: The program counter can be iterated at any point after the data is accessed from the
memory location, stage 3, however for the purpose of this illustration it is iterated lastly.
9: The loop starts again.
Operating systems and application systems (2.1.6 - 2.1.8)
2.1.6 Describe the main functions of an operating system.
*Technical details are not needed.*
Identify one function of a single-user operating system [M22]
1. Resource allocation
a. Manages resources and multitasking so tasks share CPU time, including
memory and processor time
2. Memory management
a. Manages how memory is used by applications. OS allocates sections of
memory to each program being run, keeps track of what data is in which
location. If there’s too many processes for RAM, uses virtual memory to run
programs simultaneously
3. Peripheral communication
a. OS controls hardware and provides interface for applications to communicate
with peripherals
2.1.7 Outline the use of a range of application software.
1. Word processing
a. Producing, editing, formatting and printing of documents.
b. e.g. MS Word, Google Docs.
2. Spreadsheets
a. Data represented by cells, organised in rows and columns.
b. Can perform calculations through formulae to process data and present it in
visual charts to analyse.
c. e.g. MS Excel, Open Office Calc.
3. Web browsers
a. Access, retrieve, present content on World Wide Web.
b. Connects to web servers to request information.
c. e.g. Chrome, IE (rip IE), MF
4. Email
a. Exchange of digital messages to email server, recipient receives message
when they connect to server
b. e.g. Gmail (web-based) or MS Outlook (software-based).
2.1.8 Identify common features of applications.
1. Graphical User Interface (GUI)
a. allows user to interact with software in different ways
2. Command Line Interface (CLI)
a. where you had to type in commands.
3. Toolbar:
a. Buttons, icons, menus etc.
4. Menu
a. List of commands that are displayed in a dropdown or popup menu and
provide a way for users to navigate and perform actions within an application.
5. Dialogue box
a. Communicates info to user and allows to choose option
b. eg a message and a set of options or buttons
6. Checkboxes and radio buttons
7. Dropdown lists and combo boxes
Web browser
- back and forward buttons,
- a refresh button to reload the current page,
- stop button to cancel loading the page,
- home button to return to the user's home page.
- search bar
- plug ins and extensions
- bookmarking and favourites
Mobile Phone
-
Binary representation (2.1.9 - 2.1.10)
2.1.9 Define the terms: bit, byte, binary, denary/decimal, hexadecimal.
📕Bit smallest unit of data in computing, represented by either a 0 or a 1
📕Decimal/ denary → Number system that uses Base-10, 10 digits, to represent a number
📕Binary → Number system that uses Base-2, 2 digits, to represent a number.
📕Hexadecimal → Number system that uses Base-16, 16 digits, to represent a number.
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
Nibble: Four Bits
Byte: 8 bits.
Kilobyte: 1024 bytes.
Megabyte: 1024 kilobytes.
Converting Number Systems
Watch youtube and do practice lmao
How to Convert Decimal to Hexadecimal (Base 10 to Base 16) and vise versa
Practice:
1. b10 - 105 to base 2
2. b10 - 200 to base 16
2.1.10 Outline the way in which data is represented in the computer.
Common integer sizes include 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit integers, where higher bit
depths allow for representing larger ranges of values.
8 bits = 2^8 = 256 values including 0
Negative Numbers
How Negative Numbers Work In Binary
If representing negative numbers, the most significant bit (MSB, most left one) is either 0
(positive) or 1 (negative) so only 7 bits are left for the number.
Can store up to 128 numbers
-128 to 127
Colours →Hex and RGB
Pixels, each one has a colour. Colour value can be represented by hex RGB- 6- digit hex
number (3 values), every 2 digits show how much red/green/blue there is in the colour. Can
also be represented in binary; more bits = more colours. Resolution = width*height in pixels.
colours - RGB
max colours = 256 * 256 * 256
Characters → ASCII and Unicode
ASCII uses 1 byte (8 bits) per character
Unicode uses 1-4 bytes (UTF-8)
Unicode can represent a much larger character set, essential for storing characters from
languages with larger alphabets, such as Arabic or Chinese, which require thousands of
unique symbols.
Simple logic gates (2.1.11 - 2.1.13)
2.1.11 Define the Boolean operators: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and
XOR.
2.1.13 Construct a logic diagram using AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and
XOR gates.
Gate Condition to output 1 Drawing
AND Both Gates same value Just draw a circle with the
name of the gate.
OR At least one Gate 1
NOT Reverses results
NAND If Gates are different value
NOR If both Gates 0
XOR Only if one Gate 1
2.1.12 Construct truth tables using the above operators.
(**ignore the symbols)
Logic Gates & Truth Tables - 101 Computing
